Corporate Social Responsibility towards Mental Health 
Care in South African Mining Communities 
L.J. van Wyk 
Dissertation submitted for the degree Master of Arts in Sociology at the 
Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University 
Supervisor: Prof. J.F. Cronje 
Assistant Supervisor: Prof. K.F.H. Botha 
2009 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the following persons and institutions that 
contributed towards the completion of this study: 
• My Supervisor, Prof. Freek Cronje for his support and guidance and for all the 
opportunities and exposure he gave me during the past two years 
• Prof. Karel Botha of the Subject Group Psychology in the School for Psycho-Social 
Behavioural Sciences at the North-W est University, for his guidance and 
assistance in supervising this research 
• My parents and especially my father for all his support 
• Jacqie for all her love and encouragement 
• Pieter and Zane for their help and support with the empirical part of the study 
• All the respondents who participated in this study 
• Mrs. Cecilia van der Walt for the language editing 
• All the people at the Bench Marks Foundation and Mudjadji Trading for giving me 
different opportunities and exposures and helping me gain experience in the field 
ofCSR 
• Above all, to my Heavenly Father for providing me with the abilities and the 
privilege of having good people in my life to complete this study 
SUMMARY 
Mining activities have impacted on the health and safety of mining communities for many 
decades. Despite the economic contributions of mining to its surrounding communities, 
there is also a huge amount of environmental and social harm to be associated with the 
industry. Much attention has recently fallen on reducing health and safety risks, but there 
is still a long way to go before working and living in the mining environment would be 
regarded as healthy and safe. The lack of proper accountability has been a significant 
factor in the damaging effects of corporations on society. Corporate Social Responsibility 
(CSR) is essential for the mining industry to ensure that there is an adequate balance 
between economic development and the well-being of people and the environment. 
Mining companies have recently started implementing different health programmes around 
mines [e.g. NIHL (noise induced hearing loss), HIV/AIDS and TB - programmes]. It is, 
however, the long-term impacts (such as mental health impacts) of mine activities that will 
remain long after the company closes and there is little evidence that these long-term 
responsibilities are being addressed. This study examines the impact of mining on the 
mental health of mining communities (including the mine workers) as experienced by 
community members, mine employees, as well as other role players involved in the 
industry. By doing so, the aim of this study is to determine the need for the inclusion of 
mental health care in the CSR programmes of mining companies, in order to advance 
sustainable development of mining communities. The study was done by means of 
qualitative methods undertaken in the North-West and Limpopo Provinces of South Africa, 
where different stakeholders from the mining industry were interviewed. It has been found 
that "mental health care" is still a huge gap that needs and waits to be filled in terms of 
mining companies' CSR performance. 
Keywords: Community Engagement, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Mental 
Health, Mining Community, Sustainable Development 
ii 
OPSOMMING 
Mynaktiwiteite het vir baie dekades al 'n impak op die veiligheid en gesondheid van 
myngemeenskappe. Ten spyte van die ekonomiese bedrae wat myne tot hul omliggende 
gemeenskappe lewer, is daar ook 'n groot aantal skade teenoor die natuurlike omgewing 
en die sosiale samelewing wat aan die industrie gekoppel kan word. Baie aandag is die 
afgelope tyd geskenk aan die vermindering van veiligheid- en gesondheidsrisiko's, maar 
daar is steeds 'n lang pad wat geloop moet word voor dit as veilig en gesond geag kan 
word om in 'n mynomgewing te werk of leef. 'n Tekort aan voldoende verantwoordelikheid, 
kan beskou word as 'n betekenisvolle faktor in die nadelige effekte wat organisasies 
teenoor die res van die samelewing kan he. Korporatiewe sosiale verantwoordelikheid 
('CSR') is dus belangrik vir die mynindustrie om te verseker dat daar 'n voldoende balans 
tussen ekonomiese ontwikkeling en die welstand van mense en die natuurlike omgewing 
gehandhaaf word. Mynmaatskappye het onlangs begin om verskeie 
gesondheidsprogramme rondom die myne te implementeer [bv. 'NIHL' ('noise induced 
hearing loss'), MIV/VIGS en TB - programme]. Dit is egter die langtermyn impakte (soos 
impakte op geestesgesondheid) van mynaktiwiteite wat lank sal voortleef na die myne 
gesluit het en daar is min bewyse dat daar aandag aan hierdie langtermyn 
verantwoordelikhede geskenk word. Hierdie studie ondersoek die impak wat die mynwese 
het op die geestesgesondheid van myngemeenskappe (insluitende mynwerkers), soos 
wat dit ervaar word deur gemeenskapslede, werknemers in die myn, asook ander 
rolspelers wat betrokke is in die industrie. Deur middel hiervan, het hierdie navorsing ten 
doel om vas te stel wat die behoefte is om geestesgesondheidsorg in die 'CSR'-
programme van mynmaatskappye in te sluit, om sodoende volhoubare ontwikkeling in 
myngemeenskappe te kan bevorder. Hierdie studie was gedoen deur middel van 
kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetodes in die Noordwes en Limpopo provinsies van Suid-Afrika, 
waar daar onderhoude gevoer is met verskeie aandeelhouers in die mynindustrie. Daar is 
gevind dat geestesgesondheidsorg nog 'n groot leemte is wat wag en nodig is om gevul te 
word in terme van mymaatskappye se 'CSR'-prestasie. 
Sleutelwoorde: Geestesgesondheid, Gemeenskapskakeling, Korporatiewe Sosiale 
Verantwoordelikheid ('CSR'), Myngemeenskap, Volhoubare Ontwikkeling 
in 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 KEYWORDS 1 
1.2 INTRODUCTION
1.3 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATEMENT 2 
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 7 
1.4.1 General objective:
1.4.2 Specific objectives:
1.4.3 Central theoretical argument 8 
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.5.1 Research procedures
1.5.2 Data collection 10 
1.5.3 Data analysis 1 
1.5.4 Ethical considerations 2 
1.6 CHAPTER LAYOUT 1
CHAPTER TWO 
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR): A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 13 
2.2 DESCRIBING CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR) 13 
2.2.1 The development of CSR 17 
2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) 19 
2.4 THE ENGAGEMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS 20 
2.5 CSR IN SOUTH AFRICA 22 
2.6 CSR IN MINING 5 
2.6.1 CSR Reporting 6 
2.7 THE IMPORTANCE OF CSR FOR MINING COMPANIES 27 
2.8 THE IMPORTANCE OF CSR FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 32 
2.9 CSR AND THE GOVERNMENT 33 
2.10 CONCLUSION 34 
IV 
CHAPTER THREE 
MENTAL HEALTH: A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 36 
3.2 DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH 3
3.3 RELEVANT CONCEPTS TO MENTAL HEALTH 39 
3.3.1 Subjective well-being
3.3.2 (Positive) Psychological well-being and its components 40 
3.3.3 The Biopsychosocial (BPS) model 44 
3.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT: A HUMAN CENTRED APPROACH...47 
3.4.1 Health and Sustainable Development 4
3.4.2 Mental health and human centred development 48 
3.5.1 The general importance of mental health 53 
3.5.2 The importance of mental health in the work-place 54 
3.6 FACTORS THAT CAN INCREASE THE RISK OF MENTAL ILLNESS 57 
3.7 THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS 59 
3.8 CONCLUSION 60 
CHAPTER FOUR 
MENTAL HEALTH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINE SECTOR: FINDINGS 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 62 
4.2 COMPARING THE EXPERIENCE OF MINE MANAGEMENT AND MEMBERS OF 
CIVIL SOCIETY 3 
4.3 IDENTIFYING THE MAIN MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN 
MINING SECTOR 68 
4.3.1 Stress 9 
4.3.2 Unnatural and unhealthy work environment 72 
4.3.3 Migrant issues 73 
4.3.4 Poor living conditions 5 
4.3.5 Substance abuse 7 
4.3.6 Shiftwork 79 
4.3.7 Safety and physical health concerns 80 
4.3.8 Mine culture 82 
4.3.9 Stigma attached to receiving mental health care 84 
v 
4.3.10 Impact of mining on workers' home and social life 85 
4.4 CONCLUSION 86 
CHAPTER FIVE 
MENTAL HEALTH CARE AND CSR POLICY IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINING 
SECTOR 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 88 
5.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINING SECTOR 88 
5.3 EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMMES (EAPS) 90 
5.4 THE INCLUSION OF MENTAL HEALTH CARE IN CSR POLICIES 91 
5.5 CONCLUSION 94 
CHAPTER FIVE 
CONLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.1 CONCLUSION 95 
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 6 
6.2.1 General recommendations 9
6.2.2 Specific recommendations 8 
6.3 SOME FINAL REMARKS 103 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 105 
VI 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table V. Mine management's opinion on positive mental health in the communities 63 
Table 2: The opinion of community/civil society groups on positive mental health in the 
communities 64 
Table 3: The opinion of mine management on negative mental health of communities ....66 
Table 4: The opinion of community/civil society groups on the negative mental health of 
communities 6
Table 5: Factors that may lead to job stress 72 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1: Mental health continuum 38 
Figure 2: Schematic illustration of the BPS model 45 
Figure 3: Graphic illustration of compared opinions - positive mental health 64 
Figure 4: Graphic illustration of compared opinions - negative mental health 67 
VII 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 KEYWORDS 
Community Engagement, Corporate Citizenship, Corporate Governance, Corporate 
Social Investment (CSI), Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Mental Health, Mining 
Community, Sustainable Development 
1.2 INTRODUCTION 
Mining activities have impacted on the health and safety of mining communities for 
many decades. Despite the economic contributions of mining to its surrounding 
communities, there is also a huge amount of environmental and social harm to be 
associated with the industry. Regarding this, Warhurst (1998:2) indicates that although 
mining companies during these recent years of globalisation have contributed towards 
improved social development through providing jobs, paying taxes, building an industrial 
base, enhancing efficiency, earning foreign exchange and transferring technology, they 
have also been linked publicly to interference in sovereign affairs, deepening disparities 
in wealth, poor labour conditions, corruption, transfer pricing, pollution incidents, health 
and safety failings and the disrespect of human rights. 
Much attention has recently fallen on reducing health and safety risks, but there is still a 
long way to go before working and living in the mining environment would be regarded 
as healthy and safe. This may to a large extent be due to the "hazardous nature" of the 
industry. However, it may also be related to the lack of mining companies' 
responsibility towards looking after the welfare of their communities. 
The lack of proper accountability has been a significant factor in the damaging effects of 
corporations on society. History is filled with examples of destructive corporate power 
(Meeran, 2003). Proper corporate accountability is therefore necessary to ensure that 
there is an adequate balance between economic developments on the one hand and 
the well-being of people and the environment on the other. A particularly controversial 
1 
and concerning issue has been the exploitation of people living under oppressive 
regimes and of people living in countries where health and safety and environmental 
protection standards are less stringent or less stringently enforced (Meeran, 2003). As a 
result, the idea of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is playing an increasingly 
important role in companies' policies in Southern Africa, particularly in the case of 
mining {Hamann & Kapelus, 2004:85). 
The term Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) was first formally used by Bowen in 
1953 when he stated in a normative way that "it refers to the obligations of businessmen 
to pursue those politics, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of actions 
which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society" (Falck & Heblich, 
2007:248). This concept CSR and particularly its relation to other organisational goals, 
has steadily been evolving ever since its introduction a half a century ago (Lee, 
2007:54). Stakeholders of organisations are demanding more and more information 
regarding the activities companies are undertaking in an attempt to perform roles of 
public responsibility and assume the mantle of good corporate citizenship (Joyner & 
Raiborn, 2005:526). 
1.3 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATEMENT 
CSR is believed to play a special role in mining (Warhurst & Noronha, 2000) because of 
the inherent finiteness of mineral resources and the environmental and social impacts 
related to the closure of mines. For some South African mining companies, the main 
interpretation of CSR has, however, only been in terms of corporate social investment: 
which refers to philanthropic initiatives in communities surrounding the mines or via 
national programmes in education, health, welfare, or small business development. 
Although these initiatives have represented welcome development contributions, they 
have had little impact on the root causes of social problems surrounding the 
mines (Hamann & Kapelus, 2004:87). 
There is much disagreement between mining communities and mining companies 
concerning the real health impacts of the industry, as well as the different 
responsibilities of the key role-players involved. Literature reveals (Stephens & Ahern, 
2001:30) that mining activities can impact on the health of communities related to mine 
2 
operations at various levels. Firstly, there are adverse health effects that result from 
environmental exposures to air, water, soil and noise pollution (also see Cronje & 
Chenga, 2007). Secondly, and equally important for community health, there are non-
environmental exposures and events such as mining disasters, pit closures and 
migration trends, which can also affect mining communities indirectly and directly and 
may also occur at different scales. 
