Integrated resource management of potable water in Zimbabwe and South Africa: A comparative study in four local authorities by Maxwell Constantine Chando Musingafi A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Public Management and Governance North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, Faculty of Humanities, School of Basic Sciences, Public Management and Administration Promoter: Prof J. W. N. Tempelhoff Co-promoter: Prof E. J. Nealer May, 2012 ii SOLEMN DECLARATION I declare herewith that the thesis entitled: Integrated resource management of potable water in Zimbabwe and South Africa: A comparative study in four local authorities which I herewith submit to the North-West University as completion of the requirements set for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Public Management and Governance, is my own work and has not already been submitted to any other university. I understand and accept that the copies that are submitted for examination are the property of the University. Signature of candidate: ______________________ University number: 21186286 Signed at _________________________ this ______ day of ______________ _______ Declared before me on this day of _____________________ _______ Commissioner of Oaths: _______________________________________________________ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the assistance received from the following people who made it possible for this study to be compiled:  God Almighty, who guided me and sharpened my brains throughout the research process.  My wife, Tsitsi, and my children, who gave me such encouragement and patiently put up with the difficulties and frustrations I faced in completing this study.  NWU for providing the bursary/scholarship to make this study a reality.  My promoters, Professor Johann Tempelhoff and Professor Eric Nealer whose insightful comments and constructive critique put me on the correct track.  Mrs. Amanda Smith, whose generosity, encouragement and empathy rekindled the almost dying fire in me, especially when the economic situation back home in Zimbabwe had drained all the energy I had gathered for the programme. Had it not been for your empathy and understanding, I would have given up the programme. Thank you. May the Lord bless you in abundance.  My Master of Development and Management supervisor, Professor Ernest Ababio who laid the foundation for this programme.  My brother, Dr. Rabson Wuriga, who encouraged and worked with me throughout the research process;  Mr. Owen Mavhengere, (then principal of Gweru Polytechnic), who supported my application for study leave when stronger forces seemed reluctant to let me go.  The Public Service Commission and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Zimbabwe, that released me for 3 years to commit myself to this research programme.  Mr. Alexander Raphinos Chabaya (Regional Director, Zimbabwe Open University, Masvingo Campus), whose moral support and fatherly advice helped me sail through the period of this study.  Dr. Bridget Theron-Bushell and Dr. Jacob Mapara who proof-read and edited this research project.  The research team: Mr. K. Gomo (who helped with the translation of questionnaires into Venda, and the distribution and collection of questionnaires in Musina); Miss S. iv Nyakanyanga (who assisted with the distribution and collection of questionnaires in Tshwane); Miss H. Muzii (who identified the translators of questionnaires into Zulu and Tswana); Mr. R. Murimoga (housing officer of the municipality of Masvingo, who helped with distribution and collection of questionnaires in Masvingo Urban, and was also an interviewee); Mr. M. Madzingo and Mr. A. Ndora (both of whom helped with distribution of questionnaires in Masvingo Rural); Mr. E. Gaviro (who undertook to distribute and collect questionnaires in Harare, and was also an interviewee), Mr. T. Gozo (city engineer of the municipality of Masvingo, an interviewee), Mr. L.S.I. Tanyanyiwa (acting town clerk, municipality of Masvingo, an interviewee), Mr. M. Mubviro (finance director, Masvingo Rural District Council, an interviewee), Mr. C. Chenjerai (district engineer, Masvingo Rural District Council, an interviewee), Mr. C. Makwarimba (chief executive officer, Masvingo Rural District Council, an interviewee), Ms. M. Matshili (manager of Water and Sanitation Section, Musina Local Authority, an interviewee), Ms. K. Nhongo (social worker in Harare, an interviewee), Ms. M. Heffer (administrative officer, city of Tshwane, an interviewee), Mr. E. Bertram (DWA official, Tshwane, an interviewee), Ms. M.D. Monageng (functional head of water and sanitation education, city of Tshwane, an interviewee). I also thank all questionnaire participants (respondents and translators) for their contribution and assistance in conducting this research and the compilation of the thesis.  All academics and professionals whose works form the foundation of the argument in this thesis.  Finally, my sincere thanks go to the many people (friends and associates) for their contributions in time and encouragement that helped in the research and compilation of this thesis. Thank you. Ndinotenda. Ngiyabonga. v DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my supportive wife, Tsitsi. I appreciate and value all your support and care vi ABSTRACT This study is a comparative analysis of the development of the IWRM induced public policies/legislation and services relating to potable water supply and their implementation in selected cases in Zimbabwe and South Africa. It looks at the diverse patterns of municipal governance, access to potable water, different intervention mechanisms made by the local authorities and the consequences of these interventions. The study hypothesises that the adoption of the IWRM policy framework in Harare, Masvingo, Tshwane and Vhembe was not followed by comparable implementation of the policy framework. It argues that lack of ownership, lack of political and public administrative will, and low prioritisation of potable water supply translated into a lack of policy implementation and enforcement, and a lack of adequate institutional facilities for dealing with potable water issues. Furthermore it hypothesises that the level of economic development and the status of