THE ROLE THAT CAN BE PLAYED BY 
ADULT EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS, 
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BAKENBERG 
AREA IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCE 
by 
MADIMETJ A EZEKIEL MOSHIA 
B.A. (University of the North), H.E.D. (University of the North), 
B.Ed. (University of North West) 
A MINI-DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT 
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 
MASTER OF EDUCATION 
IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION 
IN THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION 
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH WEST 
SUPERVISOR: MR. L. M. E. M. SEHLARE 
November 1998 
,., 
DECLARATION 
I, MADIMETJ A EZEKIEL MOSHIA, declare that the dissertation for the degree of 
MASTERS IN ADULT EDUCATION at the University of North West hereby 
submitted, has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any 
other university, that it is my own work in design and execution, and that all material 
contained herein has been duly acknowledged. 
i q "'"j ~ · i i J.. 8 · 
""Signature Date 
DEDICATION 
This research project is dedicated to my late father, 
Diphama Malose Frans Moshia, 
and to my mother, 
Mafathekana Agnes Kgaugelo Moshia, 
my brother, 
Bolai Lesiba Piet Moshia, 
and my sister, 
Martina Ramsela Langa. 
- i -
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Abstract - VI-
Acknowledgments -Vii-
1. ORIENTATION 1 
1.1 Introduction 1 
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4 
1.3 Hypothesis 6 
1.4 The Purpose of the Study 6 
1.5 The Scope of the Study 6 
1.6 Research Design 7 
1.6.1 Literature Review 7 
1.6.2 Instrumentation 7 
1.6.2.1 Questionnaires 7 
1.6.2.2 Interviews 8 
1.6.2.3 Population and Sampling 8 
1.6.2.3.1 Target Population 8 
1.6.2.4 Data Analysis 9 
1.7 Definition of terms 9 
1.7.1 Adult 9 
1.7.2 Adult Education 9 
1.7.3 Community Health Nurse 9 
1.7.3 Community Health 9 
1.7.4 Principal 10 
1.7.5 Rural Area 10 
- ii -
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 11 
2.1 Introduction 11 
2.2 Theoretical Considerations and Definition of 
Key Terms 11 
2.2.1 Education 
2.2.2 An Adult 12 
2.2.3 Adult Education 13 
2.2.4 Lifelong Education 15 
2.2.5 Distance Education 15 
2.3 Comparative Perspectives on Adult Education 15 
2.3.1 Adult Education in the So-Called Developed World 17 
2.3.1.1 Adult Education in Western Europe 18 
2.3.1 .1.1 Great Britain 18 
2.3.1.1.2 The Netherlands 18· 
2.3.1.1 .3 Denmark 20 
2.3.1.1.4 Ireland 21 
2.3.1.2 Adult Education in Russia 23 
2.3.1.3 Adult Education in the United States of America 25 
2.3.1.4 Adult Education in Australia 27 
2.3.2 Adult Education in the Non-African Developing 
World 29 
2.3.2.1 Adult Education in the Philippines 29 
2.3.2.2 Adult Education in Cuba 29 
2.3.3 Adult Education in Africa 31 
2.3.3.1 Kenya and Tanzania 31 
2.3.3.2 Adult Education in Southern Africa 35 
2.3.3.2.1 Adult Education in Botswana 35 
- iii -
2.3.4 Adult Education in South Africa 39 
2.3.4.1 Adult Education in Pre-Democratic South Africa 40 
2.3.4.2 Adult Education During the 1990's 41 
2.3.4.3 Adult Education in Post-Democratic South Africa 42 
2.4 Conclusion 44 
3. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN AND 
METHODOLOGY 46 
3.1 Introduction 46 
3.2 Research Tools 46 
3.2.1 Questionnaire 46 
3.2.1.1 Questionnaire Construction 46 
3.2.1.2 Development of the Questionnaire 48 
3.2.1.3 Format and Content of the Questionnaires 48 
3.2.1.4 Pre-Testing the Questionnaire 48 
3.2.1.5 Advantages of Mailed Questionnaires 49 
3.2.1.6 Disadvantages of Mailed Questionnaires 51 
3.2.2 Definition of an Interview 53 
3.2.2.1 The Personal Interview: A Supplement to the 
Administering of Questionnaires 53 
3.2.2.2 Advantages of Personal Interviews 53 
3.2.2.3 Principles of Effective Interviewing 54 
3.2.2.4 Disadvantages of Personal Interviews 54 
3.3 Data Collection 56 
3.4 Follow-Ups 57 
3.5 Permission Letter 57 
3.6 Population and Sampling 57 
- iv-
3. 7 Response Rate 57 
3.8 Qualitative Data 58 
3.9 Summary 58 
4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 59 
4.1 Introduction 59 
4.2 Review of Subjects 59 
4.2.1 Responses of Principals 59 
4.2.2 Responses of Teachers 67 
4.2.3 Responses of Community Nurses 76 
4.2.4 Interviews 86 
4.2.4.1 The Chief of Bakenberg Area 86 
4.2.4.2 The Interviews with lndunas 89 
4.3 Summary 90 
5. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND 
CONCLUSION 92 
5.1 Introduction 92 
5.2 Summary 92 
5.3 Research Findings 93 
5.3.1 There is No Adult Education Taking Place in 
Bakenberg Area 93 
5.3.2 The Majority of Residents in Bakenberg Area 
Are Illiterate or Semi-Literate 94 
5.3.3 Adult Education is Needed to Improve the 
Health of the Communities 94 
- v -
5.3.4 Adult Education is Needed to Develop the 
Community 95 
5.4 Recommendations 95 
5.4.1 The Doors of Education Should be Open to All 95 
5.4.2 Clear Vision for the Success of Adult Education 
Must be Established 96 
5.4.3 Restructuring of Adult Education Needs to be 
Taken into Consideration 97 
5.4.4 Much Work Still Needs to be Done to Reduce 
Illiteracy 98 
5.4.5 Adult Education Centres Should be Established 98 
5.4.6 Adult Education Must be Given First Priority 99 
5.4.7 All Educational Stakeholders Must be Actively 
Involved in Adult Education 100 
5.5 Conclusion 100 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 102 
APPENDIX A: SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY PRINCIPALS IN BAKENBERG AREA 108 
APPENDIX B: SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY TEACHERS IN BAKENBERG AREA 111 
APPENDIX C: SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY COMMUNITY NURSES IN 
BAKENBERG AREA 114 
- v i-
ABSTRACT 
This research paper examines the role of adult education in rural areas, particularly 
in the Bakenberg area of the Northern Province. The role of adult education in 
South Africa and other countries is carefully studied, as is the availability and 
potential impact of adult educational programmes in the Bakenberg area. 
The study comprises five chapters. The first chapter provides an overall statement 
of the problem, along with the aim, scope and methods of research. Chapter two 
conducts a review of relevant literature, to define a number of key concepts. This 
chapter further examines adult education in certain developed and developing 
countries, to determine the pertinence of these cases to the South African context. 
Chapter three examines the instruments used in the collection of data. This was 
achieved through the administering of questionnaires to principals, teachers and 
community nurses working in Bakenberg area, as well as through interviews with 
the chief of Bakenberg and his indunas. 
Chapter four presents and analyses the data collected. Chapter five summarises 
the main points of the study and the findings of the research. The data indicates 
that adult education has not yet been implemented in Bakenberg area. Accordingly, 
chapter five offers, by way of conclusion, a number of recommendations for the 
provision and successful maintenance of adult education in this part of the Northern 
Province. As this study makes clear, adult education should be given high priority 
in Bakenberg area as in all of South Africa's rural communities, where illiteracy and 
lack of skills and knowledge are perpetuating a vicious cycle of poverty and 
dependence. 
- vii -
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
This project could not have been completed without the knowledge, support and 
advice of my supervisor, MR. L. M. E. M. Sehlare. From the beginning of this 
research, he has given me valuable guidance, patience and encouragement at every 
stage. I wish to extend to him my sincere thanks and appreciation. 
I also wish to thank all the principals, teachers and community nurses in Bakenberg 
area who welcomed the distribution and completion of my questionnaires. A special 
word of thanks to Chief Dennis Matlhaba, II of Langa in Bakenberg, for allowing me 
to conduct this research in his area. I also thank Chief Matlhaba for permitting me 
to interview him as well as his indunas. 
I further wish to thank my best friend , Simon Masenya, and my classmate, Thakudu 
Ephraim Matshidiso, for having shared with me their ideas and thoughts. Faith 
Mmatshephe Molemane and Mavis Kgaugelo Moshia also deserve a warm word of 
thanks for their continued support. 
My deep and sincere love and thanks also go to my LORD JESUS for my dear 
brother, Titus Kapu Moshia and all my family members, who continuously provided 
me with strength and a caring environment during the completion of this study. 
Without their love and concern , it would never have been written. I love them all 
dearly. 
My sincere thanks also go to Ms. Jennifer Seif who edited and typed this study. 
Above all , I wish to express my most sincere gratitude to ALL MIGHTY GOD, for 
making everything possible and for the successful completion of this research 
project. 
Madimetja Ezekiel Moshia 
P.O. Box 29, Bakenberg 0611 
November 1998 
CHAPTER ONE 
1. INTRODUCTION 
1.1 BACKGROUND 
In South Africa, there are millions of people who have been deprived of the 
opportunity to attend school. Many of those who were lucky enough to enjoy 
some access to education have gone only as far as primary school for one 
reason or another. 
A high percentage of the country's population can thus be regarded as 
illiterate or semi-literate. Illiteracy is greatest amongst black South Africans 
due to socio-economic factors as well as the history of apartheid. Decades 
of popular resistance to apartheid and "Bantu" education have damaged, if 
not destroyed, the culture of learning in South Africa's schools. This has 
resulted in large numbers of illiterate, semi-literate and unskilled people, 
most of whom have dropped out of school. 
Today, vast numbers of people cannot read and write. Such individuals 
cannot communicate through the written word. This cripples their 
employment prospects as well as their enjoyment of life. Many illiterate or 
semi-literate South Africans remain unemployed or underemployed. They 
tend to work in the informal or unskilled sectors of the country's economy. 
These people face a bleak future in the face of drastic trends occurring in the 
labour market, which has shed thousands upon thousands of jobs in recent 
years. Their contribution to society and the economy is minimal, if at all. 
Indeed, a vast proportion of South Africa's population remains "outside the 
mainstream of the country" (RDP paper, 1994: 59). This process of 
marginalisation is especially pronounced in rural areas where services and 
resources are most scarce. 
2 
Illiteracy has thus engendered a number of socio-economic imbalances in 
South Africa. To eradicate these inequalities, various support programmes 
need to be introduced. Adult education, in particular, offers a viable means 
for combating illiteracy and the social and economic imbalances it creates. 
Not surprisingly, many communities have welcomed adult education 
programmes as a vital source of empowerment. Given that "a person's 
education most often determines his ability to progress socio-economically" 
(Classen, 1991: 71 ), it is imperative to take a closer look at the role of adult 
education in rural communities. 
The need to develop human resources is paramount if South Africa is to 
develop, grow and compete internationally. The total population's 
capabilities, skills, knowledge and life experiences need to be exploited and 
developed. This wil l not only contribute to socio-economic growth, but also 
improve the standard and quality of living of the population in general. To 
redress the inequalities of the past and present, skills development 
programmes must be implemented. The benefits derived from such 
programmes will benefit individuals, families, communities and the country 
as a whole. 
The majority of illiterate and semi-literate South Africans are adults who are 
far beyond the normal age of schooling. They need a sort of practical 
remedy that will break the cycle of oppression and poverty. Adult education 
is one such remedy. Through adult education, people are given a second 
chance to grab lost opportunities and are encouraged to assume a more 
active role in society and the economy. 
Atkinson (1983: 38) notes that studies conducted elsewhere demonstrate a 
negative correlation between education and crime. It is believed that 
3 
education reduces crime, primarily because it decreases unemployment. 
People who are employed are simply less likely to become involved in 
criminal activity. By way of illustration, Atkinson (1983: 38) argues that in 
America, juveniles not in schools show much higher delinquency rates than 
those enrolled in schools. In addition, higher education enhances law 
enforcement. 
Such arguments reinforce the fact that a reduction in illiteracy rates will 
alleviate racial, social and economic tensions in South Africa. It is 
imperative that people who missed the opportunity of schooling should 
receive adult education, to compete fairly with their counterparts. 
Molyneux (1988: 76) has argued on behalf of a drastic shift of resources 
from traditional, front-end patterns of education in favour of a system of 
lifelong education. This, he maintains, will provide opportunities for adults 
to participate in formal and non-formal education and/or training at any stage 
in their lives. Woodhall also notes that a more flexible pattern of education 
and training opportunities will result in a more highly skilled and adaptable 
workforce, who is thus better able to respond to changing economic 
conditions. 
Moreover, it is widely argued that the current pace of technological 
advancement requires a system of continuing education that would allow 
workers to update and upgrade their skills. As Molyneux (1988: 77) notes, 
such a system would help to prevent certain situations that might threaten 
national economic growth. Recent trends towards technological innovations, 
for instance, have led to a corresponding demand for more highly skilled 
personnel. The continuing education of adults will counter shortages in new 
4 
skills and also ensure that jobs are not lost to an increasingly obsolete 
workforce. 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
This study focuses on the role of adult education in the empowerment and 
socio-economic development of rural communities, through a case study of 
the Bakenberg area in the Northern Province. People in rural areas are often 
afraid to take part in educational matters, because they believe they cannot 
make any worthwhile contribution. They believe that innovations must come 
from educated people, or from the rich. However, one of the primary 
objectives of community development is to involve ordinary people in taking 
decisions and formulating solutions to problems that directly affect them 
(Searle, 1988: 8) . 
Many such problems are directly or indirectly related to the high rate of 
illiteracy amongst South Africa's rural communities. Illiteracy appears to be 
a key problem in many rural areas, negatively affecting economic growth and 
development, political participation and socialisation. If, for instance, 
communities do not understand fully the nature and implications of certain 
health issues, ranging from basic nutrition to AIDS, they are unable to take 
the necessary preventative measures. Malnutrition, poor health and disease 
will thus persist and even increase, simply because communities are 
uninformed and, in turn , unaware of their own capacity to combat the adverse 
conditions in which they live. 
Many rural communities are thus unaware of their skills. They expect the 
government to do things for them, and are often afraid to take initiatives to 
better their own lives. These tendencies perpetuate the cycle of poverty and 
5 
dependence. These apparent shortages of initiative and know-how are 
directly related to illiteracy. 
Illiteracy must therefore be combated if rural development is to take place. 
Adult education is one of the primary \N'eapons to be used in this campaign. 
The provision of adult education will raise political awareness, improve living 
conditions, create skills and allow rural communities to participate more fully 
in processes of socio-economic development and nation-building. Literacy 
leads to the formation of critical , creative and analytical abilities as \Nell as 
the exploitation of existing talents. These, in turn, will allow individuals and 
communities to take a more active part in society, politics and the economy. 
Literacy thus engenders personal as well as social empo\N'erment and 
growth. It also opens avenues of communication that would otherwise 
remain closed. Illiterate people are unable to utilise certain institutions and 
facilities (e.g., signing of papers, entering into written transactions, reading 
newspapers). Literacy expands personal choice and control over one's 
environment, leading to the acquisition of the skills required to create the 
kind of society that is desired. Once a person is literate, he/she can acquire 
greater socio-economic status, for instance by assuming a position in 
informal community organisations like stokvels and burial societies. Literacy 
also replaces feelings of inferiority with self-confidence and self-assurance. 