Mining companies have recently started implementing different health programmes 
around mines [e.g. NIHL (noise induced hearing loss), HIV/AIDS and TB -
programmes]. It is, however, the long-term impacts (such as mental health impacts) of 
mine activities that will remain long after the company closes and there is little 
evidence that these long-term responsibilities are being addressed (Stephens & 
Ahem, 2001:46). Before getting to a more detailed description of the concept in Chapter 
Three, a preliminary definition of "mental health" can be given as the following: Mental 
health is a state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is 
able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society and 
meet the ordinary demands of everyday life. It can also refer to a person's overall 
emotional and psychological condition (Anon, 2007). However, mental health does not 
only refer to normal or 'average' human functioning, as it also includes different positive 
psychological aspects. At the subjective level there are valued subjective 
experiences: well-being, contentment and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism 
(for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present). At the individual level, there 
are positive individual traits: the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal 
skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, 
spirituality, high talent and wisdom. At the group level, there are aspects like civic 
virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, 
nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic {Seligman & 
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000:5). 
In focusing on the concept mental health, Chenga and Cronje (2007:147-149) raised the 
following concerns during their research in South African mining communities: 
Most reports received about mental health are related to stress (at work and at 
home). 
3 
Women in the communities reported depression, stress and alcoholism as the 
main mental health problems. The main perceived causes are loneliness and 
boredom. 
Mining communities are traditionally gender insensitive, especially when it comes 
to issues relating to employment and recreational facilities for women. This 
exacerbates the potential for mental health problems for women. 
Staff members, members of the communities and mine management stated that the 
main forms of mental health problems are depression, suicides, attempted 
suicides and alcoholism. 
Women also reported experiencing alcohol problems, either as a result of the 
husband's alcohol use or as the result of use by other women. Problems linked to 
mental health within their communities include: sexual abuse, violence towards 
women and children, loss of financial control and womanising. 
Mining communities are also affected by issues such as financial problems and 
unemployment due to the poor socio-economic conditions they live under. 
The youth identified depression and addiction as their main mental health 
problems. Unemployment, stresses of life and HIV/AIDS are the perceived main 
source of mental illness among the youth. 
High levels of hopelessness were found in the communities. 
Girls reported issues of sexual abuse as a major problem, stating that they felt 
insecure because of lack of support from the families. 
Poor service provision regarding mental health as well as a lack of access to it 
exacerbates the issue. 
When determining the causes of these mental health problems, it can be very useful to 
apply a perspective that will include factors from the biological, psychological and social 
areas/dimensions of life. The Biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1980) on health and 
illness allows for such a perspective. This model implies that disease and illness do not 
manifest themselves only in terms of abnormal physiology, but at the same time affect 
many different levels of functioning; from cellular to organ system, to person, to family 
and to society (Pilgrim, 2002). 
4 
Therefore mental health problems in mining communities can potentially be caused by 
impacts from three dimensions: 
Biological causes may originate from factors such as disease (e.g. HIV/AIDS) and 
other illness (e.g. poisoning from different types of pollution), physical injury (e.g. 
mining accidents), genetic causes, etc. 
Psychological causes may include factors such as anxiety disorders, stress, 
trauma, depression (and other mood disorders), substance-related disorders, etc. 
Social causes may include factors such as poor socio-economic conditions, unsafe 
working and living environments, typical social problems accompanying migration, 
different types of abuse (e.g. physical, sexual and emotional), lack of mental health 
care services, etc. 
It is important to note that these three dimensions are not independent and standing 
apart from each other but that they are interconnected and integrated, as mental 
health problems may be simultaneously caused and maintained by all three dimensions. 
Another contributing factor to social problems (e.g. mental health problems) in the 
mining environment is that mining communities can for a variety of reasons (mostly 
economic) become very dependent on mining companies for their survival (Jenkins & 
Obara, 2006:8). It has been found that a heavy dependence (by mining communities) 
on mining, correlates with a wide range of serious social problems such as high levels of 
poverty, low levels of education and poor health care. It has further been found that 
almost half of the world's poorest countries display this dependency, with mining as their 
biggest export sector (Jenkins & Obara, 2006:8). This implies that if mining companies 
do not strategically form their CSR initiatives in a way that will prevent creating a 
culture of dependency, the risks of developing social problems (such as mental 
health problems) will increase. 
Hettler (1984) maintains that the illness-health-wellness problems that organisations 
face can influence all domains of employees' lives. Problems workers perceive and 
experience as arising from their physical, emotional, intellectual, social and familial as 
well as spiritual life domains are currently becoming dilemmas organisations have to 
5 
face. All these problems lead to the conclusion that wellness is being neglected and 
that organisations are focussed only on illness management (Els & De la Rey, 2006:48). 
Stephens and Ahern (2001:46) point out that the evidence of the long-term impacts of 
mining on the health of workers and communities is also important in the context of 
sustainable development. This might imply that the mining sector's activities currently 
undermine the human objectives of sustainable development, which are to protect the 
health of current and future generations. This is despite the industry's contribution to 
short-term economic development. 
Coetzee (1989) argues that it is not sufficient to define development only in terms of 
concepts that describe progress, growth and reconstruction. Development should be 
firmly based on human well-being, the quality of human life and a large amount of 
human self-worth (this refers to the concept psychological well-being). Development 
should also be focused on the need and aspirations of people, as it is defined by their 
own description (this refers to the concept subjective well-being). Coetzee (1989) 
continues by stating that all developmental behaviour should keep to the condition that 
people should participate in the forming of their own existence and future. Social 
structure is transformable, but transformation should begin with the foundation of 
meaning and meaningful existence. 
Against the above-mentioned background, the important research questions to be 
asked are: 
Do mining companies need to take on the responsibility of caring for the mental 
health of their communities by including it in their CSR programs? Also: To what 
extent and with regard to what aspects of mental health care should mining companies 
take on this potential responsibility? 
Derived from the above-mentioned background and the research questions, the 
problem statement for this research is as follows: 
Mental health problems (e.g. psychological disorders) that occur as a result of the poor 
and stressful living conditions in mining communities as well as the working environment 
is a very serious matter because of its potential to have a negative impact on a very 
6 
wide "community". However, mental health, despite its enormous impact on people 
living and working in the South African mining sector is an issue that is to a very large 
extent under-estimated, under-researched and consequently ignored. This is 
evident from the fact that only a very small amount of research has considered it a 
subject worth mentioning. There are few studies of mental health within the mining 
environment compared to studies of other overall occupational health problems. Studies 
that do exist are mainly from developed countries (Stephens & Ahern, 2001:28). In 
1994, two years after pit closure, a study on mental health in Nottinghamshire in the UK, 
found higher rates of psychological distress and morbidity in unemployed miners 
compared to working miners and to workers in other professions (Avery et a/., 1998; 
also see Sharma & Rees, 2007). In the mining industry itself, it also seems that the 
issue of mental health is not receiving as much (or any) attention as it should. 
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 
1.4.1 General objective: 
This study aimed at determining the need for the inclusion of mental health care in 
the CSR programs of mining companies to ensure sustainable development in the 
surrounding communities. 
1.4.2 Specific objectives: 
The specific objectives of the study were the following: 
To define and describe the concept Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) from 
the literature 
- To define and describe the concept Mental Health from the literature 
To determine the current state of mental health in certain mining communities in 
the North-West and Limpopo provinces in South Africa; including determining the 
contributing factors/causes to this state of mental health 
To determine whether mental health care forms part of mining companies' CSR 
strategies and to establish whether mental health care should be part of their CSR 
7 
strategies; also to determine the extent and with regard to what aspects mental 
health care should form part thereof 
To make recommendations for improving the mental health in mining 
communities in order to make a difference regarding the quality of life of people. 
1.4.3 Central theoretical argument 
Mental health concerns should be viewed as one of the most important issues for 
communities who rely on mining. Ignoring and underestimating the effects of mental 
health problems in mining communities may have many straining effects, especially on 
the principle of Sustainable Development (SD). For development in mining communities 
to be more sustainable and for mining companies to act more such as corporate 
citizens, it seems necessary that not only physical, but also mental health care 
should form an integral part of any mining company's Corporate Social 
Responsibility (CSR) strategy. 
1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
1.5.1 Research procedures 
This research entailed two research procedures, namely the historical procedure and 
the survey procedure: 
1.5.1.1 Historical procedure 
In the historical procedure (or literature review), the focus fell on previous research that 
has been done on mental health and its components, corporate social responsibility and 
the effects of mining on the health and safety of surrounding communities. Although it is 
a subject that has been under-researched, the following databases were consulted: 
- Internet 
- Journal articles 
- Newspaper articles 
8 
- Books 
- Research studies (e.g. studies conducted by NGOs) 
- Other (e.g. publications and reports by mining companies and/or other 
organisations) 
1.5.1.2 Survey 
This survey was conducted in the major mining areas of the North-West and Limpopo 
provinces in South Africa. The specific areas in these provinces that were targeted 
were: 1) In North-West - The Rustenburg area including Mooinooi, Marikana and 
Modderspruit. 2) In Limpopo - Burgersfort and Steelpoort. 
Data was collected by means of three data collection techniques, namely: focus 
groups, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. 
The first and main part of the survey was conducted from a qualitative research 
paradigm (focus groups and personal interviews and researcher observation). This was 
mostly used for community groups, but also for mine management and other interest 
groups. The qualitative approach was chosen as the main approach because of the low 
levels of literacy in the mining communities and because it enabled the respondents to 
expand on their points of view without being limited by the questions. Qualitative 
research as a means of phenomenological inquiry also uses a naturalistic approach that 
seeks to understand phenomena in context-specific settings. Strauss and Corbin 
(1990) claim that qualitative methods can be used to better understand any 
phenomenon about which little is yet known (in this case, the impact/s of mining on 
community mental health). 
According to Guba {in Krefting, 1991:215) there are four important elements noted for 
increasing the trustworthiness of qualitative research: 
Truth value (confidence in the truth of the findings and the contexts in which the 
study was undertaken) 
Applicability (the degree to which the findings can be applied to other contexts and 
settings or with other groups) 
9 
Consistency (whether the findings would be consistent if the enquiry were 
replicated with the same subjects or in a similar context) 
Neutrality (the degree to which the findings are a function solely of the informants 
and the conditions of the research and not other biases) 
The researcher tried to guide the research and material according to these elements 
during the study. 
Further investigation was also done through the quantitative research paradigm by 
collecting data from questionnaires. This was mainly used for mine management and 
other interest groups, e.g. church groups, NGO's and other members of civil society, but 
also for some community groups. As indicated above, the bulk of this research consists 
of data that was collected in a qualitative manner. Therefore the little quantitative data 
used in this project only aims to serve as a verification of the qualitative data, by 
illustrating in a quantified manner the opinions of respondents. 
1.5.2 Data collection 
As already implied (see 1.5.1.2), qualitative data was collected using semi-structured 
interviews on individuals, as well as with focus groups (8-12 people). Throughout 
the empirical investigation, some of the data was also drawn from the observations of 
the researcher. 
For determining the current state of mental health in the mining communities in a 
qualitative way, the semi-structured interviews consisted of questions that were aligned 
with the different components of subjective, psychological and social well-being (i.e. 
positive mental health). Experienced mental health problems were identified by 
participants by means of their own description. For determining the contributing 
factors (or causes) to the positive and/or negative mental health of the communities, 
factors from the biological, psychological and physical dimensions (biopsychosocial) 
were taken into account. 
As already mentioned (see 1.5.1.2), the viewpoint of management and other interest 
groups (e.g. NGO's and particular community groups) on the state of mental health in 
10 
the mining environment was determined by means of structured questionnaires i.e. 
the "Mining - Mental Health Questionnaire". This questionnaire aims at measuring 
respondents' opinions on some of the components (see 3.3) of mental health, as it 
applies to the mining communities (a/so see Appendix for a copy of the questionnaire). 
The total study population consisted of approximately 100 participants and was 
selected from the mine communities, employees of the mining companies including 
management, as well as different interest groups. They were purposely selected to take 
account of gender, race, migrant or local status, age and position in the companies. Co-
operators to this study included an extra interviewer, as well as a translator. 
1.5.3 Data analysis 
The qualitative data analysis entailed that the interviews (individual and focus groups) 
were recorded, translated and transcribed. The content of the data was then analysed 
by means of conceptual (thematic) analysis. According to Palmquist et al. (2005), the 
process of conceptual analysis comprises eight steps, namely: 
deciding on the level of analysis 
deciding how many concepts to code for 
deciding whether to code for the existence or frequency of a concept 
deciding how to distinguish among the concepts 
developing rules for the coding of texts 
deciding what to do with irrelevant information 
coding texts 
analysing results 
Quantitative data analysis was done by manually analysing information obtained from 
questionnaires. This was done through interpreting the scores given to items in the 
questionnaires that intended to measure respondents' experiences of CSR and mental 
health in the mining environment. 