technological/scientific knowledge within a community determine the adoption of the IWRM paradigm, its implementation, effectiveness and the efficiency of existing water frameworks and institutions. The objectives of the study were to investigate the extent to which the policy, institutional, legislative and legal frameworks helped in the implementation of the IWRM paradigm in each of four case study areas of Harare, Masvingo, Tshwane and Vhembe; to identify and explain the common and differing perspectives of stakeholders regarding the IWRM paradigm and its implementation in the governance of potable water supply in the four selected locations; to give a clear outline of the challenges faced by each of the four cases in the implementation of the IWRM paradigm and the governance of potable water supply; and to draw comparative lessons from the experiences of the four cases in their attempts to implement the IWRM framework. Research methods involved both a theoretical review and an empirical study based on case studies, making use of comparative, qualitative, historical and exploratory approaches. The empirical research design was hybrid, although dominated by the descriptive survey approach. The design matched well with the target population and sample that were scattered throughout all four case study areas. Questionnaires, interviews, documentary evidence and participant observation were used in the collection of data for this study. The empirical study was undertaken in three stages. The first was a preliminary study of the four areas and their water sources. This was followed by a pilot study with ten members from the city of Masvingo, and finally, a full scale investigation was made in all four study areas. A total of 521 people were sampled for the study. Questionnaires were distributed through municipal offices, Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) offices and local schools. Interviews were conducted with the municipal and council executives, water directors and their assistants. Informal discussions were also held with all direct research assistants. Data was then collated and analysed for presentation in narrative descriptions, tables, graphs, and actual frequencies and percentage responses. The study established that while the framework for a perfect water management system exists in Zimbabwe and South Africa, the situation on the ground does not reflect this common belief. The reform process has not progressed as expected owing to a combination of factors ranging from conflicting policies and weak institutional linkages, to insufficient funding. The effectiveness of the new system has been found wanting as far as implementation is concerned. It vii has been established that IWRM in southern Africa has a very strong base in the form of the internal push factors and international pull factors, but also faces an uphill task in terms of aligning local and international challenges thereby coopting the much needed grassroots participation for human capacitation and socio-economic development as guided by the multi- faceted systems framework. All the studied municipalities were found lacking in terms of advocacy or enlightening residents and other stakeholders of the new IWRM framework adopted by the municipalities. Despite the infrastructural and technological sophistication and advancement, in South Africa, this study established that most stakeholders were still unaware of the new developments. Stakeholders, especially at the grassroots have been largely side-lined in the formulation and adoption of potable water supply policies. Due to pipe bursts and water interruptions, access to tap water is by no means always assured. During water cuts, residents depended on risky and potentially polluted sources even in urban centres. Due to agricultural and mining activities, the proximity of cemeteries, poor sanitation and toilet facilities in the peri- urban and nearby shanty communities, and also the dolomitic character of the soil in some of the study areas, there is a high probability that these substitute sources are polluted. The study recommends an integrated systems approach to the management of potable water supply, full involvement of all stakeholders in the management process, intensive and extensive public campaigns, training, lobbying and advocacy. It is also suggested that potable water supply infrastructure be improved through the use of the business community and other stakeholders, who should be mobilised through the use of attractive incentives. Among other recommendations are the due enforcement of water laws, venturing into entrepreneurial activities, interval reviews and check-ups, and walking the talk. The study also recommends a more detailed and deeper participatory study in collaboration with major cities and rural communities in other countries in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region, as well as regional comparative studies, for example SADC versus Economic Community Organisation of West African States (ECOWAS). viii TABLE OF CONTENTS SOLEMN DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF APPENDICE ................................................................................................................ vi ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION: PROBLEM STATEMENT AND STUDY METHODOLOGY .....................1 1.0 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1 1.1 ORIENTATION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................1 1.1.1 Study cases .............................................................................................................................7 1.1.2 Statement of the problem .....................................................................................................15 1.2 RESEARCH AIMS, QUESTIONS, OBJECTIVES AND CONTRIBUTION ......................16 1.2.1 Research questions ...............................................................................................................17 1.2.2 Research objectives ..............................................................................................................17 1.2.3 Contribution of this study to the public management body of knowledge ..........................18 1.3 HYPOTHESES .......................................................................................................................19 1.4 RESEARCH METHODS .......................................................................................................19 1.4.1 Review of sources ................................................................................................................20 1.4.2 Empirical study ....................................................................................................................20 1.4.3 Research design ...................................................................................................................20 1.4.4 Data collection procedures ...................................................................................................20 1.4.5 Data presentation and analysis procedures ...........................................................................23 1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................23 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..........................................................................................24 1.7 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS ..................................................................................................25 1.8 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER TWO ..........................................................................................................................28 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS OF COMPARATIVE STUDIES, SYSTEMS THEORY, COMMON POOL RESOURCES AND GOVERNANCE ..........................................................28 2.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................28 ix 2.1 COMPARATIVE STUDIES ..................................................................................................28 2.2 THE SYSTEMS THEORY .....................................................................................................30 2.3 COMMON POOL RESOURCES ...........................................................................................36 2.4 GOVERNANCE .....................................................................................................................36 2.4.1 The classical management framework .................................................................................38 2.4.2 The traditional view of governance .....................................................................................40 2.4.3 The contemporary view of governance ................................................................................43 2.4.4 Sample definitions and the criteria for effective governance ..............................................46 2.4.5 Public policy .........................................................................................................................50 2.4.6 Decentralisation, participation, gender mainstreaming and empowerment .........................57 2.4.6.1 Decentralisation ................................................................................................................57 2.4.6.2 Involvement and participation ..........................................................................................59 2.4.6.3 Gender mainstreaming ......................................................................................................61 2.4.6.4 Capacity building and empowerment ................................................................................62 2.5 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................63 CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................65 A GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF POTABLE WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY AND ACCESSIBILITY IN SOUTHERN AFRICA …………………………………………………. 65 3.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................65 3.1 WHAT IS POTABLE WATER? ............................................................................................65 3.1 WHAT IS POTABLE WATER? ............................................................................................65 3.2 AVAILABILITY OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY ............................................................68 3.2.1 The global overview ............................................................................................................68 3.2.2 The African overview ..........................................................................................................79 3.2.3 The way forward for Africa .................................................................................................89 3.3 THE MAIN FORMS OF RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITIES AND THEIR POTABLE WATER SUPPLY CHALLENGES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA ..................................................91 3.3.1 The case of rural and communal areas .................................................................................92 3.3.2 Potable water supply in the peri-urban communities of southern Africa ............................97 3.3.3 An overview of potable water supply in urban communities. ............................................103 3.3.4 Potable water supply challenges in southern Africa ..........................................................107 3.3.4.1 Water availability ............................................................................................................107 3.3.4.2 Mining activities .............................................................................................................108 3.3.4.3 Governance and management .........................................................................................109 3.4 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................114 CHAPTER FOUR .......................................................................................................................115 LEGAL FRAMEWORKS IN THE GOVERNANCE OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY IN ZIMBABWE AND SOUTH AFRICA: A GLOBAL, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL OVERVIEW OF THE IWRM PARADIGM …………………………………………………. 115 4.