Moreover, adult education will expose individuals to such values as family 
planning and primary health care. These contribute to lo\N'er birth rates, 
higher life expectancy and decreased infant mortality rates. Provision of 
adult education equips people to participate more fully in community related 
projects for their overall development. Literacy in rural communities will 
promote economic growth. It will also create equality of opportunity for all 
6 
citizens of the country, and is thus regarded as a basis of social 
transformation. 
1.3 HYPOTHESIS 
(1) The lack of adult education centres contributes to high rates of 
illiteracy in South Africa. 
(2) The lack of adult educational programmes contributes to poor rates 
of development amongst rural communities in South Africa. 
1.4 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 
• To determine from literature the nature and scope of adult education; 
• To determine from literature the role that can be played by adult 
education in rural communities; 
• To determine empirically the problems that school principals, 
traditional leaders, teachers and health officials are experiencing 
concerning illiteracy and skills shortages in Bakenberg area. 
1.5 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
Chapter one provides a statement of the problem, along with the purpose, 
scope and methods of research. 
In chapter two, a literature review serves to define a number of key concepts. 
This survey also determines the nature and role of adult education in certain 
developed and developing countries, thereby raising a number of 
comparative questions and insights which can be applied to the South 
African setting. 
Chapter three details the empirical research design, discussing the various 
methods used to collect data for this study. Relevant literature is consulted 
7 
to obtain a better understanding of the methods used to collect data, 
including their advantages and disadvantages. 
Chapter four presents and analyses the data collected. This data speaks to 
the current state of adult education in the Bakenberg area, as well as to the 
potential role that adult educational programmes can play in this and other 
rural parts of South Africa. 
Chapter five summarises the main points of the study and the findings of the 
research. By way of conclusion, a number of recommendations concerning 
the implementation of adult education in the Bakenberg area are offered. 
1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN 
1.6.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 
A thorough study of primary and secondary sources has been 
conducted, with particular attention to the role of adult education in 
rural areas. Literature from countries other than South Africa has 
been consulted in order to gain a comparative perspective. These 
cases have been examined in order to determine their possible 
relevance to the South African context, especially in the country's 
rural areas. 
1.6.2 INSTRUMENTATION 
1.6.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRES 
Three questionnaire were developed and pre-tested. The final 
questionnaires were administered to: ( 1) school principals; (2) 
8 
teachers; and (3) community nurses. The primary objective of 
these questionnaires was to determine the problems 
associated with illiteracy and lack of other skills in the 
Bakenberg region. 
1.6.2.2 INTERVIEWS 
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with traditional 
leaders, including the chief of Bakenberg area and his 
indunas. The purpose of these interviews was to obtain 
opinions about the potential benefits that can be attained 
through the introduction and promotion of adult education in 
Bakenberg area. 
1.6.2.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLING 
1.6.2.3.1 TARGET POPULATION 
The target population comprised sixteen (n=16) 
principals of lower primary, higher primary, combined 
primary and secondary schools. Fifty (n=SO) teachers 
randomly selected from these schools formed the 
subjects of the study. Each principal wrote the names 
of his/her teachers on a paper, from which every 
second name was chosen to participate in the 
answering of questionnaires. 
In addition, the ten (n=10) community nurses stationed 
at the Bakenberg Health Centre were included in the 
study. Finally, one (n=1) chief and his five (n=S) 
indunas were interviewed. Thus, a total of eighty-two 
(n=82) people participated in the study. 
9 
1.6.2.4 DATA ANALYSIS 
Analysis of variance was conducted, to compare views of the 
various participants to the study. 
1. 7 DEFINITION OF TERMS 
1.7.1 ADULT 
An adult is defined as a person with responsibility for himself or 
herself and others, who has accepted a functionally productive role 
in the community (Woodhall, 1988: 20). 
1.7.2 ADULT EDUCATION 
Adult education is a process whereby persons no longer attending 
school on a regular and full-time basis consciously undertake 
sequential and organised activities designed to bring specified 
psychomotor, affective or cognitive changes, or to solve community 
problems (Liveright and Haygoed, 1968: 20). 
1.7.3 COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSES 
Any nurse who dispenses health care outside hospital , and who 
comes into direct contact with patients in his/her environment, 
including family clinics and schools (Swanepoel, 1992: 18). 
1.7.4 COMMUNITY HEALTH 
This can be defined as the health status of members of a community, 
related to problems affecting their health, and to the totality of health 
care provided for the community (Searle, 1988: 8). 
10 
1.7.5 PRINCIPAL 
An educator appointed or acting as the head of a school (South 
African Schools Act, No. 84 of 1996). 
1.7.6 RURALAREA 
This may be defined as any area that offers primary functions. In this 
study, the term "rural" refers to all areas in the Northern Province 
which are not proclaimed as urban areas in terms of the Land Control 
Act, No. 39 of 1979. 
Additional terms and concepts are discussed in detail in the next chapter 
which reviews relevant literature concerning the general role of adult 
education. This chapter further considers adult educational programmes in 
a number of developed and developing countries, to determine how the 
experiences of adult education elsewhere might pertain to the South African 
context. 
CHAPTER TWO 
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
Literature consulted from various developed and developing countries 
indicates that education has throughout the world played an important part in 
socio-economic growth, political formation and human progress. However, 
there has been a general tendency to define education largely in terms of 
children's schooling. This is unfortunate because it underestimates the 
importance and possibilities of adult education. As the following discussion 
will demonstrate, education should rather be regarded as a lifelong process 
which recognises the diversity of experience, knowledge, skills and talents 
manifest at the local and national levels. 
2.2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 
2.2.1. EDUCATION 
According to Woodhall (1988), education is defined as the principal 
instrument for providing the skills required by the economy, and also 
for improving the levels of efficiency, productivity, technological and 
managerial performance of the labour force. Apps (1979: 64) notes 
that education is an organised and well planned activity designed to 
engender learning. This activity may be directed at individuals, groups 
or communities. As these definitions imply, education is something 
that is contributed or added to an already present entity, such as an 
individual, whose completeness can be enhanced through learning 
(Culler, 1983: 104). 
Evans and Nation (1996: 24) define education as a major social 
institution with a fundamental role in socio-economic development 
12 
and transformation. They argue that education is simultaneously a 
case, a consequence and a facilitator of change within society. 
Education is also a conservative institution to the extent that it is 
concerned with fostering and reinforcing established values and 
knowledge. 
In this study, education is defined as the influence that guides or 
encourages the outcomes of learning. 
2.2.2 AN ADULT 
As noted in chapter one, an adult can be defined as someone who is 
responsible for himself or herself and for others, and a person with a 
productive role in his or her community (Woodhall, 1988: 22). In 
addition, Apps (1979: 67) defines an adult as anyone who is older than 
eighteen ( 18) years of age. Paterson ( 1979: 6) distinguishes the adult 
from the child through the former's enjoyment of various entitlements 
and prerogatives. An adult, for instance, has the right to participate in 
decisions that affect his or her well-being. As a full member of the 
community, an adult is also entitled and expected to become involved 
in issues that affect the group as a whole, even when his or her well-
being is not directly involved. 
An adult is entitled to pursue life, seek opinions, form associations and 
generally conduct his/her affairs as he/she sees fit. However, this 
must not interfere with the rights or interests of others, nor should a 
person's free initiatives and decisions obfuscate his/her obligations to 
others. 
13 
Davies (1995: 26) observes that the definition of adulthood varies 
from one country to another. The notion of what constitutes an adult 
depends upon the socio-cultural context. In the United Kingdom, for 
instance, a person who is twenty-one (21) years or more of age, or 
who has entered a first degree programme is considered to be a 
young adult, whereas anyone over the age of twenty-five is seen to 
be a mature adult. In Denmark, an adult is any citizen above the age 
of eighteen (18). In Belgium, an adult is broadly defined as someone 
who is older than a young person. Generally, however, an adult is 
considered to be someone who is at least twenty-five (25) old. 
2.2.3 ADULT EDUCATION 
Liveright and Haygoed (1968: 13) note that adult education is 
directed at persons who are no longer attending school on a regular 
and fill-time bases. Kidd (1973: 198) further states that adult 
education is a developmental process designed to link various agents 
and client systems for the purpose of establishing directions and 
procedures for programmes of adult learning. Apps (1979: 67) 
provides further insight in suggesting that adult education is a social 
invention peculiarly appropriate to our times. In his view, adult 
education assists people in grasping and acting upon large scale 
social and economic changes. Through adult education, individuals 
are encouraged to examine, clarify and determine the roles that they, 
as adults, play in society and the economy. 
Cropley ( 1980: 3) defines adult education as a means of facilitating 
lifelong learning. This engenders the systematic acquisition, renewal , 
upgrading and completion of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Adult 
education thus allows people to respond to the constantly changing 
14 
conditions of modern life, with the ultimate goal of promoting the self-
fulfillment of each individual. Cropley further asserts that adult 
education helps to motivate the individual to improve his or her life. 
It also recognises and makes use of the various types of learning, 
including formal, informal and non-formal education. 
Peters (1980: 13) argues that adult education is a field of operations 
that encompasses all the organised activities in which mature men 
and women engage, for the purpose of learning. This is usually, 
though not necessarily, achieved under the auspices of an institution. 
This definition implies that adult education includes self-directed 
inquiry, whereby individuals systematically learn from their daily 
experiences and other resources in their environment. Adult 
education can thus be viewed as a type of social movement that 
encompasses the whole spectrum of mature individuals learning in 
infinite ways, under innumerable auspices, in order to enrich their 
lives. 
I~-NWU· LIBRAR 
Darkenwald and Merriam (1982: 18) also view adult education as a 
process, which they understand to comprise individuals performing 
the social roles of adulthood. In living their lives, mature individuals 
contribute to the overall pool of knowledge, attitudes and values and 
skills. Similarly, Sehlare (1995: 10) notes that adult education plays 
more than a merely vocational role. 
Finally, Woodcock (1996: 33) defines adult education as the 
provision which a society consciously makes, either through public 
institutions or approved voluntary organisations, of facilities for 
15 
learning by anyone, of whatever age, especially where the initial 
education and/or professional training has been terminated 
prematurely. 
2.2.4 LIFELONG EDUCATION 
The term "lifelong education" has been regarded by many critics as 
a concept designed to emphasise the ongoing nature of learning. 
This term is used to designate all the ideas and activities whose aim 
is to provide a coherent and systematic view of the educational 
process as a whole, in order to meet more adequately the needs of 
individuals and groups (Dave, 1978: 3). 
Goad (1984: 20) argues that the notion of lifelong education is used 
in different ways by different writers and practitioners. For some, 
lifelong education is more or less a synonym for adult education. For 
others, however, it is a matter of further vocational training. For the 
purposes of the present study, lifelong education is defined as a 
process of change occurring within individuals as a result of life 
experience. 
2.2.5 DISTANCE EDUCATION 
According to Keegan (1991 : 44), distance education is a form of 
education characterised by the following: 
• The quasi-permanent separation of teacher and learner( s) 
throughout the length of the learning process; 
• The influence of an educational institution; 
• The use of technical media; 
• The provision of two-way communication; and 
1 6 
• The quasi-permanent absence of the learning process. 
In addition, George, et al. (1996: 21) note that distance education is 
committed to the needs of minorities and the underprivileged. This 
type of education is a leader in current moves towards equal 
opportunities. Distance education is committed to a multiplicity of 
principles as 'Nell as to democratic decision making. By its very 
nature, distance education is keenly conscious of the need to 
maintain equivalence of study and award for all its students, wherever 
they may study. 
2.3 COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES ON ADULT EDUCATION 
Having defined the key terms andconcepts that inform this study, it will be 
• 
useful to examine the origins and nature of adult educational programmes 
in various national contexts. These raise a number of comparative questions 
and insights which can be applied to the South African setting. For the 
purposes of exposition, the various cases discussed below can be divided 
into the following general categories: ( 1)  the so-called developed countries; 
(2) non-African developing countries; and (3) African developing countries. 
From a global perspective, the aims and objectives of adult education can 
be defined in the following manner (Lovett, 1988: 168): 
• To promote work for peace, international understanding and 
cooperation; 
• To develop a critical understanding of major contemporary problems 
and social changes, as well as the ability to play an active part in the 
progress of society; 
17 
• To create an understanding of, and giving effect to, various forms of 
community and solidarity at the family, local, regional and 
international levels; 
• To promote adult literacy and learning for international 
understanding; 
• To meet basic human needs, including primary health care and the 
alleviation of poverty and unemployment; 
• To create the conditions for guaranteeing and enforcing basic human 
rights and freedoms in all countries; and 
• To help in creating awareness of existing unjust economic relations 
in the world, and to support United Nations efforts for a new 
international economic order. 
These general objectives suggest that adult education is pertinent to 
developed as well as developing countries. However, circumstances in the 
developing world render efforts to promote vocational training, social 
awareness and literacy all the more urgent. The realisation of such goals 
will benefit individuals, nations, regions and the world order as a whole. 
2.3.1 ADULT EDUCATION IN THE SO-CALLED DEVELOPED WORLD 
Adult education is closely associated with the formation of liberal 
democratic and socialist values and regimes. The origins and, in 
particular, the nature of adult education in Western Europe, Russia, 
the United States and Australia thus provide a number of useful 
lessons for South Africa, where general educational development is 
one of the major objectives of the newly established democratic order. 
18 
2.3.1.1 ADULT EDUCATION IN WESTERN EUROPE 
2.3.1.1.1 GREAT BRITAIN 
Adult education originated in Great Britain in order to 
develop individuals and engender their active 
involvement in the social and political life of the nation. 
University adult education departments have historically 
sought to establish a close relationship with local 
communities, as a practical manifestation of their sense 
of social responsibility. Courses, classes, seminars 
and workshops are organised for a wide range of 
individuals and groups. 
2.3.1.1.2 THE NETHERLANDS 
Adult education is an integral part of national, political, 
cultural and economic development in the Netherlands. 
Adult education in this country has attracted the 
attention of large numbers of learners interested in its 
positive potential (Marriot and Hake, 1992: 274). 
Marriot and Hake ( 1992: 20) argue that during the 
Protestant Reformation, adult education played a vital 
role in the development of printing, the translation of 
the Bible into the vernacular and also the achievement 
of high levels Qf literacy. Adult education further 
contributed to the development of new library forms, 
including devotional books, booksellers, parish and 
circulating libraries, bible reading groups and other 
reading circles. 
19 
Adult education also contributed to the establishment of 
various societies, associations and clubs. These 
played an important role in socio-economic progress, 
through the diffusion of knowledge, the rational 
improvement of commerce, manufacturing and 
agriculture, the production of literature, poetry and 
drama as well as the organisation of public lectures and 
scientific demonstrations. 
Shor ( 1986: 190) notes that adult education promotes 
basic literacy, for instance through the inculcation of 
such rudimentary skills as decoding a printed passage 
or encoding spoken words into the written language. 
He further argues that adult education contributes to 
functional literacy, which empowers learners to cope 
with the political, legal, commercial, occupational and 
social demands of daily life. Practical skills 
engendered by literacy include voting, preparing tax 
returns, applying for work, signing leases and contracts 
and following printed instructions. 