11 
1.5.4 Ethical considerations 
The following ethical considerations were always kept in mind while conducting the 
research: 
- Voluntary participation (no participant was forced to take part in the research and 
participants were free to withdraw from the research at any stage) 
No harm to participants (the researcher ensured that no physical or psychological 
harm was done to the participants as a result of the study) 
Anonymity and confidentiality (all information gathered during the study were 
dealt with confidentially and permission from the participants were obtained for all 
information to be shared publicly) 
Not deceiving the subjects (participants were informed about the aim, the purpose 
and the procedures of the study and were not deceived in any way) 
1.6 CHAPTER LAYOUT 
Chapter 1: Introduction and problem statement 
Chapter 2: Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): a theoretical overview 
Chapter 3: Mental health: a theoretical overview 
Chapter 4: Mental health in the South African mining sector: Findings 
Chapter 5: Mental health care and CSR policy in the South African mining sector 
Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations 
12 
CHAPTER TWO 
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR): 
A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
In line with the specific objectives as identified in Chapter One {see 1.4.2 nr. 1), this 
chapter focuses on giving insight to the meaning and development of the very important 
concept Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) against the background of 
Sustainable Development (SD). The accompanying concepts Corporate Social 
Investment (CSI), Corporate Citizenship as well as the overarching concept 
Corporate Governance will also be briefly highlighted. Furthermore, attention will be 
given to the importance of CSR in the South African mining industry as well as the role 
of the government (Department of Minerals and Energy - DME) regarding CSR. 
2.2 DESCRIBING CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR) 
Before introducing the conceptualising exercise regarding CSR, a more complete picture 
might be drawn by touching on the concepts Corporate Social Investment (CSI) and 
Corporate Citizenship. At this point it might be useful to mention that these three 
concepts build on one another and in themselves represent an ever-evolving journey 
that tracks the question as to what an appropriate relationship between the business 
and social contexts should be like. CSI often is the starting point, CSR the natural 
second step and Corporate Citizenship completes the picture by incorporating CSI and 
CSR in a holistic vision for the company, community and the planet (Njenga & Smit, 
2007:5-6). Corporate Social Investment (CSI) refers to an organisation's contributions 
to society and community that are extraneous to its regular business activities -
whether such investment is monetary, or in the form of other corporate resources or 
time. While CSI might be via charitable or philanthropic giving, it increasingly serves 
to support business development objectives. As such and as indicated above, CSI is an 
important sub-set of corporate citizenship or CSR, but should never be interpreted as 
13 
being synonymous with those terms (Freemantle & Rockey, 2004:8; Njenga & Smit, 
2007:4-5; Rochlin, 2003; Van den Ende, 2004:61). 
Narrowly defined, the term citizenship might simply refer to compliance with national or 
international laws. But in the context of sustainable development, Corporate 
Citizenship goes much further. It also considers the rights and responsibilities of 
organisations within broader societal contexts and is therefore concerned with the 
contribution a company makes through its social and environmental impacts as well 
as its economic contribution. Corporate citizenship deals with the increasing 
realisation that the future of humanity and that of our planet are at risk and that business 
should join stakeholders in the political, social and environmental domains in charting a 
way to sustainability. Corporate citizenship can thus be described as a value system or 
a code of conduct that is applied throughout an organisation {Freemantle & Rocky, 
2004:8; Njenga & Smit, 2007:5; Rochlin, 2003; Van den Ende, 2004:60). It seems 
therefore that corporate citizenship can further be illustrated as the company's 
"responsible personality", which will ultimately be expressed by means of corporate 
responsible behaviour. 
After their review of previous research on the subject, Maignan and Ferrel (1998) 
suggest that corporate citizenship can be defined as the extent to which businesses 
assume the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary responsibilities imposed on them 
by their stakeholders. Corporate citizenship is expected to range along a continuum 
ranging from reactivity to pro-activity. A reactive business rejects the responsibilities 
assigned by its stakeholder groups. A proactive business is aware of, meets and 
anticipates the responsibilities imposed by its stakeholders. A firm assumes its 
responsibilities by engaging in such activities as compliance, information seeking, 
scanning, communicating and modification of organisational processes. 
Before attempting to define Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), it is useful to note 
that CSR is an elementary concept, such as liberty or equality, which is constantly being 
redefined to serve changing needs and times. Companies' social responsibilities will 
therefore be viewed very differently in a decade's time as society's expectations change 
(WBCSD, 2002:6). As a result, when it comes to define the concept CSR, one soon 
realises that it is a term for which no universally acceptable definition exists. 
14 
Some suggest that CSR is about what business puts back - and can show it puts back -
in return for the benefits it receives from society. This implies that the rights society 
bestows on business organisations come as an inclusive package that contains certain 
obligations to behave in a way society finds acceptable. A similar but more general 
definition states that CSR is about the interaction of the corporation with the legal and 
social obligations of the societies in which it operates, and how it accounts for those 
obligations. The following, more formal definition emerged from an international meeting 
the WBCSD (World Business Council for Sustainable Development) organised with 60 
opinion formers from within and outside business (Holme & Watts, 1999:3): 
"Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave 
ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of 
the work-force and their families as well as of the local community and society at large." 
After further feedback (Holme & Watts, 2000:10) and input from the WBCSD participants 
in 2000, the following definition (which will also serve as the backbone of this study) 
emerged: 
"Corporate social responsibility is the commitment of business to contribute to 
sustainable economic development, working with employees, their families, the 
local community and society at large to improve their quality of life". 
From this definition it becomes clear that CSR of a company also involves the 
"engagement" of other stakeholders (employees, their families, local community and 
society) in its operations (see 2.4 for a more thorough explanation of the term 
"community engagement'). CSR can thus be described as a concept that organisations, 
especially (but not only) corporations, have an obligation to consider the interests of 
customers, employees, shareholders, communities and ecological considerations in all 
aspects of their operations. This obligation is seen to extend beyond their statutory 
obligation to comply with legislation {Wikipedia, 2007). Corporate Social 
Responsibility is also described as the decision-making and implementation process that 
guides all company activities in the protection and promotion of international human 
rights, labour and environmental standards and compliance with legal requirements 
within its operations and in its relations to the societies and communities where it 
operates. CSR involves a commitment to contribute to the economic, environmental 
15 
and social sustainability of communities through the on-going engagement of 
stakeholders, the active participation of communities impacted by company activities 
and the public reporting of company policies and performance in the economic, 
environmental and social arenas {Bench Marks Foundation, 2003:46). 
Carroll (1991; 1998) makes four classifications of social responsibility. These are 
economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic {also see Maignen & Ferrel, 1998). The 
economic dimension of social responsibility relates to how resources for the production 
of goods and services are distributed within the social system, as well as the profitability 
of the company. The legal dimension of social responsibility refers to obeying laws and 
regulations established by government. The ethical dimension of social responsibility 
refers to behaviours and activities expected of or prohibited by organisational members, 
the community and society. The philanthropic dimension refers to a corporation's 
voluntary contributions to society, as business and is expected to contribute to the 
quality of life and to the welfare of society. 
It becomes clear that corporate social responsibility is concerned with a variety of 
dimensions which a corporation must consider in maximising its positive impact and 
in minimising its negative effects. Whatever the circumstances may be, 
sustainability of these activities over a long period is the most important (Lungu & 
Shikwe, 2006). 
Lastly, it must be emphasised that it is important to distinguish CSR from charitable 
donations and "good works". Corporations are often seen spending large amounts of 
money on a variety of community projects. Additionally, they also often encourage their 
employees to volunteer to take part in community work and thereby create goodwill in 
the community, which will directly enhance the reputation of the company. The fact of 
the matter is that real CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible 
company takes into full account its impact on all stakeholders and on the 
environment when making decisions. This implies that any organisation must find a 
balance between the needs of its stakeholders with its need to make a profit and 
sufficiently reward shareholders (Wikipedia, 2007). 
16 
2.2.1 The development of CSR 
In a more globalised and technologically advanced world than ever before, the 
associations between corporations and societies are changing at a rapid pace. The 
interdependent relationships between governments, corporations and stakeholders are 
becoming more complex, including a higher expectation of one another's roles and 
performance, and gaining the other's acceptance seem to involve an increasingly 
greater effort. It is especially the expectations on the performance of corporations that 
have been rising steadily and have recently been placed under the spotlight. The past 
few decades have seen a growing awareness of the need for corporations to 
demonstrate and prove in more responsible ways their rightful place as being true 
citizens amongst the rest of civilisation. Durkheim in 1893 (Ritzer & Goodman, 2003:82) 
argued that, because society is becoming more specialised, the division of labour has 
made people become more dependent on one another. This has subsequently resulted 
in an increased need for mutual trust. In modern times, this resulting mutual trust is, 
however, becoming more based and reliant on the evidence that people (including 
corporations) can show about their performance and contribution to the rest of society. 
The term CSR was first formalised by Bowen (1953:6), who argued that "it refers to the 
obligations of businessmen to pursue those politics, to make those decisions, or to 
follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of 
society". A decade later, several authors, including Davis (1960), Fredrick (1960), 
McGuire (1963) and Walton (1967), undertook further development of the concept. Like 
Bowen did before them, these authors refer only to "businessmen" (which implied that 
an enterprise's owner was also its manager, and thus bore the cost of every social 
commitment personally). In 1967, Davis (1967) finally expanded the definition of CSR to 
include institutions and, thus, enterprises (Falck & Heblich, 2007). 
With regard to the mining industry, Warhurst (1998) differentiates between two models 
of CSR which also illustrates its development: 
a) Traditional models of Corporate Social Responsibility - are based on "rights". 
These approaches can be summarised as successfully running a business paying 
regard to the interests of employees, investors, suppliers and customers, while 
making charitable donations and social investment in the local community, in 
17 
response to perceived moral imperatives, as well as to ensure the maintenance of a 
healthy work-force. It involves complying with regulation where required, and 
includes cleaning up pollution, managing incidents and treating other post-facto 
effects of mining after they have occurred. It involves two forms of socially 
responsible practice: philanthropic giving and the implementation of codes of 
conduct. These approaches mitigate negative environmental and social impacts in 
response to the 'moral imperative' through add-on social spending measures. Such 
measures are often costly and non-productive. For example, cleaning up pollution 
once it has occurred usually means adding on expensive end-of-pipe treatment 
technologies, such as water treatment plants, dust precipitators and smelter 
scrubbers. The traditional approach, however, did not take account of the complex 
conflicts of interest that may arise over time and amongst different stakeholders 
regarding what constitutes an efficient use of resources. 
b) Proactive Corporate Social Responsibility - requires a more forward looking longer 
term approach to the integration of social responsibility at the very heart of doing 
business. This means that negative environmental social impacts in all spheres: the 
bio-physical, the economic, and the social are anticipated and prevented from the 
outset and that participative approaches to working with stakeholders towards 
improving the balance benefits for all, over time, are integrated into the very way of 
doing modern business. It is argued that adopting the pro-active approach would 
provide an effective way for mining companies to transform their commitment to 
sustainable development into operational reality. It can further be argued that newly 
emerging drivers of environmental and social responsibility may well lead to MNCs 
{multinational companies) being obliged for commercial reasons (the acquisition of 
credit, insurance, the next permit or next contract, the long-term success of the 
operation, etc), in addition to the moral imperative, to integrate this new type of 
proactive social responsibility more fully within their business practices. 
After taking into consideration the above-mentioned descriptions and development of 
CSR, two other concepts [Sustainable Development and Community Engagement) that 
are especially significant in terms of the theme of this research, will be briefly discussed. 
It is evident that these concepts are very relevant to the idea of CSR, but (as will be 
observed later on) they are also closely linked and important to the promotion of 
community mental health. 
18 
2.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD) 
In the past two decades it has become increasingly evident that the current model of 
development is not sustainable. We are therefore living beyond our means and our way 
of life is placing an increasing burden on the planet. This has been seen from the loss 
of biodiversity to the negative effect that consumption patterns are having on the 
environment and climate (Anon, 2006). The increasing stress being put on resources 
and environmental systems such as water, land and air can consequently not go on 
forever, especially as the world's population continues to increase and we already see a 
world where over a billion people live on less than a dollar a day (Anon, 2006). 
In 1987, the Brundtland Report (also known as Our Common Future) alerted the world 
to the urgency of making progress towards economic development that could be 
sustained without depleting natural resources or harming the environment. The report 
provided a key statement on sustainable development, defining it as (Atmosphere, 
Climate & Environment Information Programme, 2007): 
"...development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of 
future generations to meet their own needs" 
Three main dimensions of sustainable development can be identified as: 
environmental, economic and social. It is especially the third dimension of social 
development that is very closely linked to the idea of community mental health or social 
well-being. The social aspects of sustainable development require that we enable the 
development of fair and just societies that foster positive human development and 
provide people with opportunities for self-actualisation and an acceptable quality of life. 