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................115 x 4.1 THE GLOBAL LEGAL CONTEXT OF THE HUMAN RIGHT TO WATER ..................115 4.1.1 A historical overview of the global context of water rights ...............................................110 4.2 AN OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (IWRM) ......................................................................................................................................................125 4.2.1 Background to IWRM ........................................................................................................125 4.2.2 Integrated water resources management: A theoretical discourse .....................................128 4.3 THE CASE OF FRANCE .....................................................................................................138 4.4 THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN REGIONAL FRAMEWORK .............................................143 4.5 THE ZIMBABWEAN FRAMEWORK ...............................................................................150 4.5.1 Traditional water rights as basis for water rights in Zimbabwe .........................................151 4.5.2 Water legislation in Rhodesia. ............................................................................................153 4.5.3 Water legislation in Zimbabwe ..........................................................................................155 4.5.4 Why have Zimbabwe‘s water sector reforms not performed as expected? ........................158 4.6 THE SOUTH AFRICAN FRAMEWORK ...........................................................................164 4.7 LESSONS FROM THE ABOVE EXPERIENCES ..............................................................171 4.4 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................177 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................178 EMPIRICAL CASE STUDIES ON THE GOVERNANCE OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY IN HARARE, MASVINGO, MUSINA AND TSHWANE MUNICIPAL AREAS ……………. 178 5.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................178 5.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ...........................................................................178 5.1.1 The Republic of Zimbabwe ...............................................................................................179 5.1.1.1 The Harare Province Metropolitan Municipality ............................................................189 5.1.1.2 Masvingo District ............................................................................................................197 5.1.2 The Republic of South Africa ............................................................................................203 5.1.2.1 Vhembe District (Musina Local Municipality)................................................................209 5.1.2.2 City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality ..................................................................216 5.2 METHODOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN ...................................................................226 5.2.1 Research methods and methodologies ...............................................................................227 5.2.2 Subjects. ..............................................................................................................................230 5.2.2.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of participants .........................................................232 5.2.3 Sampling procedures ..........................................................................................................237 5.2.4 Research instruments .........................................................................................................240 5.2.4.1 Questionnaires .................................................................................................................240 5.2.4.2 Interviews/discussions ....................................................................................................246 5.2.4.3 Documentary evidence ....................................................................................................247 5.2.4.4 Municipal websites .........................................................................................................247 5.2.5 Data collection procedures .................................................................................................248 5.2.6 Data presentation and analysis procedures ........................................................................250 5.3 MORAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................250 5.4 CHALLENGES FACED DURING FIELDWORK .............................................................251 5.5 LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY ......................................................................................253 5.6 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................254 xi CHAPTER SIX ...........................................................................................................................255 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ………..……………. 255 6.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................255 6.1 PLANNING ..........................................................................................................................256 6.1.1 Formulation and adoption of legislation and policies derived from the IWRM framework ......................................................................................................................................................256 6.1.1.1 Documentary evidence and websites ..............................................................................256 6.1.1.2 Interviews and websites ..................................................................................................259 6.1.1.3 Questionnaires .................................................................................................................261 6.1.2 Awareness and understanding of the new macro-potable water supply governance framework ...................................................................................................................................266 