Literacy-based projects thus lead to personal 
independence. They also enhance the individual's 
ability to be self-motivated and self-directed. Literacy 
programmes encourage participants to conduct 
unsupervised research, utilise indexes and catalogues 
and retrieve information from numerous sources. 
Participants also learn to speak, write and make 
20 
references according to prescribed standards of usage 
and pronunciation. 
Adults thus learn to think and communicate critically as 
well as creatively. This allows them to evaluate 
dominant ideologies and lessens their dependence on 
bureaucracies and the so-called upper classes. Adult 
education awakens and fosters the development of 
national consciousness. It also provides opportunities 
for the meaningful use of leisure time. 
2.3.1.1.3 DENMARK 
Adult education has also played an important role in 
Denmark. Lovett ( 1988: 120) has identified five general 
areas where adult education has made an impact in 
Danish society: 
( 1) Community Organisation 
Adult education has promoted the effective coordination 
and delivery of a wide variety of educational resources 
aimed at meeting local needs and interests. Outreach 
programmes, by definition, require the participation of 
the communities in which they operate. However, 
whereas this type of adult education can be very 
successful in encouraging working class adults to 
participate in education, they can leave the position of 
the general community unresolved (De Clereq, 1984: 
15). 
21 
(2) Community Development 
In Denmark, efforts have been made to educate the 
providers of adult education in working class 
communities. The emphasis has been on cooperation, 
coordination and improved understanding at the local 
level. 
(3) Community Action 
Through the provision of adult education, working class 
communities have been invited to participate in a 
process of discussion and dialogue about their culture 
and way of life. Adult education has emphasised the 
need to reflect on local values, roles and world views, 
with the objective of relating these to wider social , 
economic and political structures (Raggatt, 1977: 6). 
r-Nwu · I 
(4) Social Action f LtRRARYl 
This relates to more structured and systematic 
education. Underlying the notion of social action is the 
belief that communities cannot sustain the learning 
process on their own. Social action involves the 
identification of educators with local communities and 
their members, to promote a sense of solidarity in 
commitment in action (Bell and Roderick, 1982: 4). 
2.3.1.1.4 IRELAND 
O'Sullivan (1993: 127) argues that the role of adult 
education in Ireland relates to industry, commerce, 
agriculture, religion and society. Adult education 
22 
programmes comprise the topping up of basic 
education, day-release courses, vocational training, 
courses in trade union organisation and industrial 
relations, political education, education for leisure as 
well as for Christian values. 
In Ireland, adult education was initially aimed at 
improving the situation of the poor in general, in light of 
their low status and incomes in the domestic economy. 
Subsequently, adult education programmes sought to 
improve the lives of individual poor people. 
Housewives, for instance, were encouraged to 
participate in adult education, which was seen as a 
means of ameliorating the hard routines associated with 
confinement to the home and budgetary constraints 
(Marriot and Hake, 1992: 36). 
Adult education in Ireland seeks to promote personal 
and, in turn, social improvement. Through adult 
education, individuals become more knowledgeable 
about the world they live in, happier and more fulfilled. 
They are thus able to contribute to a better society due 
to their improved efficiency and sensitivity in the acting 
out of their social roles (Marriott and Hake, 1992: 42). 
Another objective of adult education in Ireland has been 
to conscientise the poor and oppressed classes. In 
identifying and understanding the conditions that 
perpetuate exploitation, the poor are better able to 
23 
engage in collective action towards their liberation 
(O'Sullivan, 1993: 128). 
2.3.1.2 ADULT EDUCATION IN RUSSIA 
Adult education is an important aspect of education in 
contemporary Russia. Although there are no comprehensive 
statistics available, it is estimated that approximately one 
hundred (100) million people take part in adult education each 
year. 
The first adult education centres in Russia were established by 
churches in the mid-eighteenth century, along with the rise of 
Christianity. These centres operated until the 1917 
Revolution. The development of adult education was closely 
related to the desire to improve literacy and develop skills for 
employment. At the time of the Russian Revolution, about 
eighty percent (80%) of the adult population was illiterate. 
Efforts to improve literacy rates were extended during the 
decades following the revolution, and by 1939 the literacy level 
had been dramatically increased to eighty-eight percent (88% ). 
In the twentieth century, adult education in Russia took on a 
new dimension. It aimed more at improving the general level 
of education and upgrading knowledge and skills to meet the 
socio-economic changes that were taking place (Onushkin, 
1994: 50). 
Today, a wide variety of adult education centres and 
institutions seek to provide initial and continual vocational 
24 
education, upgrade social competencies, extend general 
education and deepen basic scientific knowledge. They also 
play an important role in health education and the physical 
development of the population. 
These adult education centres are usually non-residential , 
offering full- and part-time courses through correspondence 
and distance learning via television and radio. Students have 
contact sessions a few times per year and when they write 
examinations. 
Adult education in Russia comprises formal, non-formal and 
informal settings. Formal adult education requires certain 
qualification levels, and there are set admission requirements 
for enrolment. This type of adult education is largely 
vocationally oriented, and results in a definite diploma or 
certificate. Non-formal adult education offers broad general 
education. There are no admission requirements, and courses 
are open to anyone who is able and willing to learn. It is 
estimated that approximately forty (40) million adults are 
involved in non-formal education in Russia. Finally, informal 
adult education refers mainly to ongoing learning that is 
generally self-directed, and which has no specific duration or 
curriculum (Onushkin, 1994: 92). 
The relationship between education and economic needs is 
evident in the system of adult education in Russia, where 
economic development and growth are high priorities. 
Vocational and professional training are thus an important 
25 
aspect of adult education in the country as a whole. These 
types of training are provided by specialised institutions aimed 
at maintaining and upgrading the skills of the labour force. 
Training takes a variety of forms, including apprenticeships for 
individuals who are entering the labour force for the first time. 
Apprenticeship courses last from a few weeks to six months. 
In addition, evening vocational schools provide instruction for 
semi-skilled workers. These courses last from six months to 
a year, and students are examined on theoretical knowledge 
and practical skills. 
In-service courses are conducted by professional tutors and 
specialists on a regular basis for all workers. However, skilled, 
semi-skilled and unskilled workers are taught separately. 
These courses are specialised and of short duration. At the 
end of the course, participants write an examination. 
Finally, there are a number of evening and correspondence 
classes for professional education that are organised by 
colleges and universities. Courses run for one year, and 
students are required to write both an entrance examination 
and a final examination (Onushkin, 1994: 95). 
2.3.1.3 ADULT EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF 
AMERICA 
Adult education in America might be said to have begun when 
the early settlers learned from the Indians how to grow maize, 
conquer the elements and survive in the inhospitable New 
World. Adult education also played a vital role in promoting 
26 
and advancing the ideals of democracy during the colonial 
period of American history. This enormous task, which 
resulted in American independence in 1776, was 
accomplished through informal, unorganised and in many 
ways unconscious methods. These included town meetings, 
cracker-barrel discussions, correspondence, pamphlets, 
editorials, books, speeches, poems and plays, all of which 
explored the ideas and issues of democracy (Knowles, 1977: 
25). 
In contemporary America, adult education has sought to 
achieve the following objectives (Brookfield, 1988: 12): 
• To promote and enhance effective communication 
skills; 
• To develop individuals' abilities to adapt to change; 
• To improve human relations; 
• To nurture personal growth; 
• To provide remedial education in order to ensure that 
all citizens possess the minimum skills required for 
social life (e.g. literacy and child care skills); 
• To provide occupational training; 
• To provide relational education, where the study of 
emotions, attitudes and psychological habits promotes 
self-understanding and interpersonal skills; and 
• To provide political education, including the study of 
politics as a subject discipline and training for political 
action. 
27 
2.3.1.4 ADULT EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA 
Evans and Nation (1996: 46) argue that adult education in 
Australia has aimed to establish a new educational order 
which, coupled with efforts to promote socio-economic 
development, seeks to maintain national traditions relative to 
global trends in education. 
However, the present system of adult education in Australia is 
not entirely suitable to the needs of the country and its 
citizens. This is because it is based on a Russian model 
which does not account for the particular needs, interests and 
talents of Australian adults. In addition, the existing system 
needs to adapt to the general educational, social, political and 
economic reforms that have been initiated in contemporary 
Austral ia. 
Adult education in Australia should thus be restructured in 
order to meet the requirements of its population. To its credit, 
Australia has developed a flexible and continuous programme 
in the field of agriculture. Suitable formal and non-formal 
programmes are in place, to improve the conditions of nomadic 
cattle herders and seasonal farm workers. These seek to care 
for special groups of labourers and provide for the ongoing 
improvement of their skills (Cooms, 1985: 173). 
Usher and Edwards ( 1994: 48) argue that adult education in 
Australia provides greater opportunities and access to 
resources for minorities and underprivileged sectors of the 
population. Adult education is generally equated with training, 
28 
which is seen as functional to the needs of the socio-economic 
order. This approach is justified by theorisations (knowledge) 
of socio-economic change that foreground the impact of new 
technologies, the changing conditions of employment and the 
need for competitiveness. 
Adult education in Australia has thus been constructed as a 
supplement to more general education. This understanding, 
however, limits not only the types of programmes that are 
implemented, but also the potential benefits deriving from 
them. It is both possible and beneficial to envisage adult 
education as a substitute for conventional schooling as 'Nell as 
an arena where the knowledge inculcIalteld  by schools is unlearn! (Edwards, 1994: 131 ). /1,,""'4,¼ 'Y / 
On the one hand, adult education in Australia involves social 
control , maintenance and reproduction of the social order, and 
the transmission and inculcation of the cultural and social 
norms of authority. On the other hand, it seeks to realise 
human agency and autonomy through developing the 
individual's capacity to reason and make decisions. These two 
sets of goals can be seen as somewhat contradictory, because 
they set personal choice in opposition to the national interest. 
However, in Australia as in any democracy, adult education 
has been allotted the task of sustaining social relations by 
creating psychologically adjusted, productive, rational , 
enterprising and patriotic citizens (Donald, 1992: 170). 
2 9 
2.3.2 ADULT EDUCATION IN THE NON-AFRICAN DEVELOPING 
WORLD 
2.3.2.1 ADULT EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 
Goad (1984: 58) notes that adult education in the Philippines 
seeks to achieve the following goals: 
• To provide a broad, general education that will assist 
individuals to realise their human potential, enhance 
the range and quality of individual and group 
participation in the basic functions of society, and 
provide the foundations for a productive and versatile 
citizenry; 
• To train the country's labour force in the basic and 
middle skills required for national development; 
• To develop the high level professions, knowledge and 
research skills necessary for national leadership and 
socio-economic growth; and 
• To respond effectively to the changing needs and 
conditions of the nation through a system of 
educational planning and evaluation (Tidmarsh, 1993: 
124). 
2.3.2.2 ADULT EDUCATION IN CUBA 
As a small island country, Cuba exhibits a higher degree of 
cultural homogeneity and per capita income than other Latin 
American nations. Following the 1959 socialist revolution, the 
Cuban government set a number of objectives concerning 
adult education. These were as follows (Gillette, 1972: 3): 
30 
• To expand and utilise fully the country's productive 
capacities; 
• To transform the Cuban economy; 
• To eliminate economic, political and cultural 
dependency upon the United States; 
• To replace the rigid class structure of pre-revolution 
Cuba with a classless and egalitarian society; 
• To end the city's economic, cultural and political 
domination over the countryside; and 
• To transform work into a challenging and creative 
activity for the new socialist man and woman. 
By 1961 , Cuba had achieved a massive expansion of 
educational provision for children and adults. A national 
literacy campaign produced drastic reductions in illiteracy 
rates, from twenty-five percent (25%) to merely four percent 
(4%) in the space of only one year. 
The Cuban concept of adult education integrates work and 
study, or practice and knowledge/theory. To achieve this, 
Cuba has established the following (Paulston, 1973: 18): 
• Democratic access to education through mass learning; 
• An educational system geared towards the imperatives 
of economic development; and 
• A national ethos geared towards the creation of a new 
socialist man/woman, as contrasted to the extreme 
individuality and collective alienation of capitalism. 
31 
2.3.3 ADULT EDUCATION IN AFRICA 
Following decolonisation, many of the African states decided to 
devote considerable attention and resources to the provision of adult 
education. The following discussion will firstly examine adult 
education in East Africa, particularly Tanzania, followed by 
consideration of the experiences of certain Southern African states, 
especially Botswana. The role of adult education in South Africa is 
subsequently discussed in section 2.3.4. 
2.3.3.1 Kenya and Tanzania 
Following independence from Great Britain in 1963, the 
Kenyan government established literacy centres as well as a 
Literature Bureau. In addition, an Institute of Adult Studies 
and a Department of Extra-Mural Studies are attached to the 
University of Nairobi. 
In Tanzania, the government helped to finance the Kivukoni 
College in Dar-es-Salaam. This institution provides courses 
for adults in sociology, economics, history, community 
development, domestic science and other subjects. It also 
holds seminars for agricultural officers and managers of 
farming co-operatives. In Tanzania, one also finds the 
Nyegezi Social Training Centre near Mwanza, the Community 
Development Training Center at Teneru as well as a Local 
Government Training Centre at Mzumbe. 
Such efforts to promote adult education in Tanzania were 
motivated by the belief that learning occurs throughout the 
lifetime of the individual. Adult education, then, was seen as 
32 
the conscious and purposeful learning that constitutes and 
enriches each and every human life. It is thus natural and 
desirable when people beyond the conventional age of 
schooling engage in willful learning, as when a housewife 
borrows a book on plumbing from the local library and learns 
how to repair a toilet. Therefore, deliberate attempts should 
be made to educate not only children but also adults. As in 
Tanzania and elsewhere, this is the first general principle of 
adult education (Cropley, 1980: 5). 
Another objective of adult education in Tanzania concerns 
community development. In the words of Tanzania's first 
president, Dr. Julius Nyerere (cited in Kinunda, 1975: 2): 
People cannot be developed, they 
can only develop themselves. 
Man develops himself by what he 
does, by making his own 
decisions, by increasing his 
knowledge and ability, and by his 
full participation as an equal in the 
life of the community he lives in. 
According to Coles ( 1977), community development involves 
the systematic attempt to effect overall change based upon 
education through action, in the belief that the development of 
the local community rests largely upon the concerted efforts of 
its members. 
33 
In addition, Coles (1977: 169) argues that community 
involvement and action can be viewed as a movement to 
secure the active cooperation of local people in programmes 
designed to raise their standard of living and promote 
development in all its forms. 
Another stated objective of adult education in post-colonial 
Tanzania was rural development. As Jones (1975, 20) 
observes, developing countries are predominantly rural, with 
about seventy to eighty percent (70%-80%) of their 
populations living in rural areas, compared to roughly thirty-
three percent (33%) in the more developed countries. Rural 
development is therefore a pre-requisite for the overall 
development of any African country. In Tanzania, 
approximately ninety-six percent (96%) of the adult population 
is engaged in agricultural production. Similarly, eighty-five 
percent (85%) of the Ghanian population is involved in 
commercial agricultural production. 
In countries like Tanzania, then, agriculture must be a major 
priority of adult education programmes. According to Dodds 
(1972: 8), the low productivity of agricultural practices and the 
absence of relevant resources and technologies contribute to 
poverty amongst agricultural workers. Primitive tools, little or 
no fertilisers as well as lack of exposure to current techniques 
engender inefficient production and low income. Furthermore, 
given the importance of agricultural production to developing 
economies, stagnation in this sector of the economy limits 
socio-economic growth in general (Dodds, 1972: 8). 