To achieve this, the following principles (Sustainable Settlement South Africa, 2007) 
need to be followed: 
Promote social equality amongst people by discouraging all forms of discrimination 
(e.g. race, gender, religion, ability and economic status). 
Allow for social and cultural integrity by encouraging and enabling cultural 
continuity within a global society. 
Foster self-reliance and self-determination. 
19 
Encourage community participation, cooperation and ownership in decision-
making, governance and development management. 
Empower people and provide the opportunity for self-improvement through 
education and the development of leadership and other skills. 
Strive for peace and security at all levels from the individual to the international. 
Improve human health through food security, access to health services and the 
creation of healthy human settlements. 
Encourage individual responsibility for the communal good and communal 
responsibility for the individual good. 
Encourage creative expression and the development of inherent potential 
through activities such as sports and art. 
It is in the idea of sustainable development that the link between CSR and community 
mental health care can be found (see 2.8 and 3.3). 
2.4 THE ENGAGEMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND OTHER 
STAKEHOLDERS 
Corporate reports of their CSR achievements usually refer to how companies perceive 
themselves to be part of the community (Jenkins, 2004). For mining and mineral 
operations to be successful in the longer term (sustalnability), they need to obtain and 
maintain the support of the communities in which they operate (basic CSR principle -
see 2.2). Yet the relationships between such operations and their local communities are 
often complex, particularly in areas that are unfamiliar with the practice of mining and 
where indigenous people are the traditional owners or occupiers of land (Anderson, 
2007:8). Also, identifying a community is a complex task because any definition of a 
community as a construct is an imposing of order that does not necessarily fit the lived 
experience of the people in question (Kapelus, 2002). 
Nonetheless, for purposes of this research the following definition by Veiga et a/. 
(2001:191) is used: 
20 
A mining community is one where the population is significantly affected by a nearby 
mining operation. The community may be associated with the mining venture through 
direct employment or through environmental, social, economic or other impacts. The 
community can range in size from a city (which could be serving as a base for distant 
'fly-in, fly-out' operations, or a centre for supplies and financing) to a village {which 
relies extensively on local mining). 
Accordingly, it is also important to look at a definition of stakeholders. For this research 
the following definition provided by the International Council on Mining and Metals 
(ICMM) (MMSD, 2002) was used: 
Stakeholders are people or institutions that are affected, or might be affected, by an 
organisation's activities. Likewise, stakeholders can in return affect the activities of 
that organisation. One should also realise that there are others with a burning interest 
in mining company activities who may not seem to be actually affected by the 
company's actions but who should also be included in the stakeholder grouping. This 
could mean Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) that are not even present in the 
country where the mining is taking place and who seem to have no tangible connection 
to the operation or its activities. 
In many parts of the world indigenous people are often socially and economically 
disadvantaged. This may stem from inadequate access to formal political processes and 
decision-making structures, to justice and to basic services such as health and 
education. Such factors contribute to the vulnerability of indigenous peoples and 
exacerbate their poverty. Historically, the relationship between mining companies and 
indigenous peoples have often been characterised by mutual misunderstanding and 
mistrust (Anderson, 2007:8). 
Since 2002 the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) has done quite a bit 
to improve these relationships. In 2002 a draft Position Statement on Mining and 
Indigenous peoples that outlines the ICMM position on this issue, was released. Two 
key principles form the core of the statement: "to uphold fundamental human rights and 
respect cultures, customs and values in dealings with employees and others who are 
affected by our activities" and "to contribute to the social, economic and institutional 
development of the communities in which we operate". In 2005 the ICMM published an 
21 
independent review of Mining and Indigenous Peoples Issues. The review highlighted 
the often sensitive issues of trust and consent as obstacles to establishing workable 
agreements between affected parties. One conclusion was that industry and indigenous 
peoples lacked a co-ordinated forum at international level to share differing experiences 
and perspectives and enhance mutual understanding around issues of critical 
importance. The vast majority of stakeholders viewed the draft Position Statement as a 
step towards constructing more positive relationships between the mining industry and 
indigenous peoples (Anderson, 2007:8-9). 
In the South African mining context, the question of the submission of Social and 
Labour Plans (SLP) - a requirement for mining companies in order to convert old-order 
mining rights to new-order mining rights according to the (new) Mineral and Petroleum 
Resources Development Act - can very briefly be mentioned at this point (see 2.9). 
Community engagement and development, amongst others through initiating 
sustainable projects, is one of the important facets that mining companies must attend 
to in the entire application process. It must, however, be mentioned that a considerable 
gap exists between these policies and their practical implementations and unfortunately 
the losers are always the communities (Cronje & Chenga, 2007b). This implies that 
there are many areas in terms of practising CSR in South Africa that still need to receive 
attention. The role and development of CSR in South Africa will consequently be 
discussed. 
2.5 CSR IN SOUTH AFRICA 
According to Van den Ende (2004:83), South Africa has historically seen a variety of 
CSR forms in the country. The nature and content of these programmes were 
essentially influenced by Apartheid. It was only until the transition in the 1990's and 
South Africa's reintegration into a global economy, that new dynamics started 
appearing. Business in South Africa is becoming increasingly involved in the solution of 
the social problems of the country and managers face a growing demand concerning 
corporate social responsibility in the private sector. Fig (2007:5) found that the leading 
businesses in the field of CSR in South Africa are those which are perhaps the most 
globalised. These companies have extensive investments abroad, have placed their 
major listings abroad, or have signed on to international codes of conduct. 
22 
A strong influence on the development of CSR policy and practice in South Africa was 
the development and global spread of another well-known concept, namely Corporate 
Governance: 
"Corporate governance is concerned with holding the balance between economic and 
social goals and between individual and communal goals...the aim is to align as nearly 
as possible the interests of individuals, corporations and society" (Sir Adrian Cadbury -
Corporate Governance Overview, 1999: World Bank Report). 
At this stage, it might be useful to take a brief look at the development of the King 
Reports on Corporate Governance in South Africa: 
• King I 
Corporate governance in South Africa was institutionalised by the publication of the King 
Report on Corporate Governance ("King Report 1994") in November 1994. The King 
Committee on Corporate Governance was formed in 1992, under the auspices of the 
Institute of Directors, to consider corporate governance of increasing interest around the 
world, in the context of South Africa. This coincided with profound social and political 
transformation at the time of the dawn of democracy and the re-admittance of South 
Africa into the community of nations and world economy. The purpose of the King 
Report 1994 was and remains to promote the highest standards of corporate 
governance in South Africa. Unlike its counterparts in other countries at the time, the 
King Report 1994 went beyond the financial and regulatory aspects of corporate 
governance in advocating an integrated approach to good governance which serves the 
interests of a wide range of stakeholders and fundamental principles of good financial, 
social, ethical and environmental practice. In adopting a participative corporate 
governance system of enterprise with integrity, the King Report 1994 successfully 
formalised the need for companies to recognise that they no longer act independently 
from the societies in which they operate (King II, 2002:7). 
• King II 
The 2002 report (by the King Committee on Corporate Governance), which replaces the 
1994 King Report, commences by outlining certain fundamentals relating to corporate 
governance. In keeping with 1994, and in contrast to many other reports on corporate 
23 
governance, the Committee has gone well beyond financial and regulatory matters to 
focus on social, ethical and environmental issues in seeking an appropriate balance 
between the interests of shareowners and other stakeholders. As already noted, the 
purpose of the 1994 report was to promote the highest standards of corporate 
governance in South Africa. The 1994 report coincided with the profound social and 
political transformation at the time and made recommendations specific to the context 
of South Africa. The 2002 report recognises that governance in any context reflects 
the value system of the society in which it operates (Payne, 2002). 
CSR has prominently featured in the King II report with its emphasis on the economic, 
social and environmental added value of organisations - the triple bottom line [the 
"triple-bottom-line" was coined in response to business' tendency to focus on the 
financial (single) bottom-line when organisations measure and report on performance; 
the triple-bottom-line considers the social and environmental contributions an 
organisation makes to society, alongside its more traditional economic contribution]. 
King ll's importance, however, is more than raising the profile of CSR: it is one of the 
first attempts by an African nation to define responsibility for itself (Blowfield & 
Saffer, 2002:32). 
The King III report on corporate governance is due for release in 2009 and is set to 
shake the corporate world in South Africa. This is because some of the 
recommendations will be mandatory for all public interest companies, parastatals and 
institutions that fall within financial market regulations. According to the committee 
chairman, Mervyn King, a revision of the King II report was necessary because of a 
number of developments that had taken place since the publication of the second report 
in March 2002. One of these developments is the release of the new Companies Bill, in 
2007, which forms the basis of the King III report. The objective of the new company 
law is to recognise the changes that have taken place in the economy since 1973, and 
to bring existing company law into line with international standards. Additionally, the 
King III report will contain terms for the accountability and responsibility of boards of 
directors towards shareholders. This is included since the new company law prescribes 
corporate governance principles for listed companies. It also deals with matters relating 
to directors' dealings, audit committees and risk management (COSECS, 2007). 
24 
The increasingly growing impact of globalisation has placed South Africa in the position 
of having to compete for investments against many other developing markets. It has 
been indicated that international investors often prefer to invest in companies that can 
demonstrate high standards of corporate governance, as well as clear policies and 
initiatives for CSR and protection of the environment (Kemp, 2002; Brady, 2004; Van 
den Ende, 2004:87). Proponents of CSR hold the opinion that in a society such as 
South Africa, with its high level of poverty, inequality and social problems arising from 
these material conditions (such as crime), organisations have a vital role to play in 
securing an equitable environment in which to conduct business (Van den Ende, 
2004:87). 
2.6 CSR IN MINING 
According to Jenkins and Obara (2006:1), the mining industry has historically taken a 
"devil may care" attitude to the impacts of its operations; by operating in areas without 
social legitimacy, causing major devastation and then leaving when an area has been 
exhausted of all economically valuable resources. Regarding this, Meeran (2003) 
believes that multinational (mining) companies (MNCs) have not been subjected to a 
proper system of accountability. The root causes are various but include the following 
specific factors: 
First, the conventional attitude among most corporations that their primary, indeed 
sole duty, is to further the interests of their shareholders. 
Secondly, the failure of governments and international organisations to control the 
conduct of corporations sufficiently. 
Thirdly, deficiencies in the legal mechanisms for holding corporations to account. 
Fourthly, the absence of practical access to justice for those on the receiving end of 
corporate wrongdoing. 
However, in recent years the global mining industry has started to address its social and 
environmental responsibilities and it assumes a leading role in debates about 
sustainability {Cowell et a/., 1999). The extractive industry has been compelled by 
society to address a range of economic, environmental and social challenges and attend 
25 
to stakeholder demands for greater transparency, accountability and responsibility. 
However, not all of these responsibilities have bee done under duress, as corporate 
social responsibility has also created a set of opportunities for the mining industry. 
CSR can help companies secure their social licence to operate (see 2.7), contribute in a 
meaningful way to sustainable development and ultimately add value not just for 
shareholders (who benefit from better management of risk) but also for all their 
stakeholders - for the communities and others who are affected by the company's 
operations (see 2.4) (Business for Social Responsibility, 2007). 
The context surrounding social and environmental issues has been changing rapidly in 
the past few years. NGOs have become increasingly sophisticated and influential; 
mainstream investors have become more concerned about social and environmental 
risk; legal cases are on the rise; and CSR standards have been proliferating at a rapid 
rate. For a mining company to effectively execute its strategy, it must identify the 
emerging social and environmental trends that most impact its business and which it can 
effectively mitigate or capitalise on (Business for Social Responsibility, 2007). There is, 
however, still not much evidence as to how this recognition of the need to address 
sustainability issues has affected communities and whether development initiatives have 
been effective in contributing to more sustainable communities (Jenkins & Obara, 
2006:1). This is evident from the still existing gaps between policy and practice of the 
mining companies' CSR strategies. Recent studies, done by the Bench Marks 
Foundation (in 2007 and 2008) regarding CSR issues in the mining industries of 
different areas in South Africa, as well as in other SADC (Southern African Development 
Community) countries such as Zambia and Malawi, can serve as an example of this. 
Another way by which these "policy gaps" can be observed is by looking at mining 
companies' reporting/disclosure of their CSR practices. 
2.6.1 CSR Reporting 
It has become increasingly important for mining companies to justify their activities and 
document their performance through the disclosure of social and environmental 
information (i.e. CSR reporting) (Peck & Sinding, 2003). The limited nature of mineral 
resources, the various environmental impacts associated with their extraction and use, 
26 
the economic importance of primary extraction industries in some countries (especially 
in Africa) and the social impacts of extraction activities in local communities - have led 
the mining industry to be amongst the most prolific disclosers of social and 
environmental information (Tilt & Symes, 1999). Most large mining companies report 
on information that covers different CSR themes {see 2.2) such as social and 
environmental performance, health and safety issues, as well as ethics {Jenkins & 
Yakovleva, 2004). 