6.1.2.1 Interviews ........................................................................................................................266 6.1.2.2 Questionnaires .................................................................................................................268 6.2 ORGANISING ......................................................................................................................274 6.2.1 Institutional and technological frameworks .......................................................................274 6.2.1.1 Documentary evidence ....................................................................................................275 6.2.1.2 Interviews and websites ..................................................................................................277 6.2.1.3 Questionnaires .................................................................................................................280 6.2.2 Relevance and accessibility of potable water supply institutions and infrastructure .........288 6.2.3 Potable water quality ..........................................................................................................291 6.3 LEADING .............................................................................................................................291 6.3.1 Communication, advocacy and mobilisation .....................................................................291 6.3.2 Motivation and training ......................................................................................................294 6.4 CONTROLLING ..................................................................................................................296 6.5 MAJOR CHALLENGES FACING IWRM AND POTABLE WATER SUPPLY GOVERNANCE IN THE CASE STUDY AREAS ...................................................................300 6.6 THE DUBLIN PRINCIPLES VIS A VIS THE SITUATION IN THE STUDIED CASES ..303 6.7 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................304 CHAPTER SEVEN ....................................................................................................................305 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……………………………. 305 7.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................305 7.1 SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................306 7.2 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................311 7.2.1 Foundational conclusions ...................................................................................................311 7.2.2 Thematic conclusions .........................................................................................................313 7.2.3 The central argument conclusions .....................................................................................325 7.2.4 Overall conclusion .............................................................................................................326 7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................327 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................333 xii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Criteria for effective water governance .......................................................................49 Table 2.2: Levels of stakeholder involvement ..............................................................................60 Table 3.1: Freshwater withdrawals in mainland southern Africa .................................................87 Table 3.2 Land and agriculture in mainland southern Africa .......................................................87 Table 3.3: Employment in agriculture and agriculture value-added in selected southern Africa countries ........................................................................................................................................88 Table 3.4: Population size and proportion of urbanised and levels of access to safe water and sanitation facilities by the urban and rural population in mainland SADC countries in 2000. ......................................................................................................................................................104 Table 3.5: Percentages of the population urbanised in selected southern African countries ......105 Table 4.1: Misconceptions on the right to water and sanitation .................................................118 Table 4.2: Comparison of Dublin Principles and French Water Law .........................................140 Table 4.3: Main characteristics of Rhodesian water legislation between 1927 and 1980 ..........154 Table 4.4: Typical original stakeholder representation on Sub- and Catchment Councils .........158 Table 5.1: Hierarchy of urban councils in Zimbabwe ................................................................185 Table 5.2 Annual rainfall per country in the basin area ..............................................................216 Table 5.3 City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, local authorities ...................................228 Table 5.4: Sampled research subjects by case study area ...........................................................230 Table 5.5: Trends in population growth in the study cases since 1900 ......................................231 Table 5.6: Age distribution of questionnaire respondents by case study ....................................233 Table 5.7: Respondents‘ education levels by study case ............................................................236 Table 5.8: Respondents‘ residential areas by study case ............................................................236 Table 5.9: Questionnaire response rate by case study ..............................................................245 Table 6.1: The relationship between residents and their municipality .......................................275 Table 6.2: Residents‘ responses on their contribution to the decision-making process of their municipal potable water supply ..................................................................................................262 Table 6.3: Residents‘ knowledge of the authority that