34 
Agriculture is thus not only the single largest employer in the 
predomin.a ntly rural , developing countries, but also the basis 
of all growth. It provides food for the population, labour and 
raw materials for industry as well as the foreign exchange so 
urgently required by developing economies. By raising the 
productivity of its agricultural workers, a developing country 
widens its position in international markets and opens up new 
outlets for its nascent industries which can provide the tools, 
machinery and fertilisers used in agricultural production. 
Agriculture also creates markets for consumer goods, thereby 
improving the general living conditions of the population as a 
whole. 
Community development in Tanzania has thus focused 
primarily on rural development schemes designed to alleviate 
poverty. In this case as throughout Africa, adult education 
plays a major role in the development of rural communities 
and, in turn, the economy as a whole. 
Adult education, particularly in agriculture and its related 
fields, can thus increase national productivity (Kinunda, 1975: 
10). In addition, it can be argued that the success of primary 
education is to some extent dependent upon adult education. 
Children living in a community with low levels of education are 
arguably more likely to drop out of school. Similarly, parents 
who are themselves involved in educational activities will see 
the value of educating their chi ldren. Therefore, money 
invested in primary education without adult education runs the 
35 
risk of being wasted or, at the very least, underutilised (Muller, 
1975: 95). 
A final objective of adult education in Tanzania has been the 
provision of leadership training. Leadership skills and roles 
are promoted through a wide range of human activity. Adult 
education should thus be closely associated with formal and 
informal leadership training which is badly needed in 
developing societies. 
2.3.3.2 ADULT EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 
Many countries in Southern Africa have sought to promote 
adult education over the past three decades. In Zambia, for 
instance, one fifth of the funds allocated in the first post-
colonial development plan were directed towards adult 
education. In Zimbabwe, adult education programmes were 
established as a response to economic, political and social 
changes deriving from independence in 1980. Adult education 
in Zimbabwe aims to enhance problem solving at all levels, 
ranging from villages to government agencies and ministries. 
Today, this involves training for adults in a variety of settings, 
formal as well as non-formal, vocational and non-vocational 
(Russel , 1981 : 21 ). 
2.3.3.2.1 ADULT EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA 
In Botswana, adult education programmes have been 
developed in agriculture, commerce and industry, 
health, education, resource management and local 
governance. According to Coles (1982: 84), adult 
36 
education in Botswana has sought primarily to meet the 
needs of the agricultural sector. The specific aims of 
adult education in agriculture have been: 
• To help those involved in agriculture to enjoy 
adequate and secure livelihoods; 
• To create more such livelihoods to meet the 
demands of a growing labour force within 
Botswana; 
• To reduce Botswana's dependence upon 
imports, particularly food; 
• To raise national income by increasing the value 
of agricultural production; 
• To maintain agricultural land for future 
generations; 
• To ensure sustained production through careful 
land use planning and the promotion of sound 
management techniques; 
• To maintain the health of cattle and other 
livestock through stringent disease control 
measures; 
• To increase production through improved 
marketing and management; and 
• To contribute towards social justice by assisting 
small stock owners, and by accounting for the 
interests of rural dwellers without livestock. 
37 
In commerce and industry, adult education in 
Botswana has sought to achieve the following 
objectives (Cropley, 1980: 62): 
• To increase the number of worthwhile 
employment opportunities for Batswana, 
particularly in rural areas; 
• To increase Botswana's economic independence 
by promoting domestic production, and by 
diversifying sources of capital and skills; 
• To diversify the economy as the basis of 
balanced, long-term economic growth; 
• To protect the interests of consumers and 
workers; 
• To help the Botswana Enterprises Development 
Unit in promoting the capacity of local road 
construction contractors; and 
• To improve wildlife education by ensuring that 
national reserves are used fully for educational 
purposes (Coles, 1982: 91 ). 
Concerning the field of education, adult educational 
programmes in Botswana have attempted the following 
(Coles, 1982: 97): 
• To increase educational opportunities, and to 
reduce inequalities of educational opportunities 
so far as resources permit; 
38 
• To contribute to the balanced economic 
development of Botswana by seeking to satisfy 
manpower requirements for all sectors, 
especially rural sectors; 
• To promote personal equalities such as respect 
for national ideals, self-reliance and concern for 
other people, and to encourage the full 
development of individual talents; and 
• To help the "Ditiro tsa Ditlhabololo" scheme to 
promote women's education, and to support and 
provide leadership training for women. 
As Cropley (1980: 68) notes, people are seen to be 
Botswana's most important national resource. Healthy 
people, in turn, are the most productive. The major 
health problems in Botswana are caused by poverty 
and the climate. In addition, lack of knowledge about 
nutrition, personal hygiene and sanitation contribute to 
poor health and disease. To overcome these problems, 
the Ministry of Health relies to a large extent on adult 
education programmes designed to promote a healthy 
population as well as a clean and safe environment. 
Adult education in Botswana has also aimed to promote 
local governance and effective resource management. 
Townsend ( 1980: 101) argues that these programmes 
have been involved primarily in the upgrading of local 
services and the cultivation of local leadership skills. In 
addition, adult education has sought to overcome urban 
39 
bias and integrate relations between rural and urban 
settlements through a balanced national investment 
strategy. 
Additional concerns of adult education in Botswana 
include the promotion of Setswana literature and 
language as well as local crafts and traditions. 
Programmes conducted under the auspices of the 
National Cultural Council and the National Museum and 
Art Gallery aim to stimulate cultural and historical 
awareness (Coles, 1982: 105). Such programmes 
further contribute to tourism which is an important 
source of socio-economic growth. , l,t~U FIY_/ 
2.3.4 ADULT EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 
The successes of adult education in the cases discussed above 
underscore the need for creative attention to the question of adult 
education in South Africa. The massive literacy campaigns of Russia 
and Cuba, for instance, indicate that it is indeed possible to eradicate 
illiteracy in our lifetime, provided that the necessary resources and 
vision are in place. However, the case of adult education in Australia 
suggests that foreign models cannot simply be applied to South 
Africa. In Australia as in South Africa, adult educational programmes 
need to be retooled to meet the changing needs of a highly diverse 
population. Finally, the apparent emphasis on agricultural training 
and development in post-colonial Africa should not be overlooked in 
South Africa, especially in the rural areas where agricultural 
production and small-scale industries represent important motors of 
socio-economic growth. 
40 
In the following discussion of adult education in South Africa, it will be 
necessary to distinguish between apartheid and post-apartheid 
society, and to account for the legacies of oppression and inequality. 
2.3.4.1 ADULT EDUCATION IN PRE-DEMOCRATIC SOUTH 
AFRICA 
Following the Nationalist Party's victory in 1948, numerous 
and exacting regulations concerning "Bantu" education were 
promulgated. Subsidies for African adult education were 
progressively reduced until 1964, when they were no longer 
paid. As a result, adult literacy organisations and the many, 
predominantly white individuals who had given their time and 
resources to the furtherance of education amongst adult 
blacks were forced to cease their activities (Horrell , 1968: 12). 
Subsequently, adult literacy and training courses could only be 
conducted in urban African townships, mining or other 
industrial compounds and the rural African reserves. 
Accordingly, many sectors of the black population (e.g. urban 
domestic workers) were unable to attend these classes. 
In 1949, the council of the Institute of Race Relations argued 
that adult education was an important means of correcting 
deficiencies in the youth, closing the dangerous sociological 
gap between the generations as well as creating a fuller and 
more useful life for the individual. 
Similarly, the 1955 Tomlinson Commission stressed that 
education in the widest sense was to be the driving force 
41 
behind its national development plan. The Commission 
recommended the establishment of a Bureau for Literacy and 
for effective film, radio and other informational services 
(Horrell , 1963: 15). 
The apartheid state thus recognised the functional role of adult 
education. However, adult education, like conventional 
schooling, was fitted into a framework of racial inequality, 
whereby the types of education provided for black South 
Africans ensured their inferior status in society and the 
economy. Black adults were educated up to a point, 
facilitating their integration into the labour force rather than 
their personal and collective fulfillment. 
2.3.4.2 ADULT EDUCATION DURING THE 1990'5 
In 1992, South Africa began a difficult period of transition to 
democracy. Adult education played an important role in this 
process, for instance through raising political awareness in 
rural communities. According to Swanepoel ( 1992: 7), adult 
education has assisted local groups and communities to cope 
with political change in the following ways: 
• By rendering community organisations more 
appropriate, effective and efficient; 
• By creating and improving linkages between institutions 
and individuals; 
• By promoting and enabling leadership; 
• By inculcating the skills required to organise, negotiate, 
plan and take action; and 
42 
• By improving the overall quality of life, including health 
care, education, child care and housing. 
Community development works towards concrete objectives. 
According to Tattum (1992: 10) adult education creates an 
awareness of local issues and the various ways in which these 
can be addressed. One of the most important benefits 
deriving from adult education is that people become more 
conscious of themselves and their environment. They also 
become aware of their needs and resources. Such awareness 
is one of the greatest strengths a community can enjoy, 
because it engenders a sense of responsibility through the 
promotion of the community as an active, doing entity. 
In the run-up to the 1994 democratic elections, adult 
educational programmes promoted voter education as well as 
a sense of collective hope and responsibility. Such 
programmes further educated adults in local governance and 
provided training for community leaders. 
2.3.4.3 ADULT EDUCATION IN POST-DEMOCRATIC SOUTH 
AFRICA 
According to the Policy Framework of the Reconstruction and 
Development Program (RDP, 1994: 58), the fragmented, 
unequal and undemocratic nature of the education and training 
system practised by the old apartheid regime has had a 
profound impact on the economy and society. This document 
further suggests that apartheid education has resulted in the 
destruction, distortion and neglect of the country's human 
43 
potential, with devastating consequences for the future socio-
economic development of the nation. 
People's resistance to apartheid education led to the 
destructure of the culture of learning within South Africa's 
schools. This resulted in high rates of illiterate, semi-literature 
and unskilled pupils, most of whom dropped out of school. To 
redress the legacies of apartheid, skills development and 
literacy programmes are needed. The benefits derived from 
such programmes will assist not only individuals, but the 
country as a whole. 
The RDP further argues that: I Nwu LIBffAli'rI  
The South African economy is 
characterised by excessive 
concentration of economic power 
in the hands of a tiny minority of 
the population (RDP paper, 1994: 
76). 
Adult education can help to redress these imbalances and 
inequalities, thereby reducing racial , social and economic 
tensions within South Africa. Education morally and materially 
empowers individuals and communities, who are thus better 
able to make decisions and take action. Vocational and 
managerial training, for instance, will help communities to 
establish self-help activities and other methods of income 
generation. 
44 
Advocates of continuing education or adult education, 
including Woodhall (1988: 76), argue in favour of a drastic 
shift of resources, from traditional forms and patterns of 
education towards a system of lifelong education that will 
provide opportunities for adults to participate in formal and 
non-formal education and/or training at any time in their lives. 
A more flexible pattern of education and training opportunities 
will result in a more skilled and adaptable work force, who will 
be better able to respond to changes in the domestic and 
international economies. 
2.4 CONCLUSION 
The importance of adult education as a form investment for society has been 
emphasised across cultures, and the concept of human capital has been 
underlined in most economic rationales for investment in education. As early 
as the 18th century, the Scotsman Adam Smith ((1776] 1937) stressed the 
importance of entrepreneurial skills for economic development. These and 
other skills can be promoted through the provision of adult education and 
training. 
More recent studies have stressed the importance of improvements in 
education in relation to manpower planning. This notion has increasingly 
found favour with western governments, including Norway and the United 
Kingdom. Current pol icies on adult education have been heavily influenced 
by this thinking, which has resulted in a related emphasis on vocational 
education and training. Direct results are now anticipated in the labour 
market. Enterprise education has also been emphasised, along with the 
argument that schools should teach practical and vocational skills in order 
45 
to encourage young people to seek particular types of formal employment, 
and also to foster self-employment as a viable option for job-seekers. 
In developing countries, where vast numbers of people have not participated 
in or finished conventional schooling, adult education is seen as an 
extension of, rather than a mere complement to, the learning process. In 
many newly independent countries, for instance Cuba and Tanzania, adult 
education has played an important role not only in economic development, 
but also in nation-building. The benefits derived from adult education in 
these and other countries thus provide a number of important lessons for 
educational planners and practitioners in South Africa. 
As Withnall (1994: 54) has argued, older or mature people are an integral 
part of any society. Such people need to be accommodated in education. 
Adult education allows individuals to develop their talents, cope with 
changing social roles and responsibilities and play an active role in 
community and national life. 
Older people should therefore be able to participate in education on an 
equal basis with their juniors. Throughout the world, adult educational 
programmes place value on the experiences that mature individuals bring to 
learning. In this manner, adults become agents for change, rather than its 
victims, thereby improving their own situations and society as a whole. 
The role of adult education in South Africa will be explored empirically 
through a case study of interventions in the Bakenberg area. The next 
chapter focuses on the design and methods of this study. 
CHAPTER THREE 
3. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter addresses the specific methods used in this research , the 
rationale underlying their use as well as the steps taken to ensure the 
validity of the data obtained. 
3.2 RESEARCH TOOLS 
3.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRE 
According to Cohen and Manion (1985: 292), a questionnaire is a 
data collecting method whereby the respondent is required to record 
in some way his/her replies to a set of questions. A questionnaire 
was utilised in this study to collect general and biographic data about 
each respondent, and about the role of adult education in the 
community where he/she resides. 
3.2.1.1 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION 
The questionnaire is a measuring instrument used to collect 
data, with considerable positive influence on the reliability of 
the data collected (Legotlo, 1994). It is important that great 
care be taken when designing a questionnaire, because 
improperly laid out questions and formats can lead to 
confusion on the part of the respondent, who may then be 
unable to complete the questionnaire. At the extreme, a poorly 
designed questionnaire may lead to its having to be thrown 
away (Babbie, 1983: 145). 
Legotlo ( 1994) argues that a well designed questionnaire 
boosts the reliability and validity of the data to acceptable 
47 
levels of tolerance. The key word in questionnaire 
construction is "relevance." As Bailey ( 1978) notes, this term 
applies to: 
• The relevance of the study's goals; 
• The relevance of questions to the goals of the study; 
and 
• The relevance of the questions to the individual 
respondent. 
Prior to constructing the questionnaire, the researcher should 
ensure that the operational definitions correlate with the 
theoretical concepts, and that the sample matches the 
population from which it was drawn. It is the task of the 
researcher to make sure that the questions measure 
theoretical concepts adequately, and that the sample of 
respondents answers the questions sufficiently. 
Borg and Gall ( 1989: 430-431 ) cite a number of useful tips for 
the researcher who is constructing a questionnaire: 
• Clarity is essential , ambiguity must be avoided; 
• Short items are preferred to long ones; 
• Negative items should be avoided as they are often 
misread by respondents; 
• Double-barreled items which require the subjects to 
respond to two separate ideas with a single answer 
should be avoided; and 
48 
• Simple language which can easily be understood by 
respondents is preferred. 
3.2.1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 
In the present study, a questionnaire was used to gather 
information about the experiences of teachers, principals and 
community nurses who are working with adults in the 
Bakenberg area. 