These reports are also referring to issues such as sustainability, CSR strategies and 
policies within the mining companies. However, this reporting process is not 
standardised, and some mining companies are far behind others in the development of 
social and environmental disclosure. The result of this is that the social and 
environmental performance of one company cannot be compared against another's. 
Thus, there is no real measure of the overall CSR performance and progress towards 
sustainability of the global mining industry. There is also no measure of whether policy 
statements are effectively applied in practice (Jenkins & Yakovleva, 2004). As a result, 
there is no standard way of accurately monitoring the real CSR practices of mining 
companies and subsequently the claims that companies proudly announce in their CSR 
reports, are often not independently evaluated and verified. 
A huge contributing factor to this is that several mining companies are not realising the 
actual impacts and importance of CSR, and are consequently unwilling to implement 
and develop their CSR strategies in a meaningful way. It is therefore necessary to look 
at the importance of CSR for mining corporations. 
2.7 THE IMPORTANCE OF CSR FOR MINING COMPANIES 
Falck and Heblich (2007) believe that the strategic practice of CSR involves a long-term 
shareholder value approach, which subsequently implies a long-term view of profit 
maximisation. In the case of manager-led mining companies, this will make necessary a 
change in incentive structure so that the manager does well by doing good. If it is a 
company's goal to survive and prosper, it can do nothing better than to take a long-term 
view and understand that if it treats society well, society will return the favour. 
27 
As already stated (see 2.4) business cannot be separated from society; especially in the 
mining industry. It is contributing to and benefiting from it. To survive and prosper, 
companies have to accommodate changes in what the public expects of business. 
Current shifts in societal expectations are strongly towards business demonstrating that 
it can behave ethically and responsibly in return for the freedoms and opportunities that 
society bestows on it. Maintaining such a reputation is essential for survival. In short, 
business needs the approval of society to prosper {Holme, & Watts, 1999:9). 
Two other important aspects of CSR which are closely linked to the mining sector 
(Holme and Watts, 1999:9-11) are the following: 
• Creating shareholder value 
CSR is essential for the creation of long-term value for shareholders. Managers must 
consider and satisfy the needs of a much broader range of people in their specific quest 
to deliver value to the shareholders. The idea of consulting stakeholders can be seen 
as a tool to understand complexity and prioritise actions. It also reminds the corporation 
of the social and environmental obligations which come with the freedoms society 
bestows on companies. Such an inclusive approach to commercial life often also 
reveals more business opportunities by exposing companies to information and 
influences that they would otherwise miss. 
• Financial and social performance 
Social obligations should not be seen as just another cost. On the contrary, a clear CSR 
strategy could improve profitability because it will reduce costs by helping to enhance 
positive social effects and avoid the negative. Furthermore, such a strategy will help 
align corporate and social values, and because of this may well identify new commercial 
opportunities. 
Hamann (2003:242) points out that the business case for social responsibility is not yet 
very clear, but that particularly in the mining industry, social responsibility may 
have direct implications for bottom line profits. Rio Tinto's chief economist, David 
Humphreys (2000) convincingly shows how relations between mining companies and 
local communities play a crucial role in the economic and competitive strength of a mine: 
28 
Local community opposition, ranging from protest to sabotage, can cause costly 
delays in production or even termination of production. Such production delays are 
particularly problematic in the context of increasingly demanding customers in just-
in-time supply chains. 
Customers of raw materials are becoming more and more concerned about the 
production conditions of the materials and increasingly demand certification (e.g. 
ISO 14001) and apply social sustainability standards. 
Good community relations are crucial for a company's reputation, which, in turn, is 
vital to the company's access to financial resources, government permits and highly 
qualified and motivated staff. 
Frynas (2005) also refers to a number of business reasons why mining companies 
invest in communities through their CSR programmes: 
Obtaining a competitive advantage - social investment programmes are often 
used to aid the awarding of concessions, because companies that appear to be 
socially responsible are often favoured in this process. 
Receiving and maintaining a stable working environment - CSR initiatives are 
occasionally launched as a means of 'buying' the local communities' agreement to 
allow a company to operate {see 'social licence to operate' below). 
- Managing external perceptions and maintaining a good reputation - CSR 
initiatives are used for PR {public relations) purposes. It can also help to keep 
employees happy because CSR activities can make staff feel more positive about 
the company and can increase motivation and efficiency. This can also help to 
retain and recruit the best staff. 
Mining activities risk the degradation and reduction of environmental resources as well 
as human health and well-being, due to the potential for releases of pollutants to air, 
water and soils. These risks to the natural environment and society translate into 
financial risks for the company as well as the institutions which provide financial 
support for the project (Warhurst, 1998). The strategies by which financial institutions 
manage and mitigate these risks can be increasingly significant in driving the developers 
and operators of large infrastructure projects such as the mining industry towards the 
29 
evaluation, monitoring and improvement of social and environmental performance 
(Warhurst, 1998). This is why companies' shareholders are playing an increasingly 
important role when it comes to influencing corporate social performance. 
It is clear then that CSR is also very important for the mining industry, because it is not 
only a means by which companies are being held accountable for the impacts of their 
actions, but also because of the advantages it carries with it. CSR policy and practice 
has a huge role to play in the financial growth of a mining company and is therefore also 
essential in terms of the sustainable development of its surrounding communities. 
To achieve the above, mining companies must constantly behave in ways that will 
ensure that they maintain their social rights to operate in a given area. 
• Gaining and maintaining a social licence to operate (SLO) 
Since the global environment in which mining companies operate is highly visible, they 
need to have a good reputation as being socially responsible. To achieve this, three 
fundamental considerations need to be heeded (Veiga etal., 2001:192): 
- Environmental impacts must not pose any unacceptable risk to associated 
communities; 
Mine development must be perceived to bring a net benefit to the community (it is 
therefore not enough to simply mitigate impacts). To achieve this, community 
diversification must be part of mine planning, development, operation and post-
closure; and 
Communications between the mining company and the community must be 
transparent and effective; citizens should be encouraged to share in decisions that 
directly affect their future; this will help mining companies avoid risks to the 
sustainability of both their own operations and those of the community. 
These considerations relate to mining companies gaining the consent from the 
communities in the South African mining sector to explore, develop and extract their 
resources responsibly - this means acquiring a Social Licence to Operate (SLO). It not 
only forms the foundation of the mine life cycle, it also permeates each and every phase 
from discovery to reclamation (Nelsen, 2005). If a Social Licence is not gained from the 
30 
onset or maintained during the mine's operation, it is likely that the project will not 
succeed in the long run. 
Lassonde (2003) makes the observation that "Without local community support, your 
project is going nowhere." He describes social licence as "...the acceptance and belief 
by society, and specifically our local communities, in the value creation of our activities, 
such as we are allowed to access and extract mineral resources. ...You don't get your 
social licence by going to a government ministry and making an application or simply 
paying a fee. ...It requires far more than money to truly become part of the 
communities in which you operate." 
Spierings (2006) also refers to the need for mining companies to obtain 'social licence' 
to operate and consequently raises a number of issues concerning the notion of 'social 
licence': 
- At a theoretical level, one of the issues is who the stakeholders of a company are 
that are authorised to give a licence to operate. 
Issues raised by different stakeholders may well be contradictory. 
In some cases the social licence to operate is used as a way for a company to build 
good relationships, by means of, for example, stakeholder management. 
- Alternatively, social licence to operate is seen as a goal, to have a good relationship 
with the social environment in which the company is settled. In that case different 
strategies can be used to finally obtain a social licence to operate. 
Nelsen and Scoble (2006) argue that SLO represents a genuine opportunity to transform 
mining into an activity that is recognised to promote economic and social development 
of associated communities. As companies increasingly venture into developing and 
remote locations, contemporary mining development encounters situations in which 
communities are disadvantaged in terms of economic prosperity and quality of life. 
Overall, Social Licence to Operate addresses the relationship between a mine and its 
affected communities through the perceptions created by an effective consultation and 
participation process. 
31 
According to a survey done by Nelsen (2005), the top ten methods for acquiring a Social 
Licence to Operate, are: 
understanding culture, language and history; 
educating local stakeholders about the project, e.g. mining processes, environment 
impacts; 
ensuring open communication amongst all stakeholders; 
maintaining a sound track record and a positive corporate reputation; 
training the work-force; 
- creating a business partnership with communities for economic development; 
employing innovation and technology to avoid undue impacts; 
seeking community support and capacity building; 
enabling corporate transparency; and 
collaborating with communities to help meet their infrastructure needs. 
To determine whether a Social Licence has been obtained, the results from a 
community consultation programme and a letter of support from the community would 
be the main indicators of its acquisition. The company and community are the main 
determinants governing whether or not a Social Licence has actually been obtained 
(Nelsen & Scoble, 2006). 
2.8 THE IMPORTANCE OF CSR FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 
Hamann and Kapelus (2004:86) indicate that the objective of CSR is to align 
corporate policies and practices to Sustainable Development (SD) in order to 
ensure companies' reputation and their access to capital, land and markets. CSR is 
closely linked to the principles of Sustainable Development {see 2.3), which argues that 
enterprises should make decisions based not only on financial factors such as profits or 
dividends, but also on the immediate and long-term social and environmental 
consequences of their activities (Wikipedia, 2007). The mining industry should therefore 
32 
aim its progress in line with the three dimensions of SD (economic, environmental and 
social). This can be accomplished by means of the following (Jenkins & Obara, 
2006:10): economic development - investment of generated revenues to ensure the 
future development and long-term livelihood of the communities; environmental 
protection - minimising the environmental impact of natural resource exploitation and 
land rehabilitation to allow successive use; and social cohesion - reducing the social 
and cultural disruption of communities, maintenance of stakeholder dialogue and 
transparency of operation. The challenge for mining companies is to address the long-
term developmental needs of communities in a sustainable way, without creating a 
culture of dependency {Jenkins & Obara, 2006:10). CSR is without doubt an integral 
part of sustainable development. Exactly where it fits in is still very much debated, 
mainly because the concept sustainable development also has many different 
interpretations (Holme, & Watts, 1999:3). 
Because CSR forms such a huge part of Sustainable Development, it is a concept that 
has also been embraced by government in terms of certain developmental policies and 
legislations. Consequently the influence of CSR in government regulations that are 
related to the South African mining sector will be discussed briefly. 
2.9 CSR AND THE GOVERNMENT 
Resulting from the previous Apartheid policies and despite the new political dispensation 
in 1994, social and economic conditions such as poverty, unemployment, poor housing 
(and overcrowded single sex male hostels) and infrastructure, prostitution, poor health 
as well as the high influx of unaccompanied documented and undocumented migrants 
still persist in the mining communities. Globally and nationally, there has been pressure 
on corporations to be more accountable for and transparent about their actions in the 
communities where they operate. This entails that companies not only focus on 
profitability and production, but direct the focus of their core business to corporate social 
responsibilities which implies being involved in sustainable development in the 
surrounding communities (Cronje & Chenga, 2007b). 
In an effort to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development in South African 
mining communities, the South African government enacted the Mineral and Petroleum 
33 
Resources Development Act (MPRDA) of 2002 (implemented in 2004) and also 
developed (in consultation with the mining and minerals industry) the Broad-based 
Socio-economic Charter for the Mining industry (the Mining Charter, 2002). 
Through these acts, the mining industry has had to look at more than the usual two "Ps," 
namely "profit" and "planet," but also have to consider the third "P," namely "people" in 
their operations (also see 2.5 - King If). In terms of "people," the MPRDA and the 
Charter have exerted pressure on mining organisations in South Africa to start behaving 
like corporate citizens, taking social responsibilities and to work towards 
sustainable development in the areas where they operate (Cronje & Chenga, 2007b). 
Derived from the Act and the Charter, the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) 
requires that a Social and Labour Plan be submitted by each mining company in order 
to have its mining license renewed (also see 2.4). In response to this, mining 
corporations have often "rushed" in to set up community development projects without 
really understanding or taking account of the dynamics within communities that may 
impact on the success and sustainability of the projects. Also, whilst the theoretical 
framework of the Act and the Charter took careful account of sustainable development, 
problems regarding the interpretation as well as the implementation of these policies 
have cast doubt as to whether it has achieved the initial objectives for which it was set 
up. This has been the result of inadequate communication between the three major role 
players involved, namely the government (DME), mining companies and the mining 
communities (Cronje & Chenga, 2007b). 