supplies their potable water ..................263 Table 6.4: Residents‘ perception of the most important actor in potable water supply governance in their communities ...................................................................................................................274 xiii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of Southern Africa ...............................................................................................3 Figure 1.2: The classical management process ...............................................................................5 Figure 1.3: Greater Harare ..............................................................................................................7 Figure 1.4: Lake Chivero ................................................................................................................8 Figure 1.5: Women carrying containers of water during the 2008-2009 cholera outbreak in Harare ..........................................................................................................................................9 Figure 1.6: Masvingo Province .....................................................................................................10 Figure 1.7: Lake Mutirikwi ...........................................................................................................11 Figure 1.8: Rietvlei Dam ...............................................................................................................12 Figure 1.9: City of Tshwane .........................................................................................................13 Figure 1.10: Limpopo Province ....................................................................................................14 Figure 1.11: Nandoni Dam ...........................................................................................................15 Figure 1.12: A multidimensional systems theory .........................................................................25 Figure 2.1: An organisational system and its subsystems .............................................................31 Figure 2.2: Forces influencing and influenced by the public management process .....................40 Figure 2.3: The traditional view of governance ............................................................................42 Figure 2.4: Key considerations for phases of the generic process model .....................................56 Figure 3.1: Global distribution of the world‘s water ....................................................................66 Figure 3.2: Schematic of the hydrological cycle components in present-day setting ...................67 Figure 3.3: Availability of fresh water in 2007 .............................................................................69 Figure 3.4: A rural woman fetching water for domestic use in the Manyame catchment area in Zimbabwe ...................................................................................................................................70 Figure 3.5: Global water supply and sanitation coverage in 2000 ................................................71 Figure 3.6: Access to an improved water source in 2004 .............................................................72 Figure 3.7: Global trends in availability of fresh water resources in the twentieth century .........76 Figure 3.8: Global water scarcity in 2009 ......................................................................................78 Figure 3.9: Projected world water scarcity in 2025 .....................................................................79 Figure 3.10: Global projections of water stress (1995 & 2025) ....................................................80 Figure 3.11: Emissions from industrial processes ........................................................................81 Figure 3.12: Global fresh water withdrawal .................................................................................82 Figure 3.13: Global water withdrawal and use .............................................................................83 Figure 3.14: Climate change vulnerability in Africa ....................................................................84 Figure 3.15: Changes in available water in Africa .......................................................................85 Figure 3.16: Arable land in Africa ................................................................................................88 Figure 3.17: Projected changes in agriculture due to climate change and carbon fertilisation ....89 Figure 3.18: Women fetching water for domestic use in a southern African rural community ...93 Figure 3.19: Children playing with dirty water in a peri-urban residential area in Harare ...........98 Figure 3.20: A peri-urban shanty township near Johannesburg, South Africa ...........................102 Figure 3.21: Water supply during the 2008-2009 cholera outbreak in Harare ...........................106 Figure 3.22: Sewerage system failures in Harare .......................................................................107 Figure 3.23: Girl collecting water from a community supply, Abidjan, Côte d‘Ivoire ..............113 Figure 4.1: IWRM and its relation to sub-sectors .......................................................................133 Figure 4.2: River basin management in France ..........................................................................141 xiv Figure 4.3: Relationships between various instruments in SADC governing water resources management and development ....................................................................................................144 Figure 4.4: Conceptual framework for regional water policy development .............................149 Figure 4.5: Existing and proposed stakeholder institutions in water resources management in Zimbabwe ...................................................................................................................................163 Figure 4.6: Major phases and activities in the South African water policy process (1994-2004) ......................................................................................................................................................166 