3.2.1.3 FORMAT AND CONTENT OF THE 
QUESTIONNAIRES 
Three separate questionnaires were developed, for principals, 
teachers and community nurses, respectively. Examples of 
the questionnaires used in the research are attached in the 
appendices. 
3.2.1.4 PRE-TESTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 
Pre-testing is the final stage of questionnaire construction and 
one of the most important. The preliminary questionnaire is 
merely a rough draft which is administered to a few 
respondents so that its flaws can be identified and corrected 
(Bailey, 1982: 149-150; Legotlo, 1994). 
To determine any ambiguities and/or structural problems, the 
questionnaire was pre-tested using a sample of five (n=S) 
teachers, two (n=2) nurses and three (n=3) principals. The ten 
(n=10) people were asked to complete the questions and 
indicate which, if any, were unclear to them. These ten 
individuals were further asked to comment more generally on 
49 
the format of the questionnaire, and to provide any 
suggestions that might improve the instrument (Borg and Gall , 
1989: 435). 
The pre-test results were examined, and a number of 
suggestions were applied to the construction of the final 
questionnaires. Not all of the suggestions were taken into 
consideration, as some were irrelevant to the study. The 
population of the pre-test was not included in the final study. 
3.2.1.5 ADVANTAGES OF MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES 
The mail questionnaire has both advantages and 
disadvantages. The reasons for employing the questionnaire 
can be summarised as follows (Bailey, 1982: 156-57; Legotlo, 
1994): 
• Savings of time and money 
Questionnaires can be sent to all respondents 
simultaneously, and most of the replies will be returned 
within a week or so. Questionnaires administered by 
mail do not require large expenditures for travel. 
In addition, the questionnaire may be completed at the 
respondent's convenience. The respondent may spend 
more total time on the questionnaire than he/she would 
in an interview. The respondent is not forced to 
complete all the questions at or,ce and can, for 
instance, leave the difficult ones for last. 
50 
• Greater assurance of anonymity 
Since their is no interviewer present, the respondent 
may be more willing to participate, especially where the 
questionnaire requires socially undesirable answers or 
answers that violate norms. 
• Standardised wording 
Comparison of respondents' answers is facilitated by 
the fact that each respondent is exposed to exactly the 
same wording. 
• No interviewer bias 
There is no opportunity for the respondent to be biased 
in any way by an interviewer. An interviewer can bias 
answers in a variety of ways, for instance through voice 
inflection or by telling the respondent his/her personal 
opinion. 
• Security of information 
The mailed questionnaire allows the respondent to 
consult his/her records, confer with colleages and/or 
conduct research before answering. This is generally 
not permitted during interviews. 
• Accessibility 
Respondents who are 'Nidely separated geographically 
can all be reached for the price of a postage stamp, as 
compared to the travel and other costs incurred by 
interviews. 
51 
3.2.1.6 DISADVANTAGES OF MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES 
Despite the above noted advantages, mailed questionnaires 
do have certain disadvantages (Bailey, 1978; Legotlo, 1994; 
Borg and Gall, 1989). These include: 
• Lack of flexibility 
With no interviewer present, there can be no variation 
of the questions asked, and no probing for a more 
specific answer if they respondent's reply is too vague 
or general to be useful. 
• Low response rate 
Low rates of response can derive from respondents 
being unable to read or write, and other factors. Some 
respondents may feel that they can better express 
themselves through speaking. Others may not have the 
time or the desire to write responses. 
• Verbal behaviour only 
The absence of an interviewer means that non-verbal 
behaviour cannot be observed. Face-to-face contact 
allows the interviewer to make a personal assessment 
of the respondent's ethnicity, age, social class and 
other pertinent characteristics. 
• No control over environment 
With mailed questionnaires, there is no assurance that 
the respondent will be able to answer the questions 
privately. 
52 
• No control over question order 
The question order, which has been carefully devised 
by the researcher to eliminate response bias, may be 
ruined by a respondent who reads the entire 
questionnaire before answering, skips some questions 
or does not answer the questions in the order in which 
they are presented. 
• Many questions remained unanswered 
With no interviewer or facilitator present to supervise 
the completion of the mailed questionnaire, the 
respondent may leave certain questions unanswered. 
• No record of spontaneous answers 
It is difficult to gather spontaneous first opinions, as the 
respondent has the opportunity to erase answers that 
he/she later decides are undiplomatic or socially 
unacceptable. 
• Difficult to separate bad addresses from non-
responses 
Whereas some of the questionnaires that fail to reach 
the respondents are returned to the researcher, many 
fall into the hands of new tenants or neighbours who 
are likely to throw them away. Others might be 
forwarded to a second bad address rather than being 
returned to the sender. This makes it difficult to 
determine the percentage of respondents who choose 
not to participate in the study. 
53 
Despite these disadvantages, the mailed questionnaire is 
commonly used in the collection of data. According to Legotlo 
(1994, 163), if great care is taken in the construction and 
administration of the questionnaire, the likelihood of obtaining 
favourable responses will be increased. For the purposes of 
the present study, the advantages of the questionnaire far 
outweighed any possible disadvantages associated with this 
method of conducting research. 
3.2.2 DEFINITION OF AN INTERVIEW 
An interview is one of the most vital instruments of research , used to 
secure information and impressions about the subject under 
investigation. Interviews provide certain data that other instruments 
of research might not. Furthermore, the interview context allows the 
researcher to secure sufficient and appropriate information from the 
respondent or interviewee (Legotlo, 1994: 16). 
3.2.2.1 THE PERSONAL INTERVIEW: A SUPPLEMENT TO 
THE ADMINISTERING OF QUESTIONNAIRES 
The personal interview is regarded as a face-to-face 
interpersonal role situation, in which the interviewer asks the 
respondent questions designed to obtain information relevant 
to the study. The questions, their wording as well as their 
sequence define the extent to which the interview is structured. 
3.2.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS 
The advantages of the interview as a means of gathering 
information include the following (Ramjan, 1994: 12): 
54 
• The respondent talks while the interviewer listens and 
observes; 
• Interviews tend to be less time-consuming for the 
respondent, in contrast to the questionnaire; 
• Interviews provide quantifiable data; 
• The interview can be used to supplement other 
methods of data collection like questionnaires; 
• The interview context provides an opportunity to deal in 
depth with a wide range of issues; 
• The interview allows for the broadest possible spectrum 
of expression on the part of the interviewee; and 
• An interview can bring to the fore a respondent's frame 
of reference, prejudices and/or stereotypes (Guy, et al. , 
1987: 246; Ramjan, 1994: 12). 
3.2.2.3 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING 
The following principles should be observed by any researcher 
when conducting personal interviews (Nachmias and 
Nachmias, 1981 : 196): 
• Respondents need to feel that their interaction with the 
interviewer is pleasant and satisfying; 
• Respondents need to understand the objectives of the 
research, and to view these as being worthwhile; and 
• Potential barriers to communication need to be 
overcome. 
3.2.2.4 DISADVANTAGES OF PERSONAL INTERVIEWS 
The interview is relatively costly and time-consuming for the 
researcher. Extensive interviewing engenders travel 
55 
expenses, training, supervision of personnel, interviewer 
wages and possibly lodging and meals. Interviews also 
require advance work for the researchers who must often call 
several times before they find the respondent at home. The 
nature of the research must then be explained, and a mutually 
acceptable time and place for the interview be negotiated. 
Only after these preliminary issues have been dealt with can 
the interview finally take place. 
Many respondents may be afraid of talking to strangers or 
concerned to protect their privacy. Staff supervision presents 
additional difficulties for the primary researcher who is 
concerned to ensure consistency and the reliability of the data 
collected. Some interviewers may become dishonest and 
either fabricate data or interview people outside the required 
population and sample (Singleton, et al. , 1993: 262; Guy, et 
al., 1987: 245). 
Interviews are also prone to interruptions, especially when 
conducted in busy working areas or homes. Interruptions may 
disturb the flow of information, thus affecting the outcomes of 
the research. In addition, persuasiveness and persistence on 
the part of the interviewer may be misunderstood by the 
respondent (Guy, 1987: 245). It is thus essential that the 
researcher develop a good rapport with his/her interviewees. 
Interpersonal skills influence, positively as well as negatively, 
the behaviour and respQnses of the interviewee. The 
respondent may become hostile and uncooperative if he/she 
perceives the researcher in an unkind light, thereby making it 
impossible to generate the in-depth data required (Guy, 1990: 
203). 
56 
In addition to his/her interpersonal skills, the appearance of 
the interviewer will affect the outcomes of the research. A 
sloppy looking interviewer may be dismissed or rejected, 
whereas a neatly attired researcher stands a better chance of 
securing an interview (Baker, 1988: 178). 
If, however, the researcher is aware of the factors that may 
negatively affect an interview, these can be used to his/her 
advantage. Suggestively, good interviewing techniques are 
developed largely through experience. Thus, whereas certain 
interviewing skills may be beyond the reach of beginning 
researchers, a senstive and self-aware novice should be able 
to improve his/her proficiency from one interview to the next. 
3.3 DATA COLLECTION 
In this study, data was collected personally by the researcher who conducted 
the necessary interviews and administered the questionnaires. These were 
delivered to sixteen (n=16) schools and one Health Centre in the Bakenberg 
region of the Northern Province. At the schools, questionnaires were given 
to the principals who distributed these to teachers previously selected at 
random from the roll of teachers. Respondents returned their completed 
questionnaires to their respective principals who held them in a secure place 
until these were collected by the researcher according to a pre-arranged 
schedule. 
At the Bakenberg Health Centre, questionnaires were given personally to the 
matron who helped to administer these to all ten (n=10) members of her 
staff. Respondents returned their completed questionnaires to the matron 
who kept them in a safe place until collection by the researcher. 
57 
3.4 FOLLOW-UPS 
According to Babbie (1983: 241) and Legotlo (1994), follow-ups can be 
conducted in a number of ways. Non-respondents can simply be sent a 
letter of additional encouragement to participate. A better method, however, 
is to send a second questionnaire along with a follow-up letter. If a potential 
respondent has not returned his/her questionnaire after two or three weeks, 
it is likely that the questionnaire has been lost or misplaced. 
In terms of the present study, eighty percent (80%) of the questionnaires 
were returned within one week. Follow-ups were made telephonically with 
the principals and the matron. A week later, additional questionnaires were 
sent to non-respondents in an attempt to increase the rate of response ( cf. 
Borg and Gall, 1989: 440) 
3.5 PERMISSION LETTER 
A letter of introduction was obtained from the research supervisor, Mr. L. M. 
E. M. SEHLARE of the University of North West. This letter was directed to 
the Area Manager of Bakenberg region, to request permission for the 
researcher to conduct his study in that area of the Northern Province. 
3.6 POPULATION AND SAMPLING 
The survey population was drawn from one educational district of 
Bakenberg. A sample of sixteen (n=16) principals, fifty (n=50) teachers and 
ten (n=10) community nurses was selected, to gather information on the role 
of adult education in rural areas. In addition, one (n=1) chief and five (n=5) 
indunas around the village of Bakenberg were interviewed. A total of eighty-
two (n=82) people thus took part in thus research. 
3. 7 RESPONSE RA TE 
The response rate of the selected respondents was one hundred percent 
58 
(100%). This excellent rate of response suggests that the questionnaires 
were well designed, and that the method of administering the instruments 
and collecting completed questionnaires was effective. This included the 
use of principals and the matron of Bakenberg Health Centre as contact 
persons who helped to encourage subjects to complete the questionnaires. 
The researcher communicated telephonically with the principals and the 
matron on a weekly basis, which allowed for the sending of follow-up letters 
where necessary. 
3.8 QUALITATIVE DATA 
The chief and the indunas were interviewed to obtain information about the 
necessity of adult education in their area, as well as the role of adult 
educational programmes in the daily lives of their community members. 
I Nwu I 
3.9 SUMMARY L IBRARY 
Questionnaires and interviews were employed as the main instruments of 
the research because of their various advantages. The extremely high rate 
of response attests to carefully constructed questionnaires, the important 
role of contact persons within the target population as well as diligent follow-
up by the researcher. The next chapter tabulates the data provided by the 
respondents, and interprets their responses in relation to the question of the 
role played by adult education in the Bakenberg area. 
CHAPTER FOUR 
4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter reports on the results of the quantitative and qualitative data 
gathered through the questionnaires described in chapter three. The data 
reveals respondents' views about the role of adult education in rural areas, 
especially the Bakenberg region of the Northern Province. 
4.2 REVIEW OF SUBJECTS 
4.2.1 RESPONSES OF PRINCIPALS 
Sixteen (n=16) principals of primary and secondary schools 
participated in this study. A sample of the questionnaire directed at 
school principals is attached in Appendix A. 
1. Concerning the question of whether there is an adult education 
centre in their area, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 1: PRESENCE OF AN ADULT EDUCATION CENTRE 
A=YES 0 0% 
B=NO 16 100% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
The response indicates that there are no adult education 
centres in Bakenberg area. This suggests that adults are 
60 
being deprived of their rights to education and a better quality 
of life. The establishment of a adult education centre in 
Bakenberg area should thus be a major priority. 
2. To the question of whether the respondent thinks it is 
necessary to have adult education in his/her area, the response 
was as follows: 
TABLE 2: NECESSITY OF ADULT EDUCATION 
A=YES 15 94% 
B=NO 1 6% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages . 
Most of the principals supported the establishment of adult 
education. This suggests that there may be problems 
associated with high rates of illiteracy and skills shortages in 
their communities. Discipline in schools will suffer if parents are 
unable or unwilling to work with principals and teachers. 
Increased literacy can encourage parents to participate more 
actively in their children's schooling. The principals surveyed 
indicated that adult education should be introduced as soon as 
possible. 
3. Regarding the question of whether the community would 
appreciate the establishment of adult education, the response 
was as follows: 
61 
TABLE 3:COMMUNITY ADDITUDES TOWARDS ADULT EDUCATION 
A=YES 16 100% 
B=NO 0 0% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
The principals believe that the communities in which they live 
will appreciate the introduction of adult education. The 
overwhelming majority of the Baken berg population is partially 
illiterate. Many people lack basic skills as well as the training 
necessary to obtain satisfactory employment. Adult education 
in this area would thus help to alleviate poverty and improve 
living standards. 
4. To the question of whether the community will benefit 
educationally from the establishment of an adult education 
centre, the responses were as follows: 
TABLE 4: BENEFITS OF ADULT EDUCATION 
TO LOCAL COMMUNITY 
A=YES 16 100% 
B=NO 0 0% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages . 
62 
Through adult education and, in particular, increased levels of 
literacy, members of the community will be able to use 
educational resources like books, magazines, newspapers and 
libraries. They will also be able to contribute more fully to 
educational decision-making. Adults who are involved in 
education are also more likely to encourage their children to 
stay in school, work hard and learn to be future leaders. 
5. Concerning the question of whether trained adult education 
tutors are available, the principals responded as follows: 
TABLE 5: AVAILABILITY OF TRAINED ADULT EDUCATION TUTORS 
A=YES 3 19% 
B=NO 13 81% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
This response indicates there there are few trained tutors. 
Many teachers are prepared to be trained in adult education . 
However, of the teachers who participated in this study, only 
three out of fifty have received in-service training to help adult 
learners. Efforts should thus be made to train and qualify 
teachers in adult education. 