2.10 CONCLUSION 
Over the past few years, CSR has become an increasingly more significant part of 
business in South Africa. It is especially in the South African mining sector where CSR 
has a huge role to play. Although CSR is a difficult concept to pin down in terms of a 
single universally accepted definition; the character, theme and broad aim of the 
concept can easily be understood by companies who are willing to make the little effort 
in attempting to behave in ethical and socially acceptable ways. The fact that there is no 
single CSR standard should not discourage companies from adopting it into all their 
operations. Doing so will not only be beneficial to mining communities and society at 
34 
large, but also to companies themselves. The embracing of CSR by organisations holds 
many different advantages (e.g. better financial performance and higher productivity). 
These have been found to be especially relevant to the mining industry. Some South 
African mining companies have realised this and have consequently developed some 
prolific CSR strategies. However, especially in the mining sector there are still huge 
improvements to be made in terms of reducing the gaps between CSR policy and 
practice. Mining companies should therefore become more committed to using CSR as 
the vehicle that arrives at sustainable development. 
In the following chapter, the issue of mental health and its relevant components will be 
highlighted. 
35 
CHAPTER THREE 
MENTAL HEALTH: A THEORETICAL OVERVIEW 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
Mental health is just as important to people's well-being as physical health. For all 
human beings, their mental, physical and social health, are vital aspects of life that are 
closely interwoven and deeply interdependent. As the understanding of this relationship 
develops, it becomes increasingly clear that mental health is crucial to the overall well-
being of individuals, societies and countries. Unfortunately, in most parts of the world, 
mental health and mental disorders are not regarded with the same importance as 
physical health. Instead, they have been largely ignored or neglected. As a result, the 
world is suffering from an increasing burden of mental disorders and a widening 
"treatment gap" (WHO, 2001). In accordance with the specific objectives as set out in 
Chapter One (see 1.4.2 nr. 2), this chapter will focus on clarifying the meaning of mental 
health and its relevant components. Further attention will also be given to the 
importance of mental health (care) in the work-place and specifically in the South African 
mining industry. 
3.2 DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH 
As already indicated in Chapter One of this research (see 1.3), mental health can be 
defined as a state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is 
able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society and 
meet the ordinary demands of everyday life. It can also refer to a person's overall 
emotional and psychological condition (Anon, 2007). Mental health is the balance 
between all aspects of life - social, physical, spiritual and emotional. It impacts on how 
we manage our surroundings and make choices in our lives. It is clearly an integral part 
of our overall health. Mental health is far more than the absence of mental illness 
and has to do with many aspects of our lives (NEHB, 2007). 
36 
Keyes and Lopez (2002) state that a complete classification system for mental health 
should include three general components: 1) Emotional well-being (see 3.3.1), 2) 
Psychological well-being {see 3.3.2), and 3) Social well-being. 
The third component, social well-being, consists of five dimensions (Keyes, 1998): 
The first of the dimensions of social well-being is social acceptance, or the amount 
by which people have positive attitudes towards one another. 
The second dimension is social actualisation, or the amount of peoples' beliefs 
that society has the capacity to develop and grow towards a better place. 
The third dimension is social contribution, and refers to the amount of people that 
believe their daily activities contribute to society and also the amount by which 
society appreciates these activities. 
The fourth dimension is social coherence, and refers to the way in which society is 
understandable, predictable and logical. 
The last dimension is social integration, and refers to the amount by which a 
person feels part of his/her own community as well as the amount of support and 
solidarity he/she experiences in society. 
Keyes (1998) found that the dimensions of social well-being have a positive correlation 
with measurements of happiness, life satisfaction, optimism, feelings of trust and 
security in the neighbourhood, as well as subjective perceptions of an individual's own 
physical health and the amount of community involvement in the past. These 
dimensions also have a negative correlation with measurements of depression, 
meaninglessness and perceived restrictions and obstacles in life. 
Other definitions of mental health on the Internet, as provided by Google's Web 
definitions' website (2007) are: 
a) "the successful performance of mental function, resulting in productive activities, 
fulfilling relationships with other people and the ability to adapt to change and cope with 
adversity; from early childhood until late life, mental health is the springboard of thinking 
37 
and communications skills, learning, emotional growth, resilience and self-esteem." 
b) "How a person thinks, feels, and acts when faced with life's situations. Mental health 
is how people look at themselves, their lives, and the other people in their lives; evaluate 
their challenges and problems and explore choices. This includes handling stress, 
relating to other people, and making decisions." 
c) "A relatively enduring state of being, in which an individual is reasonably satisfying to 
self, as reflected in hisiher zest for living and feeling of self-realization. It also implies a 
large degree of adjustment to the social environment, as indicated by the satisfaction 
derived from interpersonal relationships, as well as achievements." 
d) "The capacity of an individual to form harmonious relations with his/her social and 
physical environment, and to achieve a balanced satisfaction of his/her own drives." 
3.2.1 Mental illness 
According to Barlow and Durand (2002), mental illness is a legal concept, typically 
meaning severe emotional or thought disturbances that negatively affect an individual's 
health and safety. Mental illness is not synonymous with psychological disorder. It is, 
however, a term that refers to all psychological/mental disorders. Mental disorders are 
health conditions that are characterised by alterations in thinking, mood or behaviour (or 
some combination thereof) that is associated with distress and/or impaired functioning 
(Tsai, 2007). 
Mental health can be described as a continuum: on one end is "successful/optimal 
mental functioning (well-being)" compared to mental illness or "impaired functioning" on 
the other end, with "normal functioning" in the middle. 
Figure 1: Mental health continuum 
Illness Normal Functioning Well-being 
38 
As noted earlier, the absence of the one, however, does not necessarily mean the 
presence of the other. Both conditions (mental health and mental illness) are concepts 
that are constructed out of different components and can be described from a variety 
of perspectives (Tsai, 2007). 
From the definitions and descriptions above (also see Keyes and Lopez, 2002 - under 
3.2), it follows that there are three important themes or concepts that need to be 
considered when discussing mental health: 
• Subjective well-being 
• (Positive) psychological well-being 
• The Biopsychosocial approach to mental health 
These concepts will consequently be placed under the magnifying lens. 
3.3 RELEVANT CONCEPTS TO MENTAL HEALTH 
3.3.1 Subjective well-being 
According to Diener et al. (1997), subjective well-being (SWB) refers to how people 
evaluate their lives and includes variables such as life satisfaction, lack of depression 
and anxiety and positive moods and emotions. A person's evaluation of his or her life 
may be in the form of cognitions (e.g. when a person gives conscious evaluative 
judgments about his or her satisfaction with life as a whole, or evaluative judgments 
about specific aspects of his or life such as recreation). However, an evaluation of one's 
life also may be in the form of affect (people experiencing unpleasant or pleasant 
moods and emotions in reaction to their lives). 
A person with a high amount of SWB is someone who experiences life satisfaction and 
frequent joy and only infrequently experience unpleasant emotions such as sadness and 
anger. Contrariwise, a person is said to have low SWB if he or she is dissatisfied with 
life, experiences little joy and affection and frequently feels negative emotions such as 
anger or anxiety. There are three primary components of SWB: satisfaction, pleasant 
affect and low levels of unpleasant affect. The cognitive and affective components of 
39 
SWB are highly interrelated. Because SWB is defined in terms of the internal 
experience of the individual, it cannot be a consummate definition of mental health 
because people may have disorders even if they are happy. Thus, additional 
components to SWB should be taken into account when evaluating a person's mental 
health. As a result, subjective well-being is not a sufficient condition for psychological 
well-being and is also not identical to mental health (Diener etai, 1997). 
However, it is argued that SWB is a necessary condition for mental health, because a 
person cannot be functioning well if he/she is experiencing his/her life as not healthy. 
Subjective well-being is only one aspect of psychological well-being and although it 
cannot be said whether high SWB is essential for mental health, it can be said that most 
people consider it to be a desirable characteristic (Diener et al., 1997). 
3.3.2 (Positive) Psychological well-being and its components 
Scientists in the past defined health simply as: "an absence of disease or illness." 
However, in 1948, when the World Health Organisation (WHO) was founded, the 
following definition of health was established: "A complete state of physical, mental 
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." 
Starting from this conviction that "positive health is more than the absence of illness", 
Ryff (1989) suggested that psychological well-being comprises those aspects we need 
to be psychologically well (which differs from the notion of subjective well-being, which 
refers to feeling well), which is highly parallel to the characteristics of a healthy 
personality set forth by Erikson (Vleioras & Bosma, 2004). In order to identify the criteria 
of psychological well-being, Ryff (1989) reviewed the works of Maslow on self-
actualisation, of Rogers on the fully functioning person, of Jung on individuation, of 
All port on maturity, of Erikson on his psychosocial model, of Buhler on the basic life 
tendencies, of Neugarten on personality change in adulthood and of Jahoda on the 
positive criteria of mental health (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Singer, 1996). 
Ryff (1989) argued that previous ideas of well-being had insufficient theoretical 
grounding which led to the neglect of important facets of psychological health. However, 
she concluded that they all converge in the following criteria or dimensions of 
40 
psychological well-being: holding a positive opinion about oneself (self-acceptance), 
being able to choose or create contexts appropriate for one's psychological condition 
[environmental mastery), having warm and trusting relationships and being able to 
love (positive relations with others), having goals, intentions and a sense of direction 
(purpose in life), continuous development of one's potential {personal growth), and 
being self-determined and independent (autonomy) (Vleioras & Bosma, 2004). 
These criteria are related positively to positive functioning (e.g. life satisfaction), and 
negatively to negative functioning (e.g. depression) (Ryff & Singer, 1996). Finally, they 
are also related to biological health (Ryff & Singer, 2002). 
A more comprehensive description of Ryff's (1989) dimensions of psychological well-
being can be as follows: 
- Self-acceptance: is the most common factor of well-being to be found in previous 
perspectives on well-being. It is defined as a central quality of mental health as well as 
a characteristic of self-actualisation, optimal functioning and maturity. A person with 
high self-acceptance possesses a positive attitude towards him/her self; acknowledges 
and accepts multiple aspects of self including good and bad qualities. A person with low 
self-acceptance feels dissatisfied with him/her self, is troubled about certain personal 
qualities and wishes to be different from what he or she is. 
- Environmental mastery: refers to an individual's ability to choose or create 
environments suitable to his or her psychic conditions. It also refers to one's ability to 
advance in the world and change it creatively through physical or mental activities. An 
individual with high levels of this dimension has a sense of mastery and competence in 
managing the environment; controls a complex array of external activities; makes 
effective use of surrounding opportunities and is able to choose or create contexts 
suitable to personal needs and values. A person with low levels has difficulty managing 
everyday affairs; feels unable to change or improve surrounding context; is unaware of 
surrounding opportunities and lacks a sense of control over the external world. 
- Positive relations with others: means the ability to love. The warm relating to others 
is accepted as a condition of maturity. A person with high levels of this dimension has 
warmly, satisfying, trusting relationships with other people; is concerned about the 
41 
welfare of others; capable of strong empathy, affection and intimacy and understands 
give and take in human relationships. A person with low levels has few close and 
trusting relationships with others; finds it difficult to be warm, open and concerned about 
others; is isolated and frustrated in interpersonal relationships and not willing to make 
compromises to sustain important ties with others. 
- Purpose in life: refers to beliefs that give one the feeling there is purpose in and 
meaning to life. The definition of maturity emphasises a clear comprehension of life's 
purpose, a sense of directedness and intentionality. Thus, one who functions positively 
(in terms of mental health) has goals, intentions, and a sense of direction, all of which 
contribute to the feeling that life is meaningful. A high scorer has goals in life and a 
sense of directedness; feels there is meaning to present and past life; holds beliefs that 
give life purpose and has aims and objectives for living. A low scorer lacks a sense of 
meaning in life; has few goals or aims, lacks sense of direction; does not see purpose of 
past life and has no outlook or beliefs that give life meaning. 
- Personal growth: refers to the continuous development of one's potential to grow and 
expand as a person. Openness to experience, for example, is a key characteristic of the 
fully functioning person. An individual with high levels of personal growth has a feeling 
of continued development; sees him/her self as growing and expanding; is open to new 
experiences; has a sense of realising his or her potential; sees improvement in self and 
behaviour over time and is changing in ways that reflect more self-knowledge and 
effectiveness. A low scorer has a sense of personal stagnation; lacks sense of 
improvement or expansion over time; feels bored with and uninterested in life and feels 
unable to develop new attitudes or behaviours. 
- Autonomy: refers to qualities such as self-determination, independence and the 
regulation of behaviour from within. The fully functioning person is described as having 
an internal locus of evaluation whereby one does not look to others for approval, but 
evaluates oneself by personal standards. Individuation is seen to involve a deliverance 
from convention, in which the person no longer clings to the collective fears, beliefs and 
laws of the masses. A high scorer in autonomy is self-determining and independent; 
able to resist social pressures to think and act in certain ways; regulates behaviour from 
within and evaluates self by personal standards. A low scorer is concerned about the 
42 
expectations and evaluations of others; relies on judgments of others to make important 
decisions and conforms to social pressures to think and act in certain ways. 