Figure 4.7: South African water supply industry institutional model .........................................170 Figure 5.1: Map of Zimbabwe showing provinces and the two study areas (Harare and Masvingo) ...................................................................................................................................180 Figure 5.2: The seven Zimbabwe water management catchment areas ....................................181 Figure 5.3: Local government institutional arrangements in Zimbabwe ....................................187 Figure 5.4: Parts of Harare Metropolitan Province showing major lakes supplying raw water to the Harare Municipality ..........................................................................................................190 Figure 5.5: Schematic layout of water supply system for the Harare metropolitan area (P = pump, WTW= Water Treatment Works)\ .................................................................................191 Figure 5.6: Aerial photograph of the city centre of Harare .........................................................193 Figure 5.7: A sewage spill in Harare ..........................................................................................194 Figure 5.8: Women carrying containers of water during the 2008-2009 cholera outbreak in Harare ..........................................................................................................................................196 Figure 5.9: Lake Mutirikwi .........................................................................................................198 Figure 5.10: Masvingo municipality offices ...............................................................................200 Figure 5.11: Map of South Africa showing the nine provinces ..................................................203 Figure 5.12: Toxic water pollution in South African rivers ........................................................205 Figure 5.13: Acid mine drainage from West Rand endangers hippos in Hippo Dam ................206 Figure 5.14: Ecological map of the Limpopo Basin ...................................................................210 Figure 5.15: Zimbabwean economic refugees in Musina ...........................................................212 Figure 5.16: Luvuvhu River catchment and the DDT-sprayed area in Limpopo Province. .......213 Figure 5.17: Radioactive acid pours into the Crocodile-Limpopo River system .......................214 Figure 5.18: View of Tshwane‘s city centre ...............................................................................217 Figure 5.19: Water services development plan for the city of Tshwane ....................................219 Figure 5.20: The Lesotho Highlands water project ....................................................................220 Figure 5.21: Acid mine drainage outflow from Hippo Dam ......................................................221 Figure 5.22: Water pollution: crocodiles dying in the Olifants River ........................................222 Figure 5.23: Tshwane daily water requirements .........................................................................223 Figure 5.24: Governance system of CTMM ...............................................................................224 Figure 5.25: The questionnaire sex ratio of respondents by case study ......................................234 Figure 5.26: Questionnaire respondents‘ marriage status by case study ....................................235 Figure 6.1: Imposition of the change process on the people .....................................................258 Figure 6.2: Workers involvement in the management of water supply services by case study .263 Figure 6.3: Workers‘ attendance of potable water supply management meetings .....................265 Figure 6.4: An NGO sponsored protected household well in Masvingo Rural ..........................269 Figure 6.5: Municipal employees‘ awareness of water and related legislation ..........................270 Figure 6.6: Municipal employees‘ awareness of IWRM ............................................................271 Figure 6.7: Residents‘ identification of residential catchment/subcatchment area .....................273 xv Figure 6.8: Fetching water for domestic use during water supply interruptions, Mabvuku, Harare ......................................................................................................................................................282 Figure 6.9: Proportional water supply interruptions by case study ..........................................283 Figure 6.10: Proportion of burst fresh water supply pipes by case study ...................................285 Figure 6.11: Sewage bursts by case study ..................................................................................286 Figure 6.12: Workers‘ perception of municipal/council potable water status ............................287 Figure 6.13: Workers‘ satisfaction with council potable water supply management .................288 Figure 6.14: Responsibility for fetching water in the homestead ...............................................290 Figure 6.15: Residents‘ perceptions on whether government is doing enough to ensure that people get adequate fresh water ..................................................................................................299 Figure 6.16: Acid mine dam in Gauteng ...................................................................................301 Figure 6.17: River water system pollution in the Gauteng Province ........................................302 Figure 7.1: Number of internet users for eastern and southern Africa (2000-2010) ..................321 Figure 7.2: Number of mobile users for eastern and southern Africa (2000-2010) ...................322 Figure 7.3 Mobile density for Zimbabwe (2000-2010) ..............................................................322 xvi LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ................................................................................363 A1.1: Interview schedule for municipal water sector officials ...................................................363 APPENDIX 3: QUESTIONNAIRES .......................................................................................364 A2.1: English version of the governance questionnaire for residents ........................................364 A2.2: Shona version of the governance questionnaire for residents ...........................................365 A2.3: Venda version of the governance questionnaire for residents ..........................................368 A2.4: Zulu version of the governance questionnaire for residents .............................................371 A2.5: Tswana version of the governance questionnaire for residents ........................................374 A2.6: Questionnaire for municipality employees .......................................................................377 APPENDIX 3: LETTERS ...........................................................................................................379 A3.1: Certification of language editing ......................................................................................381 A3.2: Researcher‘s letter to municipal authorities requesting permission to conduct research in the relevant municipal area .........................................................................................................381 A3.3: Faculty letter introducing the researcher to the municipalities .........................................382 A3.4: Letter from city of Masvingo giving the researcher permission to conduct research in the city ...............................................................................................................................................384 A3.5: Letter from city of Tshwane giving the researcher permission to conduct research in the city ...............................................................................................................................................385 A3.6: Letter from Masvingo Rural District Council giving the researcher permission to conduct research in Masvingo Rural ........................................................................................................386 xvii ACRONYMS AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANC African National Congress ARC Agriculture Research Council AU African Union BBA Bachelor of Business Administration BC Before Christ BOT Build, operate and transfer BPFA Beijing Platform for Action Bsc.Pol.Admin.Hons Bachelor of Science in Politics and Administration (Honours) CBO Community based organisation CC Catchment Council CCRC Consultative Citizens‘ Report Card CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CHRA Combined Harare Residents Association CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CMA Catchment Management Agency COHRE Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions COPs Catchment Outline Plans CPR Common pool resources CSO Central Statistical Office CTMM City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality Dip. Diploma Dr. Doctor DIS-WD Directorate of Infrastructure and Services‘ Water Division DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DWA Department of Water Affairs DWAF Department of Water and Forestry Affairs ECA Economic Commission for Africa xviii ECOWAS Economic Community Organisation of West African States ELUs Existing lawful uses GAD Gender and Development GMB Grain Marketing Board GNU Government of National Unity GoZ Government of Zimbabwe GWP Global Water Partnership HDI Human Development Index H/Dip Higher Diploma HDR Human Development Report HIV Human Immuno-deficiency Virus Hre Harare HRM Human Resource Management HRT Harare Residents‘ Trust ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICT Information and communication technology ICT4D Information and Communication Technology for Development IDS Institute of Development Studies IDPs Integrated development plans IDRC International Development Research Centre IDWSSD International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IMM Institute of Marketing Management IPMZ Institute of People Management of Zimbabwe IT Information technology IRC International Research Council IWMI International Water Management Institute IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management KWCRS Khuvutlu Water, Consulting, Roads and Services MBA Master of Business Administration M. Dvnt & Mgnt. Master of Development and Management xix MDC Movement for Democratic Change MDGs Millennium Development Goals MPhil Master of Philosophy Msvo R Masvingo Rural Msvo U Masvingo Urban Mus R Musina Rural NGO Non-governmental organization NGDO Non-governmental development organization NWA National Water Authority NWC National Water Council NWU North-West University PhD Doctor of Philosophy POLC Planning, organising, leading and controlling Prof Professor RISP Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan RSA Republic of South Africa RSAP-IWRM Regional Strategic Action Plan for Integrated Water Resources Development and Management SADC Southern African Development Community SCC Sub-Catchment Council SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation UCAZ Urban Councils‘ Association of Zimbabwe UN United Nations UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS UNCHR United Nations Commission on Human rights UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNICEF United Nations Children‘s Fund UNWVLC United Nations Virtual Learning Centre xx USA United States of America USAID United States Agency for International Development USD United States dollar ($) UZ University of Zimbabwe VTC Vaal Triangle Campus WARMS Water Authorisation and Registration Management System WB World Bank WHO World Health Organisation WMA Water management areas WPP Water purification plant WRC Water Research Commission WSA Water services authority WSS Water supply and sanitation WTWs Water treatment works WWTWs Waste water treatment works WWAP World Water Assessment Programme WWC World Water Council ZANU PF Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front ZCTU Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions ZEC Zimbabwe Electoral Commission Zim Zimbabwe ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority ZNCC Zimbabwe National Chamber of Commerce ZOU Zimbabwe Open University ZWRCN Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre Network