6. Regarding the question of who should initiate the establishment 
of adult education, the response was as follows: 
63 
TABLE 6: WHO SHOULD INITIATE ADULT EDUCATION 
RESPONSE % 
A. INSPECTOR 1 6% 
B. PRINCIPAL 2 13% 
C. THE COMMUNITY 0 0% 
D. THE LEARNERS 0 0% 
E. ALL OF THE ABOVE 13 81% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
The principals surveyed thus had different opinions about who 
should take responsibillity for the promotion of adult education. 
Some thought that the inspectors should take the initiative, 
while others thought that principals are better positioned to 
mediate between the community and the Department of 
Education . The majority of principals believed that all 
stakeholders should come together to determine how adult 
educational programmes are to be implemented. 
7. As to who should provide the reading materials required for 
adult education, the response was as follows: 
64 
TABLE 7: WHO SHOULD PROVIDE LEARNING MATERIALS 
RESPONSE % 
A. THE LEARNERS 0 0% 
B. THE PRINCIPALS 0 0% 
C. THE GOVERNMENT 15 94% 
D. BOTH A AND C 1 6% 
E. ALL OF THE ABOVE 0 0% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
The majority of the respondents felt that it is proper and fair for 
the government to provide reading materials for adult 
educational programmes. Only a small percentage thought that 
learners should also contribute towards the provision of 
educational materials, suggesting that people should not rely 
wholly on the government to do things on their behalf. 
Currently, there are no reading materials for adult education in 
Bakenberg area. It is advisable that all parties join hands to 
secure reading materials and other necessary resources. 
Learners, for instance, could acquire their own texts while the 
government provides tutors and classrooms. 
8. To the question of what qualifications one should have to teach 
in adult education centres, the responses was as follows: 
65 
TABLE 8: WHO SHOULD TEACH ADULT EDUCATION 
RESPONSE % 
A STANDARD 10 0 0% 
8 . TEACHERS DIPLOMA 2 13% 
C. BA Ed OR JR. DEGREE 1 6% 
D. B.Ed / HONOURS 0 0% 
E. OTHER (SPECIFY) 13 81% 
TOTAL 16 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
There was a difference in opinion regarding the qualifications 
of tutors. Some principals felt that a teacher's diploma would 
be sufficient, while a high percentage stressed that other 
qualifications like ABET (Adult Basic Education and Training) 
should be given first priority. According to the response, ABET 
is the most relevant qualification for adult education. 
The responses to this question suggest that a qualification, per 
se, does not mean that a teacher or tutor is able to teach 
adults. Working with adult learners requires special skills and 
training which can be obtained through in-service or vocational 
courses. 
9. Respondents were subsequently asked to offer general 
comments concerning the role of adult education in their areas. 
·T heir views are summarised as follows: 
66 
• Principals noted that the provision of adult education in rural 
areas will reduce the high rate of illiteracy. This response was 
rated highest by fourteen ( 14) principals. The respondents 
believed that illiterate people will benefit most from adult 
education, because they will be empowered with appropriate 
methods and ideas and, in turn , gain self-respect, self-
assurance and confidence. Adult education can assist rural 
people to participate fruitfully in courses, seminars and 
workshops on such issues as agricultural production and 
primary health care. 
• Principals also mentioned numerous problems that they 
encounter at school , and suggested that many were related to 
illiteracy. The general concensus was that if parents are 
educated, problems in schools will decrease. Principals noted 
such difficulties as lack of parental cooperation, truancy and 
absenteeism. They argued that adult education, especially 
improved literacy, can empower parents to deal effectively with 
their children, and to cooperate better with principals and 
teachers. 
• Principals also suggested that adult education will benefit the 
community as a whole. Literacy and other training 
programmes will assist community members in fighting 
poverty, for instance through the creation of self-help activities. 
Adult education will further enable individuals to live their lives 
in a more informed and contented way, as integrated members 
of the community. 
67 
• In addition, principals mentioned that adult education will help 
communities to be aware of their human rights. Many people 
in rural communities are not fully aware of their rights. Apart 
from their basic human rights, community members need to 
know how labour, employment and other laws can protect their 
interests. They also need to understand their duties as 
citizens in a democracy. Suggestively, principals stressed that 
individuals must not do away with their morals and discipline 
in the name of "human rights." Most respondents included 
human rights education as one of the priorities of any adult 
educational programme. 
• Seventy five percent (75%) of principals stated that adult 
education will improve parents' understanding of school 
meetings and governing bodies. This will enhance the overall 
provision of education in rural communities. 
• Most principals also stated that adult education will decrease 
rural people's dependence on the government. 
• Principals further suggested that the content of adult education 
should include technical training as well as programmes to 
promote income generation, small business management, 
rural development and nation-building. They also noted that 
adult education should also cater specifically for unemployed 
or retrenched workers as well as for women. 
4.2.2 RESPONSES OF TEACHERS 
Fifty (n=SO) teachers from lower primary, higher primary and 
secondary schools around Bakenberg area participated in this 
study. At each of the sixteen (n=16) schools involved in the 
68 
study, teachers were chosen randomly by the principal who 
selected every second name from the roll of teachers. The 
number of teachers selected from each of the sixteen school 
varied one from one school to the next, depending upon the 
size of the school. Thus, the schools with the larger staffs had 
proportionately more teachers participating in the study than 
those with fewer staff. 
Principals were requested to assist in administering the 
questionnaires at their schools. The overall response to the 
survey was extremely positive, and all the questionnaires were 
completed satisfactorily and returned to the researcher. A 
sample of the questionnaire directed at teachers is attached in 
Appendix B. 
1. Concerning the question of whether adult education can reduce 
ill iteracy in the community, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 9: ADULT EDUCATION WILL REDUCE ILLITERACY 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 44 88% 
B. AGREE 5 10% 
C. DISAGREE 1 2% 
D. STRONGLY 0 0% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
69 
Most of the teachers strongly agreed with the notion that adult 
education decreases illiteracy rates. This suggests an 
awareness of the socio-economic problems associated with 
illiteracy, as well as an understanding of the benefits deriving 
from adult educational programmes. 
2. Regarding the question of whether adult education helps 
community members to know how to read and write, the 
response by teachers was as follows: 
TABLE 10: COMMUNITIES WILL BETTER BE BETTER ABLE TO 
READ AND WRITE 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 40 80% 
B. AGREE 9 18% 
C. DISAGREE 1 2% 
D. STRONGLY 0 0% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
This response suggests that adult education can provide 
community members with an important "tool" in life. This tool 
will enable individuals to live their lives in a more informed and 
contented way. 
3 & 5. Concerning the question of whether adult education can help 
people to know how to sign documents, the response was as 
follows: 
70 
TABLE 11: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL BETTER 
KNOW HOW TO SIGN DOCUMENTS 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 39 78% 
8 . AGREE 10 20% 
C. DISAGREE 1 2% 
D. STRONGLY 0 0% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
On the whole, teachers responded positively, with seventy-
eight percent (78%) in strong agreement and a further twenty 
percent (20%) in agreement. This suggests that adult 
education will assist community membersI in~  utilising institutioand facilities once closed to them. .~t¾v ns I 
4. Regarding the question of whether adult education can help 
people to use automated machines with confidence, the 
response was as follows: 
TABLE 12: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL BETTER 
KNOW HOW TO USE AUTOMATED MACHINES 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 26 52% 
8 . AGREE 18 36% 
C. DISAGREE 4 8% 
D. STRONGLY 2 4% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
71 
There was some difference in opinion concerning this 
statement. The majority of teachers believe that adult 
education can empower workers who are employed or who 
were formerly employed in factories. Their response suggests 
that workers need to be trained and retrained to cope with 
changes in the workplace. Adult education can play a vital role 
in educating and training workers. This education can take the 
form of shift schools, extramural or correspondence schools, 
evening elementary and secondary schools, and on-site 
training as is commonly practiced in countries like the Soviet 
Union. 
6. To the question of whether adult education can help people to 
maintain agricultural land for future generations, the response 
was as follows: 
TABLE 13: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO 
MAINTAIN AGRICULTURAL LAND 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 25 50% 
B. AGREE 23 46% 
C. DISAGREE 2 4% 
D. STRONGLY 0 0% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
Most of the teachers concurred with this statement. Adult 
education can help to raise agricultural productivity through 
72 
the introduction of more efficient methods as well as through 
the improvement or conservation of existing agricultural land. 
Community members, for instance, should be taught how to 
prevent soil erosion. The planting of trees which is highlighted 
on Arbor Day should be more widely encouraged. Trees play 
an important role in preventing soil erosion, and also serve as 
windbreakers. In addition, fruit trees as well as vegetables 
cultivated at home are an important source of a well balanced 
and nutritious diet. 
7. Regarding the question of whether adult education can enable 
people to inventory their livestock, the response was as 
follows: 
TABLE 14: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO 
INVENTORY THEIR LIVESTOCK 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 24 48% 
B. AGREE 25 50% 
C. DISAGREE 1 2% 
D. STRONGLY 0 0% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
The positive response of the teachers indicates that they are 
familiar with the lives and needs of rural people. Stock 
73 
farmers need to know how many goats, sheep, donkeys and 
cattle they own. Stock farmers will also benefit by bringing their 
animals to agriculturalists on a regular basis. This will ensure 
the maintenance of the stock through stringent disease control 
measures. Adult education should not only target small-scale 
cattle and other stock farmers, but also account for the 
interests of rural people without livestock, as in Botswana. 
8. To the question of whether adult education increases chances 
of marketability, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 15: ADULT EDUCATION WILL INCREASE CHANCES OF 
MARKETABILITY 
RESPONSE % 
A. STRONGLY AGREE 19 38% 
B. AGREE 27 54% 
C. DISAGREE 3 6% 
D. STRONGLY 1 2% 
DISAGREE 
TOTAL 50 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
Whereas most of the respondents agreed with this statement, 
a small number disagreed. It may be that this question was not 
entirely clear to the respondents. In any event, it appears that 
even those whom we regard as literate require some training 
concerning the methods and ideas of marketing. Adult 
education can assist consumers in making informed choices, 
and in knowing their rights. Adult education can further help 
74 
rural producers to market their products more effectively, 
thereby generating increased income. Through adult 
education and training, rural communities will gain the 
knowledge and skills needed to make agriculture, stock 
farming and small-scale industries like basketry and brick-
making more cost effective and thus more competitive in the 
domestic and even international markets. 
9. Teachers were further asked to offer their comments and 
suggestions concerning the role of adult education in their 
communities. Their ideas are summarised as follows: 
• Most of the teachers suggested that an adult education centre 
should be established in Bakenberg area. Thirty-six (36) 
teachers, or seventy-two percent (72%) of respondents, 
indicated that adult education should be given immediate 
attention. The teachers noted that rural communities are 
disadvantaged and, educationally speaking, analogous to 
disaster areas. There is an unacceptable level of poverty in 
rural areas like Bakenberg. It was suggested that adult 
education will provide a way of meeting the specific needs of 
rural people and, in turn, improving their quality of life. 
• Teachers also indicated that adult education will help to 
reduce poverty. Twenty (20) teachers, or forty percent (40%) 
of respondents, agreed that adult education can alleviate 
poverty through income generation, vocational training and 
improved resource management. Women, for instance, might 
learn cookery, sewing, knitting and other income generating 
skills. Men can also learn such skills as woodcarving, skin 
curing and iron work. These types of skills will help people to 
75 
gain employment, including self-employment, and establish 
self-help activities in the area. 
• Another suggestion by teachers was that adult education will 
improve the management and conservation of land. 
Community members need to be encouraged to plant trees 
and not just destroy them for firewood. The availability of 
wood will enure the viability of income generating projects like 
carving. Adult education will help communities to replace 
damaged trees and use natural resources more wisely. 
People should also be informed that trees provide protection 
from the elements, including wind and sun, and that fruit trees 
can be an important source of food (i.e. fruit trees) . The 
planting of trees should be seen as an investment for both the 
individual and the community as a whole. 
• Teachers also suggested that community members lack 
encouragement and motivation from teachers and other 
educational stakeholders. It was felt that parents do want to 
take part in their children's education, but are often 
discouraged by the behaviour of teachers and principals. The 
promotion of adult education is an important way in which 
teachers can motivate members of the community to become 
involved in education. Parents should thus be encouraged to 
participate in adult education for the benefit of themselves, 
their families, their community and the nation as a whole. 
• Finally, teachers emphasised that adult education will help to 
reduce the high rates of child abuse in rural areas. Parents, 
for instance, need to be taught about the dangers of alcohol 
abuse. People who drink excessively may develop serious 
7 6 
personal , domestic and social problems. Adults as well as 
children should be familiar with the symptoms and 
consequences of alcoholism. Rural people further need to be 
informed how and where to obtain assistance in dealing with 
alcohol-related problems, child and domestic abuse, mental 
illnesses and the like. 
4.2.3 RESPONSES OF COMMUNITY NURSES 
Ten (n=10) community nurses employed by the Department of 
Health in the Bakenberg Health Centre participated in this 
research. An example of the questionnaire which they 
completed is attached in Appendix C. 
1. Concerning the question of whether adult education can help 
community members to realise the importance of home visits 
by nurses, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 16: ADULT EDUCATION WILL INCREASE COMMUNITY 
AWARENESS ABOUT HOME VISITS 
A=YES 10 100% 
B=NO 0 0% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
All ten (n= 10) nurses responded positively to this statement. 
Adult education can help to facilitate a partnership between 
rural people and community nurses. If people are informed 
about the nature and necessity of home visits, they will make 
any necessary preparations and thus render the nurses' work 
77 
more easy and interesting. Adult education can help rural 
community members to be more actively involved in the 
prevention and treatment of ill-health and disease. 
2. Concerning the question of whether adult education can 
encourage people to learn better habits of health, the response 
was as follows: 
TABLE 17: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL LEARN BETTER 
HEAL TH HABITS 
A=YES 10 100% 
B=NO 0 0% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
The strong support of this statement suggests that adult 
education will assist nurses and other health care providers by 
familiarising community members with issues like family 
planning, immunisations and nutrition. Adult education will also 
help community members to cope better with various diseases 
and teenage pregnancies. 
3 & 12. Regarding the question of whether adult education can teach 
people how to treat simple ailments like stomach problems, 
headaches and small pains, the response was as follows: 
78 
TABLE 18: COMMUNITY MEMBERS WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO 
TREAT SIMPLE HEALT H AILMENTS 
A=YES 8 80% 
B=NO 2 20% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
Eighty percent (80%) of the nurses stated that adult education 
can help people to treat minor illnesses. They further indicated 
that community members need to be aware that any ailment is 
potentially dangerous. People, especially rural people, tend to 
wait a long time before they visit a clinic. Adult education can 
thus encourage community members to visit the nearest clinic 
as soon as possible, even for minor ailments. Adult education 
can further discourage people from self-medicating and from 
using prescriptions and other medicines whose date of 
expiration has passed. 
4 & 8. Concerning the question of whether adult education can 
improve standards of family health by reducing malnutrition, the 
response was as follows: 
TABLE 19: FAMILY HEALTH STANDARDS WILL IMPROVE WITH 
INTRODUCTION OF ADULT EDUCATION 
A=YES 9 90% 
B=NO 1 10% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated b¥ figures and percentages. 