In addition, many other constructs have also been proposed in the literature to 
conceptualise aspects of psychological well-being. Strumpfer (1990) gives reference to 
five of these: 
- Sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987) is defined as a global construct that 
expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring though dynamic 
feeling of confidence that one's internal and external environments are predictable 
and that there is a high probability that things will work out as well as can 
reasonably be expected. 
Hardy personality. The construct of hardiness, evolved out of the stress and 
coping literature to explain individual differences in stress resiliency (Kobasa et ai, 
1982). The concept hardiness is considered a personality style consisting of three 
interrelated factors, namely commitment (individuals who involve themselves in 
whatever they are doing), control (individuals who believe and act as if they can 
influence the events shaping their lives) and challenge (individuals who consider 
change not only as a threat but also as an opportunity for development). 
- Potency. In a situation where the resources at the disposal of a person are 
inadequate for meeting certain demands and this causes tension (a disturbance in 
homeostasis), potency will enable the individual to restore this homeostasis and 
thus prevent the tension from turning into lasting stress. Potency refers to a 
persons enduring confidence in his/her own capacities resulting from successful 
coping experiences in the past as well as confidence in and commitment to the 
social environment, which is perceived as basically ordered, predictable and 
meaningful (Ben-Sira, 1985). This construct emphasises that coping has to be 
considered as a product of interaction between the person and the environment. 
Stamina refers to an individual's current behaviour in terms of the capacity for 
growth, personal insight, life perspective, likelihood of functional breakdown and 
general competence. Stamina shows high positive correlations with education, 
robust past health, a "triumphant" perception of hard times and a perception of 
supportive interactions with kin and non-kin. 
43 
Learned resourcefulness refers to a set of well-learned behaviours and skills by 
which individuals self-regulate or control their behaviour. It is seen as a personality 
repertoire that includes mainly three functions, namely, regressive self-control, 
reformative self-control and experiential self-control (Rosenbaum, 1990). 
Other relevant constructs relating to the maintenance and enhancement of 
psychological wellness are constructive thinking, hope, meaning in life, emotional 
intelligence, reality orientation, self-actualisation, resilience, toughness, coping, social 
support, dispositional optimism, personal causation, self-directedness, social interest, 
locus of control, self-efficacy and sense of humour. Wissing and Van Eeden (1997; 
2002) found that the psychological well-being factor consisted of several components, 
namely the self, affect, cognition, interpersonal relationships and behaviour, and further 
found that sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987), satisfaction with life (Diener et 
a/., 1985) and affect-balance (Bradburn, 1969; Kammann & Flett, 1983) are good 
indicators of general psychological well-being. Wissing and Van Eeden (1997; 2002) 
further indicate that, although psychological well-being is conceptualised from different 
perspectives, it appears that psychological well-being can be regarded as 
multidimensional concerning its different components. They also refer to the 
possibility that individuals do not only differ with regard to the degree of psychological 
well-being, but that they also may differ in their particular strengths and the patterns of 
wellness that they manifest. 
3.3.3 The Biopsychosocial (BPS) model 
There are two fundamental etiological perspectives concerning mental disorders; 
biomedical and psychosocial. The Biopsychosocial (BPS) model has claimed to 
integrate these two perspectives in a scientific way, signalling their interconnection and 
interdependence. In doing so, it uses a systemic conceptual framework, taking 
advantage of the possibilities it offers to establish general principles for diverse systems, 
independently of their physical, biological or sociological nature (Garcia-Toro & Aguirre, 
2006). 
44 
3.3.3.1 Development of the Biopsychosocial (BPS) model 
As noted earlier, health was traditionally regarded as merely the absence of disease. A 
lack of a significant pathology was believed to mean that a person's health was good, 
while biologically driven pathogens and conditions would make an individual with poor 
health receive the label of "diseased". However, such a narrow scope on health limited 
the understanding of well-being, strained treatment efforts and perhaps more 
importantly, it suppressed prevention measures (Lakhan, 2007). Advances in 
neuroscience and behavioural medicine have shown that, like many physical illnesses, 
mental and behavioural disorders are the result of a complex interaction between 
biological, psychological and social factors (WHO, 2001). 
This new realisation largely occurred in 1977 when an American psychiatrist, George 
Engel, introduced a major theory (the BPS model) into medicine. This model accounted 
for biological, psychological and sociological interconnected dimensions, each as 
systems of the body. In fact, the model accompanied a dramatic shift in focus from 
disease to health by recognising that psychosocial factors (e.g. beliefs, relationships, 
stress) greatly impact recovery in the progression of and recuperation from illness and 
disease. Engel believed that: "To provide a basis for understanding the determinants of 
disease and arriving at a rationale for treatments and patterns of health care; a medical 
model must also take into account the patient, the social context in which he lives and 
the complementary system devised by society to deal with the disruptive effects of 
illness, that is, the physician role and the health care system. This requires a 
biopsychosocial model" (Lakhan, 2007). 
Figure 2: Schematic illustration of the BPS model 
Sociological 
HEALTH 
Psvcholo&icai Biological 
45 
3.3.3.2 Implications for the use of the BPS model 
The BPS model refers to a conviction of Engel (1980) which state that for psychiatry to 
generate a fully scientific and inclusive account of mental disorders, bio-reductionist 
explanations should be replaced by ones which adhere to the insights of general 
systems theory, developed by the biologists Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Paul Weiss 
{Pilgrim, 2002). 
Against the above-mentioned background, the following assumptions (Pilgrim, 2002) 
can be stated: 
Mental disorders (like other medical conditions) emerge within individuals who are 
part of a whole system. 
This whole system has physical elements which are both sub-personal (a 
nervous system containing organs and networks comprised of cells, which in turn 
are comprised of molecules and atoms) and supra-personal. The latter entails 
individuals existing in a psychosocial context of increasing complexity (two 
persons, family, community, culture, society and biosphere). 
The elements just described can be conceptualised as a systems' hierarchy 
entailing levels of organisation. General systems theory is axiomatic about such 
hierarchies of knowledge. Lower levels of organisation are necessary for higher 
ones to exist but they are not sufficient to describe, or explain, their nature. With 
each higher level of organisation, emergent characteristics appear which are not 
present at lower levels. 
Attempts at accounting for mental disorders, which only refer to sub-personal 
factors (the biomedical model in psychiatry) will be reductionist. Two 
consequences of reductionism are noted by Engel (and others advocating the 
BPS model). First, diagnostic and etiological accounts from a biomedical 
approach will be partial and thus scientifically inadequate. Second, such 
reductionist accounts may well offend humanistic sensibilities and psychiatry 
might accrue a dehumanising reputation. 
46 
Many institutions and medical doctors have begun to incorporate a holistic view of health 
in their medical applications which are essentially based on the Biopsychosocial (BPS) 
model of health and illness. The notion of well-being is particularly important, where the 
state of being in good health based on the bio-psychosocial model is accompanied by 
good quality of life and strong relationships (Lakhan, 2007). The biopsychosocial 
approach is ideally suited to cope with the increasing complexities of the clinical 
sciences, because its focus is on interactions in various domains. It is also ideally suited 
for purposes of this study, as mining activities can have an impact on the mining 
communities on all three these dimensions. Regarding this, Warhurst (1998) indicates 
that the effects of mining activities on environmental and social development can also be 
categorised within three interrelated spheres: economic, social and bio-physical. In 
this model, the industrial project can be considered to be the 'input' and the health and 
well-being of effected stakeholders as 'outputs'. Furthermore, this model links social, 
environmental and economic performance by suggesting that corporate social 
responsibility should not be considered independently of effects over time within the bio 
physical and economic spheres. 
Closely linked to the three concepts relevant to mental health (subjective well-being, 
psychological well-being and the BPS-model) is the micro-approaches to sustainable 
development. One especially relevant approach is the human centred approach, 
which will consequently receive some attention. 
3.4 MENTAL HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT: A HUMAN CENTRED 
APPROACH 
3.4.1 Health and Sustainable Development 
Sustainable Development aims at improving the quality of life of all the people in the 
world without increasing the use of our natural resources beyond the earth's carrying 
capacity (see definition by the Brundtland Commission - 2.3). 'Health' is recognised as 
a key goal of sustainable development in the first principle of the Rio Declaration on 
Environment and Development which states that: "Human beings are at the centre of 
concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life 
in harmony with nature". The extent to which sustainable development benefits a 
47 
community is closely tied to its level of health, as health is a product of economic, social, 
political and environmental factors, as well as of health services. If our development 
path is not conducive to sustained improvements in health, then it is not 
sustainable development (WHO, 2002:29). 
Health, in turn, contributes to economic, social and environmental development in 
various ways. Some of these are: the survival of trained labour, higher productivity 
among healthier workers, higher rates of savings and investment, greater enterprise and 
agrarian productivity and increased direct foreign investment and tourism. Children's 
educational attainment is higher, which ultimately enhances productivity, lowers rates of 
fertility and changes the dependency ratio. In short, health is a positive economic 
asset for countries. Ill-health exacerbates poverty at the family level. The most visible 
impact is a catastrophic illness or injury which, in the absence of an effective public 
health service or prepayment system, can lead to a debt trap that impoverishes families 
for years, driving ill-health in the entire family through mechanisms such as malnutrition. 
This in turn undermines the potential of families for development. Improved health 
therefore feeds sustainable development and sustainable development feeds 
improved health in a virtuous cycle, supported by effective health services (WHO, 
2002:33). 
3.4.2 Mental health and human centred development 
As noted earlier (see 1.3) it is not sufficient to define development only in terms of 
concepts that describe progress, growth and reconstruction. Development should be 
firmly based on human well-being, the quality of human life and a large amount of 
human self-worth (Coetzee, 1989). 
At a theoretical level, the concept development has been historically analysed from a 
macro perspective. More specifically, the modernisation theory, dependency theory 
and world system theory are the historical foundation stones of development studies. At 
the time of their introduction, these theories suggested for the first time the principle that 
First World colonial countries, with their main focus on extracting resources (mining and 
agriculture), dominate and in a sense ironically actively 'underdevelop' Third World 
countries (Graaff & Venter, 2001:77). On this note, Avery (2006:4) indicates that the 
48 
relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and human rights 
occasionally is not properly understood. Companies that are unaware of the difference, 
or thinking a traditional CSR approach is enough, are exposing themselves to risk. A 
traditional CSR approach tends to be top-down: a company decides what issues it 
wishes to address, perhaps contributing to community education, healthcare or the arts, 
or donating to disaster relief abroad, or taking steps to encourage staff diversity or 
reduce pollution. These voluntary development initiatives should be welcomed. But a 
human rights CSR approach is different. It is not top-down, but bottom-up - with the 
individual at the centre, not the corporation. 
Accordingly, Coetzee (2001:119) is of opinion that the word 'development' carries with it 
the connotation of a favourable change: moving from worse to better, evolving from 
simple to complex, or advancing away from the inferior. He continues by explaining that 
some of the major criticism from some micro-foundation theorists against a structural 
approach, like the modernisation approach to sustainable development, is that it is a 
top-down approach that focuses basically on economic growth and material prosperity. 
Coetzee (2001:119) suggests that development does not only imply the satisfaction of 
basic needs, but also the right to live a meaningful life. The modernisation approach 
implies a linear evolutionary process. At the one end of this line there is the traditionally 
underdeveloped societies, and at the other end the modern and differentiated societies 
which reflects the current mining situation in South Africa. The modernisation approach 
and other structural approaches do not address the 'deeper dimensions' of 
underdevelopment and obviously individuals are largely ignored and excluded by 
such approaches. 
Thus, when specifically dealing with mining communities as well as when addressing the 
social and human elements of development in the South African mining sector, the 
human-centred (micro) approach definitely seems the most appropriate 
developmental approach. The human-centred approach attempts to allow individuals to 
participate actively and interactively in different programs and processes in order to 
stimulate sustainable development. This approach is according to Coetzee (2001:118-
139) not only an attempt to include individuals and allow them to participate, but the 
focus also falls on the personal growth (which may refer to the mental health 
improvement) of each individual. 
49 
It is also necessary that the focus of human centred development, specifically those 
developments that focus on mental health, must be proactive. This implies that focus 
should not only fall on the management of problems and conflict, but that human abilities 
and strengths must be build upon and developed. 
With regard to the already mentioned right of each individual to live a meaningful life, 
Eisenberg and Wang (2003) also state that one principle for lifelong learning and 
development is the promotion of meaningful and sustainable relationships between 
individuals and communities. This can happen by firstly helping people to develop 
sustainable and peaceful internal "environments". Secondly, it is important for the 
development of internal peace to be linked with the empowerment of structural 
transformations across various levels of a person's life (personal, interpersonal, work 
and institutional environments). People do not live as isolated and independent units, 
but are mutually linked and related at a psychological and social level. 