79 
The positive response to this statement underscores the fact 
that people should be taught to improvise in ensuring a healthy 
and well balanced diet. Adult education can not only inform 
people about good nutrition, but also provide them with the 
practical skills to plant vegetable gardens and practise small-
scale farming . Where water is scarce, people can be taught 
about irrigation and, in particular, water conversation. Even 
community water schemes can be established . 
5. Regarding the question of whether adult education about family 
planning can reduce poverty and over-population, the response 
was as follows: 
TABLE 20: ADULT EDUCATION SHOULD INCLUDE FAMILY 
PLANNING EDUCATION 
A=YES 9 90% 
B=NO 1 10% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
The respondents felt that it is imperative that health care 
providers bring knowledge about family planning to community 
members. It was noted that seminars and workshops could be 
organised in conjunction with adult education tutors, to instruct 
men as well as women about family planning. The relationship 
between fertility rates and poverty should also be explained, so 
that rural people can make informed choices about family size. 
80 
6. Concerning the question of whether adult education can help 
people to understand the value of cleanliness in their 
surroundings, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 21: ADULT EDUCATION WILL ENGENDER CLEANER 
SURROUNDINGS 
A=YES 8 80% 
B=NO 2 20% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
The nurses noted that some people do not keep their 
surroundings clean. There is, for instance, a lot of littering in 
Bakenberg area. In the clinics, people do not always use the 
available dustbins. Adult education can help people to keep 
their surroundings clean and thus reduce the spread of 
disease. 
7. Concerning the question of whether adult education can 
empower people economically, the response was as follows: 
TABLE 22: ADULT EDUCATION WILL EMPOWER PEOPLE 
ECONOMICALLY 
A=YES 7 70% 
B=NO 3 30% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Answers are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are indicated by figures and percentages. 
81 
Here, the response was mixed. However, seventy percent 
(70%) of the nurses felt that education is an instrument to 
empower people economically. Adult education will equip and 
help people to gain a better understanding of their common 
problems and take action accordingly. Adult education will also 
provide community members with the skills required for income 
generation and employment. 
8. On the question of which types of adult education or training 
should be established in order to reduce hunger in families, the 
response was as follows: 
TABLE 23: THE TYPES OF ADULT EDUCATION THAT WILL 
REDUCE HUNGER IN FAMILIES 
A GARDENING 6 60% 
8. FARMING 1 10% 
C. SEWING 3 30% 
D. ARTS 0 0% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical 
characters. Responses are represented by figures and 
percentages. 
Most of the respondents chose gardening, indicating that this 
activity can reduce malnutrition and provide food and 
occupation for the unemployed. The fact that sewing was the 
second most popular response suggests that income generated 
by women (e.g. sewing circles) will most likely be spent on food 
and other domestic expenses. 
82 
9. Regarding the question of which types of programmes should 
be arranged to inform people about available health services, 
the response was as follows: 
TABLE 24: THE TYPES OF ADULT EDUCATION THAT WILL 
IMPROVE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HEAL TH SERVICES 
A WORKSHOPS 7 70% 
B. SEMINARS 0 0% 
C. HEAL TH CAMPAIGNS 3 30% 
D. SYMPOSIUMS 0 0% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
The majority of community nurses chose workshops as the 
most potent weapon in the effort to educate community 
members about the role of health services in their lives. Adult 
education will help people to participate freely and with 
confidence in workshops or similar forums. 
10. Concerning the question of the size of the communities in 
which the nurses provide health services, the response was as 
follows: 
83 
TABLE 25: SIZE OF COMMUNITIES IN BAKENBERG DISTRICT 
A BELOW 100 0 0% 
B. BETWEEN 100 AND 200 2 20% 
C. BETWEEN 200 AND 400 0 0% 
D. BETWEEN 500 AND 600 0 0% 
E. 700 AND OVER 8 80% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
Two (2) of the nurses are working in relatively small 
communities of between 100 and 200 residents, while the 
others are working in communities with populations in excess 
of 700 people. It should be noted that whatever the size of the 
community, problems like illiteracy and chronic unemployment 
are apparent. All the nurses felt that new ways of meeting the 
needs of people living in areas of high socio-economic 
deprivation should be established. Adult education can play an 
important role in this process. 
11 . Regarding the question of which factors most hinder the 
progress of health care, the response was as follows: 
84 
TABLE 26: FACTORS THAT HINDER HEALTH CARE DELIVERY 
A. ILLITERACY 6 60% 
8. LACK OF COMMUNICATION 1 10% 
C. LACK OF UNDERSTANDING 3 30% 
D. LACK OF ACCOMMODATION 0 0% 
E. OTHER (SPECIFY) 0 0% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
The nurses reacted differently to this question. However, 
illiteracy was identified as the number one obstacle to the 
effective provision of health care services. The nurses noted 
that illiteracy contributes to a lack of understanding and 
communication between health care providers and their clients. 
Adult education can reduce these barriers,. ....e. .s pecially through 
the promotion of literacy skills. Nwu.· 
llBRARY I 
11 . Regarding the question of who should 'be  contacted when 
someone is experiencing family problems, the response was as 
follows: 
85 
TABLE 27: PROFESSIONALS WHO SHOULD BE CONTACTED ABOUT 
FAMILY PROBLEMS 
A NURSES 1 10% 
B. SOCIAL WORKERS 7 70% 
C. TEACHERS 0 0% 
D. ALL OF THE ABOVE 2 20% 
TOTAL 10 100% 
KEY: Questions are represented by alphabetical characters. 
Responses are represented by figures and percentages. 
Most of the respondents felt that social workers are the 
relevant and appropriate people to be consulted. The nurses 
noted that many people are unable or unwilling to participate in 
educational programmes because of domestic tensions and 
responsibilities. Social workers can intervene, to ease these 
difficulties and also to motivate people to seek compensatory 
or remedial education. Adult education can play an important 
role in integrating the diverse interests of different groups in 
society. 
13. The nurses were asked to offer their comments and opinions 
concerning the role of adult education in the Bakenberg area. 
There responses are summarised as follows: 
• The respondents indicated that family planning, sex education 
and counselling should form a part of any adult education 
programme. They noted that these subjects should be taught 
in schools as well as outside of the school. Adult education 
86 
can empower people, especially women, with methods and 
skills of family planning. 
• The respondents also suggested that regular meetings, 
workshops, seminars and meetings should be held, to promote 
health education within the community. People must be 
motivated and encouraged to participate in such programmes. 
If, for instance, community members are aware of the 
relationship between poverty, disease and poor health, they 
will be more willing to be advised about personal hygiene and 
other practices like refuse and water collection and storage. 
These and other issues can be addressed through adult 
educational programmes. 
4.2.4 INTERVIEWS 
Interviews were conducted with the chief of Bakenberg area and five 
(5) of his indunas. The interviews sought to elicit the respondents' 
views on adult education and the overall levels of progress of their 
communities. 
4.2.4.1 THE CHIEF OF BAKENBERG AREA 
The traditional leader of Bakenberg area is Chief Dennis 
Matlhaba, II. He started the interview by giving a brief 
background of his life. Chief Matlhaba mentioned that he is a 
chief by birth, and that he has a total of thirty-eight (38) 
indunas working under him. He schooled up to standard six, 
and subsequently trained as a policeman and as a solider. He 
was once elected as the Minister of Law and Order in the 
former Lebowa government. 
87 
Chief Matlhaba stated that he has encouraged each of his 
indunas to establish a primary and secondar school in their 
respective areas. At his place, the chief has built a creche, a 
pre-school and lower primary, higher primary, junior secondary 
and senior secondary schools. All these projects were 
achieved with the assistance of the communities who 
contributed a certain amount of money from their pockets. 
When asked about adult education, the chief responded that 
this project is still in the pipeline. He noted that changes 
brought about by the 1994 elections had disturbed the 
progress of this and other plans to develop the area. At this 
stage, discussions are being held with indunas, communities, 
principals, teachers, inspectors and government officials, to 
determine how and where adult education will be implemented. 
The chief complained about the slow pace of execution, 
particularly on the part of the government. 
Chief Matlhaba voiced a number of comments and 
suggestions concerning the role that adult education can play 
in the Bakenberg region. These are summarised as follows: 
• Adult education will provide opportunities for people to come 
together to discuss the problems associated with illiteracy in 
their communities. 
• It will further provide opportunities to discuss certain problems 
created by the rapid changes engendered by the transition to 
democracy. 
88 
• Adult education will help to create conditions under which 
people can be encouraged to study and discuss a wide range 
of subjects, in particular those connected to immediate social 
problems. 
• Adult education will open up opportunities for local residents 
who wish to participate in more formal education leading to 
qualifications, thus providing a wider range of choices for a 
section of the community whose options would otherwise 
remain limited. 
• Adult education will play a vital role in helping people to 
examine the conditions in which they live, their history and 
culture, the reasons for the problems and changes now 
confronting them as well as the alternative courses of action 
open to them. 
The chief concluded by saying that adult education should be 
established as soon as possible. He is prepared and willing 
to assist in implementing and promoting adult education in the 
Bakenberg area. The chief stated that, even at his age, he will 
be the first to register for adult education, in order to 
encourage his counsellors and residents to become involved. 
89 
4.2.4.2 THE INTERVIEWS WITH INDUNAS 
The five (5) indunas interviewed all schooled up to standard 
three. Their ages range from fifty-five (55) years old and up, 
indicating that they have considerable knowledge of the 
Bakenberg area and the changes that have occurred in recent 
years. The views of the indunas concerning adult education 
are summarised as follows: 
• Adult education will help the educationally backward masses 
to improve their socio-economic status and standards of living. 
• Adult education will transform people's outlook and engender 
new mental abilities, in order to change man's relationship with 
himself and his fellow men, with a view towards enabling him 
to conquer and master his own world. 
• Adult education will help individuals to free themselves from a 
"beggar mentality." 
• Adult education will help to eradicate illiteracy, which the 
indunas recognise as a major obstacle to development. 
• Adult education will motivate community members to improve 
their skills and develop their talents. 
• Adult education should include initial and continual vocational 
education. 
90 
• Adult education should also uprgrade social competencies, 
extend general education, deepen basic scientific knowledge, 
and promote physical development and health education. 
The indunas concluded by saying that the community must not 
wait for a future adult population to bring the necessary skills 
and knowledge to Bakenberg area. They stressed that efforts 
must be made now to foster community development, and that 
these must take into account the needs as well as the abilities 
of the current adult population. 
4.3 SUMMARY 
According to the various people who participated in this research, adult 
education has not yet been implemented in the Bakenberg area. People 
living there are thus being denied opportunities to learn and acquire skills. 
Illiteracy remains a major problem, thereby perpetuating a cycle of poverty. 
Lack of knowledge about family planning also contributes to low living 
standards, which derive in part from unchecked population growth. 
Many women, especially in rural areas, have never been to school or did not 
remain in school long enough to equip them adequately for their roles as 
mothers, educators and advisors of their children. Not only women but also 
men stand to benefit from the establishment of adult education in this region. 
An institution like an adult education centre will provide rural people with a 
second chance to further their education and, in turn, improve their lives. 
Significantly, there is little if any resistance from community leaders and 
educators towards the concept of adult education. However, while all the 
respondents agreed that adult education is desirable and beneficial , 
91 
concrete measures towards realising this goal have yet to be undertaken. 
The next chapter offers a number of recommendations as to how this 
important process of educating adults can be kick-started and sustained. 
CHAPTER FIVE 
5. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter presents a brief summary of the study, followed by reflections 
on the major findings of the research. Finally, recommendations concerning 
the implementation of adult education in rural areas, especially Bakenberg in 
the Northern Province, are offered. 
5.2 SUMMARY 
In chapter one, the statement of the problem as well as the aim, scope and 
methods of research were presented. The study was justified in relation to 
problems concerning illiteracy and unemployment currently being experienced 
by rural communities. The empirical research on the role of adult education 
in the Bakenberg area was delineated, as was the relevance of this case 
study to the more general issue of adult education in South Africa . 
Chapter two provided a review of literature. This survey defined a number 
of key terms, and also determined the nature and objectives of adult 
education in a number of developed and developing countries. Throughout 
this discussion, emphasis was placed on the social , economic, political and 
cultural benefits deriving from adult educational programmes. This chapter 
concluded by considering the role of adult education in apartheid and post-
apartheid South Africa, and its possibilities for socio-economic development 
and nation-building in the current democratic era. 
Chapter three discussed the methodology of the empirical research . A 
detailed outline of the various methods used to collect data for this study was 
presented. Literature was also consulted, to obtain a better understanding 
of the advantages and disadvantages of the methods that were used 
93 
in this research. The complementary relationship between interviews and 
questionnaires was noted, as was the rationale for their use in this study. 
Chapter four presented and anlysed the data collected, to determine the role 
that adult education plays in the Bakenberg area, as in rural areas more 
generally. From the data analysis, it emerged that adult education has yet 
to be implemented in the Bakenberg area, despite the fact that all of the 
respondents viewed this as a desirable and beneficial intervention. The data 
indicated a definite need for adult education, which the respondents felt will 
empower individuals, families and communities. It was noted that adult 
education will enhance, inter alia , communication between individuals and 
groups, income generation, agricultural production, health care delivery and 
resource management. 
5.3 RESEARCH FINDINGS 
5.3.1 THERE IS NO ADULT EDUCATION TAKING PLACE IN 
BAKENBERG AREA 
All of the respondents indicated that adult education has not yet been 
implemented in the Bakenberg area. This means that community 
members are being denied their rights to education, basic literacy and 
job training. This situation is particularly urgent in rural areas like 
Bakenberg area, where the cycle of poverty cannot be broken unless 
individuals and communities are empowered through income 
generation, employment opportunities (including self-employment) 
and decision-making and leadership skills. Rural people need to 
assisted in developing their talents, skills, experience and knowledge, 
in order to cope with changing roles and responsibilities. Adult 
94 
education should thus be provided to help community members to 
become agents of change, rather than its victims. 
5.3.2 THE MAJORITY OF RESIDENTS IN BAKENBERG AREA ARE 
ILLITERATE OR SEMI-LITERATE 
The data collected suggests that most of the people living in 
Bakenberg area are ill iterate or semi-literate, primarily because they 
were unable to complete their schooling. The ongoing absence of 
adult educational programmes contributes to this high rate of 
illiteracy. Literacy provides a foundation for socio-economic 
development, increased political participation and effective 
communication between individuals and groups. When people are 
assisted to improve their literacy skills, they are empowered to 
participate in the struggle of creating the kind of society that is 
desired. The introduction of adult education will help to reduce 
illiteracy and, in turn, open up avenues of communication and growth 
that would otherwise remain closed. 
5.3.3 ADULT EDUCATION IS NEEDED TO IMPROVE THE HEALTH OF 
THE COMMUNITIES 
A strong, positive relationship between adult education and 
community health has been demonstrated. Poor health, poor 
nutrition, high birth rates and high infant mortality are characteristics 
of high rates of illiteracy. Health education is regarded as an 
essential component of adult education, and one needed urgently in 
rural areas. 
95 
5.3.4 ADULT EDUCATION IS NEEDED TO DEVELOP THE COMMUNITY 
The data collected suggests that adult education will promote 
community development. The general concensus of the respondents 
was that people cannot be developed, but can only develop 
themselves. Man develops himself by what he does, by making his 
own decisions, by increasing his knowledge and ability, and by his full 
participation as an equal in the life of the community in which he lives. 
Community development is an example of a comprehensive 
intervention, which aims at overall change based upon education 
through action, with the belief that the development of the local 
community rests largely on the concerted efforts of its members. 
Adult education needs to be established in South Africa's rural 
communities, to provide and improve community development 
through community involvement and action. This process must 
secure the active cooperation of the community as a whole, including 
women and the elderly, if it is to ensure higher standards of living and 
a better quality of life for all. 
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.4.1 THE DOORS OF EDUCATION SHOULD BE OPEN TO ALL 
MOTIVATION: The doors of learning have been opened to everyone 
in the New South Africa. In the past, the right to education was 
denied to many citizens of this country. Today, however, new laws 
have been promulgated to allow everyone, including those beyond 
the conventional age of schooling, to receive a "meaningful education 
that will help them in all aspects of their lives" (City Press, 1995: 74 ). 
96 
Despite the hardships, humiliations and criticisms suffered by adults, 
particularly black adults, they remain determined to succeed and 
make something of their lives. People who are illiterate need to feel 
the joy of reading and writing their O'Ml letters, signing their names to 
documents and transacting their O'Ml business in banks and shops. 
These ostensibly simple practices remain beyond the reach of 
millions of South Africans who lack the skills, confidence and self-
assurance to participate fully in society and the economy. 
Simon Bolivar, quoted in the City Press (1995: 74), argues that: 
The making of the new world (and the New 
South Africa) will come out of the lives of people 
of vision, bravery and passion. 
Not only our country's leaders, but also ordinary people possess 
these qualities. Such individuals need to be motivated and assisted 
in reaching their personal dreams and, in turn, the goals of the New 
South Africa. 
5.4.2 CLEAR VISION FOR THE SUCCESS OF ADULT 
EDUCATION MUST BE ESTABLISHED 
MOTIVATION: If adult education is to be successful, not only in rural 
areas but in the country as a whole, its promulgators, practitioners 
and participants need to have a clear vision of its purpose and 
possibilities. Adult educational programmes require people who are 
brave and determined, and who have a passion for a more 
meaningful life. One such vision is the desire to eradicate illiteracy, 
97 
which affects nearly one-half of the black population (Cooper, 1994: 
24). Illiteracy is particularly prevelant amongst rural communities, 
where adult education is still visibly lacking. 
5.4.3 RESTRUCTURING OF ADULT EDUCATION NEEEDS TO BE 
TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION 
MOTIVATION: Much restructuring has occurred in the field of 
education in general , and this process is to be encouraged in adult 
education as well. An independent examination board for adult 
examination has, for instance, been established in order to: 
. . . implement a system that will help adult 
learners to get meaningful education certificates 
(City Press, 1995: 74). 
These certificates are to be recognised by all sectors of society, 
which will assist adult learners in securing employment and, not least 
of all, a sense of accomplishment and worth. 
The data collected in this study suggests that although the majority 
of people in Bakenberg are illiterate, they are hungry for knowledge 
and education. Illiterate people are more prone to unemployment or 
unskilled labour; many can find employment only in the informal 
sector of the economy. Illiterate parents are often unable to help their 
children with schoolwork, and are also reluctant to participate in 
educational planning and decision-making (Shindler, 1997: 147). The 
needs of such individuals need to be taken into consideration, as do 
the situations of adult learners with work and family responsibi1ities. 
98 
Creative solutions and strategies are thus needed to cater for adult 
learners and their educational and training requirements. The 
curriculum, for instance, needs to be restructured to address current 
changes in the economy and to keep abreast of the issues that are 
most pressing in the lives of ordinary people. 
5.4.4 MUCH WORK STILL NEEDS TO BE DONE TO REDUCE 
ILLITERACY 
MOTIVATION: Bakenberg area, like any other rural area in South 
Africa, is threatened by a serious development cris is, namely 
illiteracy. To address this problem, adults in rural areas need to be 
motivated to participate in literacy programmes, as well as in 
programmes for health education, environmental education, 
agriculture, home economics, arts and craft, and so forth . Literacy 
can be regarded as one of the strongest mechanisms for combating 
poverty, unemployment and resource mismanagement in South 
Africa. 
5.4.5 ADULT EDUCATION CENTRES SHOULD BE ESTABLISHED 
MOTIVATION: It is recommended that an adult education centre be 
established in Bakenberg area, as in other rural areas where such an 
institution is lacking. A centre will bring together educational 
stakeholders and serve as a forum for workshops, courses, seminars 
and meetings. In addition, people need to know where to go to 
inquire about adult education, and adult learners need a place where 
they can feel at home. The creation of a centre will achieve these 
and other objectives. 
9 9 
The establishment of a centre will also attune the community to the 
importance of adult education. Programmes should include the 
topping up of basic education, including literacy skills, day release 
courses, vocational training, courses in trade union organisation and 
industrial relations, political education, health education and 
education for Christian values. A centre will help to bring these and 
other programmes under one roof, where they can be coordinated, 
administered and, where applicable, evaluated. 
5.4.6 ADULT EDUCATION MUST BE GIVEN FIRST PRIORITY 
MOTIVATION: Adult education must be made a priority of any 
community development process. Adult education helps individuals 
to become more productive and fulfilled, thereby enabling them to 
contribute to a better society through their improved efficiency, 
consideration and sensitivity in the acting out of their social roles. 
Through adult education, community members will have greater 
ability to cope with political, legal, commercial, occupational and 
social demands. People will be empowered to vote, make tax returns, 
apply for work, sign leases and contracts and follow printed 
instructions. They will be able to consult books, magazines, 
newspapers and library catalogues and retrieval systems. Such skills 
contribute to personal growth and awareness, as well as a more self-
directed, self-assured community which is more able to grasp and act 
upon its problems and, in particular, its hopes and aspirations. 
100 
5.4.7 ALL EDUCATIONAL STAKEHOLDERS MUST BE ACTIVELY 
INVOLVED IN ADULT EDUCATION 
MOTIVATION: It is further suggested that community organisations, 
the private sector, the government, inspectors, principals, teachers, 
teacher-trainers and all others interested in the welfare of the 
community become actively involved in the provision of adult 
education. This should comprise the provision of basic skills and 
literacy education as well as vocational training, directed towards 
those who need and want it most. 
5.5 CONCLUSION 
In conclusion, this study has revealed that adult education has a major role 
to play in the economic, social , political and cultural development of rural 
communities. The shortcomings of existing adult educational programmes 
and the constraints noted in the foregoing discussion should not be allowed 
to hinder the development and implementation of adult education where it 
is most desparately needed. In Bakenberg area as throughout rural South 
Africa, the majority of people are illiterate. They are entitled to opportunities 
for improving their lives through a learning process which goes beyond the 
limits of conventional schooling. 
The Deputy Minister of education in South Africa has confirmed that at least 
nine million South Africans are illiterate (City Press, 1995: 74). Such 
individuals are draining the economy of our country. The Deputy Minister 
further noted that illiteracy is an enemy to economic growth and 
development. The gravity of this problem cannot be understated. 
101 
The government's commitment to wiping out illiteracy is evidenced by 
increased budgetary allocations for Adult Basic Education and Training 
(ABET), from R200 million to R300 million in the current financial year (City 
Press, 1998: 19). Special attention is being directed to adults over the age 
of thirty (30) who were unable to attend or complete primary school. Such 
efforts are designed to close the gap created by past inequalities in access 
to education. 
Specialists in long distance education and correspondence colleges like 
Lycium, Damelin, Success and Mentor are working hard to bridge this gap. 
These institutions serve both long distance and in-house students, in order 
to educate the masses. The successes of these colleges suggest that 
partnerships should be formed between government and the corporate 
world. 
Private colleges and courses, however, cost money, and many rural people 
simply cannot afford to enroll in correspondence courses. It is thus proper 
and fair that the people of Bakenberg area be provided with an adult 
education centre. This will promote educational empowerment, educational 
improvement, vocational training, community development, community 
enlightenment and, finally, learning throughout the individual's lifetime. 
10 2 
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1 08 
APPENDIX A: 
SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY PRINCIPALS IN THE 
BAKENBERG AREA 
109 
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIR E. (PRINC IPALS). 
THE ROLE PLAYED BY AuULT EDUCATION. 
KINDLY RESP OND TO QUEST IONS BELOW BY CROSSING APPROPRIATE BLOCK . 
1. Do you have Adult educatio n in you r area? YesD NoO 
2.Do you think that it's necessary to have 
Adult education i n your ar ea? YesO 
3 .D o you think the com munity will appreciate 
the establishment of adult education? YesO No□ 
4. Does the community you live with seem to be 
partially illiterate? YesO No□ 
5.Do you experience a ny prob l ems at work that 
seem to be caused by high r ate of i l literacy . YesO No□ 
6 . Do you think the community will be nefit 
educationally if ad ult educationce ntre cou l d 
be established? YesO No□ 
7 . Do you think community members wi ll register 
if adult education can be made ava i lable? YesO No□ 
8.Are there tutors who have been tra i ned before 
to teach in Adult education centres? Yes 0 , Noi I 
9 . Is there any premises where adu l t l ear ners 
can be accomodated? YesD No□ 
10. Who must initiate the establishme nt of adult 
education? 
A. Inspector. 
B. Pri ncipal . 
C. The community. 
D. The learners. 
E. All of the abov~-=--~ 
11. Are there any readi ng ma t erials th at can be used? YesD No Cl 
12 . Who is to provide l earn in g mater i als e . g. books? 
A. The learne r s . R 
110 
D. Both A and C B 
E. None of the above. 
13.Wh at qualifications one should have to teach in adu lt education 
centres, especially the most illite r ate people? 
A. Standard 10 
B.Teachers Diploma. 
C.BA.ED.JNR degree in ed ucation. 
D. B.ED /Honours . 
E.Others /Specify. 
14.Do you think tuto r s shou ld have teaching experie nce? 
Yes c=J 
15.Any comments that you co ns ider to be of value in the estab li shme nt 
of Adult educa tion . 
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
111 
APPENDIX B: 
SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY TEACHERS IN THE 
BAKENBERG AREA 
112 
RESEARCH QUE STIONNAIRE. ( TO HEALTH PER SONNEL}. 
THE ROLE PLAYED BY ADULT EDUCATION . 
KINDLY RESPOND TO QUESTION S BELOW BY CROSSING APPROPRIATE BLOCK. 
1.Adult education ca n help co mmunities to realise the i mportance 
of home visits by nur ses . Yes D No l_ _ ~ 
2.A dult education ca n e ncou r age peo pl e to l ea r n better habits of 
health . e.g . exercises . Yes D No D 
2 . Adult education ca n highlight people on how to t~eat simple 
ailments like stomach,headache etc. 
Yes D No D 
4.Adult education can impart knowledge that deals with health of 
the people . Yes O No D 
~. Do you think adult education can improve the standard Gf hea l th 
of fami lies by reducing malnutrition? 
Yes D No□ 
6 . Which one of the following should be ta ught in or der to reduce 
hunge r in families? 
A. Gardening 
B. Farming 
C. Se wing 
D. Ar t s 
? . Which one of the following should be a r ranged in orde r to teach 
peop l e better understand in g of health se rv ices? 
A. Workshops 
B. Sem in ars 
C. Health campaigns 
D. Sympos i ums 
8. Adult education can highlight community members to read health 
pape r s distribu t ed to t heir fa mil ies . 
Yes I · No l_~ 
113 
9.Wh at is the size of the community we r e you provide health services? 
A. Below 100 
B. Bet wee n 100 - 200 
C. Between 200 - 400 
D. Betwee n 500 - 600 
E. 700 and ove r 
10.Does the people un de r sta nd the value of c l ea nlin ess to thei r 
sur roundin gs? Yes D No D 
11.W hich one of the fo ll owi ng hinder the prog r ess of you r hea lth work? 
A. Illiteracy. 
B. Lack of commun i cation. 
C. Lack of understanding. 
D. Lack of accomodation . 
E. Any ot her (Specify) . 
12.Do the peopl e visit cli nic s for minor illness? 
Yes I__J No□ 
If No, what mu st be done? __ _ 
13.Do people und e rstand that overpop ul ation causes prob l ems to healt h 
services? Yes O No ._I_  ___. 
14.D o you think by teaching communiti es family p l ann ing can r ed uc e 
poverty? Yes D NoO 
15.Do you think po ver ty ca n be reduced by empowering peopl e eco nomically? 
YesO No D 
16.Which one of the follow in g should be consulted when having 
family problems? 
A. Nurses. 
B. Social work ers. 
C. Teachers . 
D. Al 1 of the abo ve . 
17.Please s ugge st what can be done to improve conditions at your 
area as far as health services is concerned. 
114 
APPENDIX C: 
SAMPLE OF QUESTIONNAIRE 
COMPLETED BY COMMUNITY NURSES 
IN THE BAKENBERG AREA 
115 
TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE. 
THE ROLE THAT CAN BE PLAYED BY ADULT EDUCATION IN YOUR AREA. 
KINDLY RESPOND TO QUESTIONS BELOW BYCROSSING APPROPRIATE BLOCK. 
Key; 1. Strongly Agre e (SA). 
2. Agr ~e . (A). 
3. Disagree.(D). 
4. Strongly Di s agree. (SD). er Vl 0: ~~ 
1.Adult educatio n ca n r educe ill iteracy in the community . 1 2 3 4 
2 .Adult education can be used to enable commun i ty members 
to communicate by written wor ds . 1 2 3 4 
3 . Adult education ca n help people how to read and write. 1 2 3 4 
4.A dult educat i on can help people know how to sign docume nt s 
sent to them . 1 2 3 4 
5 .0t her se rvi ces could be expanded to people through ad ul t 
education . 1 2 3 4 
----
6 . People can be able to cou nt and know the number of their 
stocks if adult ed ucation co ul d be established . 1 2 3 4_ 
? . People will be ab l e t o learn better methods of p l anti ng . 1 2 3 4 
8 . People will improve their methods of fa rmin g . 1 2 3 4 
9 . Adul t educat i on can teach peop l e how to grow vegetables in 
their homes . 1 2 3 4 
10.P eop l e will learn how to earn a livin g out of their 
products from ga rd ens . 1 2 3 4 
11.P eop le will l ea rn to plant tree in their yards for s had es. 1 2 3 4 
12 . People will l ea rn the importance of g r owing fruit trees in 
their homes . 1 2 3 4 
13. Peop l e can l ear n how to maint ain agricultu ral land fo r 
future generations. 1 2 3 4 
14. Comm uniti es may be enligh t e ned th r ough provisio n of 
marketing skills . 1 2 3 4 
15. People may l earn not to depend on imports of agricu lture . 
116 . a: 
l(l. er A 61 
16. Adult education increases chances of marketability. 1 2 3 4 
\ 
17. Adult educat ion can ensu re one's job sec urtty. 1 2 3 4 
18. People cou ld be taught how to use scarce resource s 
at their disposal . 1 2 3 4 
19.People could be able to cope with technologica l 
innovations. 1 2 13 4 
! 
20 .A dult education can help peopl e use automated machin es ! 
I 
wi th confidence. 1 2 I 3 4 
I 
21 . Adult education ca n help peopl e on how to add and s ubtract ; 
figures through the use of scie ntific calculators . 1 2 3 4 
I 
i 
22 .An y comments or suggestions on wh at sho uld be done to : 
r educe th e level of illiteracy in yo ur area .