It can therefore be said that the promotion of community mental health is an important 
and integral part of human-centred development because a micro (interaction) 
approach is a process that includes all aspects of life in society and in relationships 
between people. 
Coetzee (2001:122-126) gives further support to this view by outlining six principles 
which will lead towards a different (human centred) definition of development: 
1. People can be more than they are 
Development is based on human well-being because the unchanging challenge of 
development is to provide a better life. Development provides the mechanism for 
people to become more than they are. As a result, it follows that action plans for 
development should aim at creating opportunities for increased "humanness". This does 
not necessarily mean a significant increase in the material welfare of individuals. 
Development projects will certainly aim at bringing material benefits, but in terms of this 
more comprehensive aim, development projects should primarily contribute to 
increasing the level of human well-being. 
50 
2. Meaning 
A new interpretation of growth, progress and development should contain the following: 
a desire (in individuals and groups) to work towards a specific way of life and 
conception of reality, the establishment of a political will and general human well-
being; 
a utilisation of the existing economic and social structures in such a way that they 
contribute towards full individual development; and 
an emphasis on the diffusion of the benefits of innovation, knowledge, material 
investments and general creativity. 
An important implication of this emphasis is that it places the meaning and the specific 
circumstances within which action takes place at the centre of the analysis. Seligman et 
at. (2004:1380) made a review of literature which led them to identify three constituents 
of happiness: (i) pleasure (or positive emotion); (ii) engagement; and (iii) meaning. 
The tendency of people to pursue happiness by boosting positive emotion is called 'the 
pleasant life'; the tendency to pursue happiness via the gratifications, 'the good life'; and 
the tendency to pursue happiness via using our strengths towards something larger than 
ourselves, refers to 'the meaningful life'. Lastly, a person who uses all three routes to 
happiness leads the 'full life', and those who lead the full life have much more life 
satisfaction. 
3. The emphasis on the experience of the life-world 
As noted earlier, a development approach emphasising the fact that people can be more 
than they are does not necessarily imply that there will be a significant increase in the 
material welfare of individuals. Rather, development will have a better chance of 
succeeding if people incorporate the specific meaning of their life-world into their desire 
to improve their situation. In this way they will be more inclined to associate themselves 
with development plans that can be incorporated into the ways in which they are dealing 
with their everyday living. The idea of a total social life-world is also directly related to 
the concept culture. 
51 
As already mentioned (see 1.5.1.2 and 1.5.2), the experience of the life-world plays an 
important role in this study regarding data collection; accordingly, research participants 
described their perceived life world to the researchers during the interviews and focus 
groups of the survey (see 4.3). 
4. Desirable direction 
The idea of desirable direction places meaning and the specific circumstances within 
which action takes place at the centre of analysis. This implies an approach from below 
and not from above. This approach takes at its point of departure individual decisions 
and processes of interaction which are related to the giving of meaning. Development 
must be firmly based on human well-being and in terms of this premise any 
development programme will have to focus on ways to uncover people's own definitions 
of human well-being. The knowledge of ordinary people, with the guidance of truly 
concerned opinion leaders, has to be the starting point. 
5. Consciousness 
People, who are concerned with development, must be involved in the development 
process. This belief centres on the right of all people to live in a life-world that is 
meaningful to them. People contribute actively to the constitution of such a life world. 
To live in a world containing meaning, however, does not imply a static conception of 
social reality: it presupposes an active dialogue between people and their overall reality. 
All development action should therefore take note of the prerequisite that people should 
participate in shaping their own existence and future. Social structures are 
transformable, but the transformation has to start on the basis of meaning and 
meaningful existence. 
6. Participation and self-reliance 
To state that consciousness and the constitution of meaning should form the basis of 
development thinking, brings one to the concepts of participation and self-reliance: the 
two pillars of responsible well-being. Real participation takes place when people are 
consciously involved in development. Participation and self-reliance in the development 
context imply and emphasise the necessity to involve those people who are the 
supposed beneficiaries of development. Participation means breaking the monopoly of 
52 
knowledge. The only way in which self-reliant, endogenous development can be 
attained is to work with the assumption that the beneficiaries of development will also 
have to be its contributors. The ultimate end of development is well-being. 
From the for-going paragraphs, it becomes very clear that the six principles of human 
centred development are closely related to the different components of mental health. 
The care of mental health and more specifically the promotion of mental well-being can 
therefore be regarded as an important part of the sustainable development of mining 
communities. To give further support to this view, the overall importance of mental 
health will subsequently be discussed. 
3.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL HEALTH 
In terms of the significance for this research, the following discussion on the importance 
of health will be divided into two sections. The first section looks at the overall 
importance of mental health, while the second section focuses on the importance of 
mental health in the workplace. 
3.5.1 The general importance of mental health 
Our minds are not separate entities from the rest of us and when we are distressed, our 
physical health is also affected. Many physical conditions are actually rooted in a state 
of mind, or in a history of stress that has never been resolved. Our personal 
relationships and work abilities are affected by both physical and mental health factors. 
Lives can even be endangered when people are stressed, depressed, anxious or 
grief-stricken (Helpguide, 2007). 
Accordingly, Tsai (2007) argues that components of mental health do not only affect 
emotional states, but physiological and biological states as well. Psychological and 
social factors have been linked to physical disease states in the following three ways: 
Psycho-physiological hyperactivity means that there is continuous mental stress 
being exerted on the body. If one is continuously exposed to a stressful 
53 
environment, the body's ability to fight infection is reduced. Stress in all its forms, 
from mental to job-related, affects physical health in a variety of ways. 
- Disease stability refers to how psychological or social factors may influence existing 
disease. For instance, people who have asthma can never exactly predict when an 
asthma attack will occur or how severe the attack will be. Attacks and severity, 
however, can be influenced by psychosocial factors such as the degree of stress in 
the immediate environment. The greater the stress the person is feeling, the 
greater the chance of a severe attack. 
Host vulnerability is the prolonged effects of stress on the body. In essence, the 
patient or "host" is much more vulnerable to disease and illness because of 
exposure to mental stressors. 
3.5.2 The importance of mental health in the work-place 
Reynolds (1997) indicates that the enhancement of psychological well-being at work has 
been described as "one of the most significant issues of the times" (Puryear & Hurrell, 
1994) and both UK and USA government agencies identify mental health problems 
among the most frequent work-related diseases (NIOSH 1988:31-50; Hodgson et a/., 
1993). Also, more workers are absent from work due to stress and anxiety than as 
a result of physical illness or injury (Marlowe, 2002). 
A premiere North American public opinion survey conducted by Ipsos Reid for The 
Global Business and Economic Roundtable on Addiction and Mental Health was 
released in February 2007. This survey involved a representative sample of 1 000 
Canadians and 1 000 Americans and was released at a special Roundtable convened 
by Ambassador Michael Wilson at the Canadian Embassy in Washington, DC. One of 
the findings of this survey state that 84% of North Americans say that CEO's should 
make the helping of employees in the work-place with depression a key human 
resources priority (IPSOS, 2007). Another American survey (Employee Benefit News, 
2007) suggests that corporate HR managers recognise the toll mental illness can take 
on a company. This survey consisted of more than 500 responses from companies of 
all sizes across America. When asked to rank which health issue, in their belief, incurs 
the highest indirect cost, more respondents selected mental illness than any other 
condition. 
54 
Investing in a mentally healthy work-force is good for business (Partnership for 
Workplace Mental Health, 2006). It can lower total medical costs, increase productivity, 
lower absenteeism and decrease disability costs. Recognising these truths, many 
businesses have invested in the mental health services necessary to create a mentally 
healthy work-force. These businesses have realised the value, both in financial and 
human terms, of treating mental illnesses on a par with other medical illnesses. 
Businesses that have been slow to invest in mental health services for employees 
appear to have three major stumbling blocks: 
misperceptions about the cost-effectiveness of treatment 
lack of information concerning the direct and indirect costs of mental illness in the 
work-place 
a general wariness about all things related to mental illness 
When employees with mental illness are not treated or are treated insufficiently, 
employers often end up paying more. Direct costs include expenses for health and 
mental healthcare services, pharmaceuticals, short- and long-term disability and other 
services related to the provision of care. Subsequent inpatient and outpatient services, 
laboratory and diagnostic procedures and pharmaceutical expenses could be mitigated 
or avoided entirely with early intervention and proper treatment. Additionally, failure to 
treat mental health disorders properly can adversely affect the rate of disability claims 
and their duration (Partnership for Workplace Mental Health, 2006). 
Evans and Steptoe (2002) refer to a significant amount of literature, linking work stress 
with health and well-being in men and women. They indicate that, although many 
aspects in working life are potentially stressful, research over recent years has focused 
on salient themes such as demands, control, rewards and support (Warr, 1987). 
Thus several studies have shown that the combination of high demands and low control 
at work (job strain) is associated with psychological distress and with health complaints 
(Bourbonnais et a/., 1999; Cheng et aL, 2000; De Jonge et at., 2000). This description 
seems to be very relevant to the mining sector. 
55 
Evans and Steptoe (2002) further illustrate that social support in the work-place has 
been shown to be protective against adverse health outcomes in a number of 
investigations. Conflict between work and home and problems associated with domestic 
responsibilities are additional sources for stress that may augment risk of diminished 
well-being in vulnerable individuals. 
According to Els and De la Rey (2006), South African organisations mainly apply a 
negative, illness-health (see Figure 1) approach to human resource management. They 
argue that too many organisations use a pathogenic approach by resorting to illness 
recovery models of health, and that millions are lost because organisations simply do 
not promote wellness. 
Els and De la Rey (2006) continue by giving a description of the two types of health 
care being practised in organisations: 
On the one hand, organisations that operate in the "negative" domain of health-care 
rely on a medical-remedial paradigm. These types of organisations focus on the 
creation of wealth and peak performance as the key indicators of business success. 
They are typified by greed, selfishness, manipulation, secrecy and single-minded 
focus on winning (Cameron et a/., 2003). The behaviour of individuals working in 
organisations such as these are characterised by distrust, anxiety, self-absorption, 
fear, burnout and feelings of abuse (illness). Industrial conflict, lawsuits, contract 
breaking and retribution arise while disrespect for others is observable in many 
interpersonal interactions and relationships within these organisations (Harter ef a/., 
2003). 
At the other extreme of the continuum, namely the health-wellness approach, are 
appreciation, collaboration, virtuousness, vitality and meaningfulness which typify 
behaviour. Creating wealth and promoting human wellness are key indicators of 
success in those organisations that flourish as a result of their employees' wellness 
(Keyes & Haidt, 2003). Employee behaviour in these organisations is characterised 
by trustworthiness, resilience, wisdom, humaneness and high levels of positive 
energy application. Self-efficacy, optimism, hope, happiness and joy, generosity, 
perseverance, courage, coping and flow are all indicators of positive organisational 
behaviour (Seligman, 1998). 
56 
The illness-health-wellness mismanagement can therefore have catastrophic impacts on 
organisations. The health of employees as well as that of their family members can 
significantly affect absenteeism, productivity and employment costs. The total costs in 
terms of medical aid, sick leave pay, severance pay, pension contributions, legal 
benefits, employee insurance and life cover benefits should all be included in the 
calculation to understand the total economic impact (Els & De la Rey, 2006). It is clear 
then, that the mental health care of employees is a very important aspect of human 
resource management that must be taken into account in the work-place, as well as at 
home. High-quality mental health care and especially positive mental health care 
(promotion of well-being), forms a very important part of organisations that are 
successful and optimally productive. It is therefore necessary to look at some factors in 
the work-place that are regarded as potential threats to the mental health of employees. 
3.6 FACTORS THAT CAN INCREASE THE RISK OF MENTAL ILLNESS 
Mental health problems can be the outcome of many different kinds of experiences in a 
person's life, from early childhood to later life events. Many of the factors that can 
increase the risk of mental health problems that are mentioned in the literature 
(Helpguide, 2007) also correlate with the work of Chenga and Cronje (2007). Some 
examples are the following: 
Environments that are chaotic, unsafe or dangerous (for example living in a violent 
home, or living in a house with shedding asbestos, peeling lead paint, or toxic 
drinking water) 
Traumas or serious losses early in life (such as the death of a parent in childhood, 
or being abused or neglected) 
Loss of social support (due to death of a loved one, divorce, moving away from 
friends and family, break up of a relationship, loss of a job, or loss of trust) 
Social conditions that are unhealthy (such as poverty, homelessness and 
community violence) 
Experiences that undermine self-confidence (such as social or work-related 
failures) 
57 
Learned helplessness and negative thought patterns (chronic or repeated 
stressful events leading to the belief of helplessness, reinforced by lack of control 
over the situation) 
Chronic illness (such as heart disease, stroke, HIV, Parkinson's, cancer, or 
diabetes) that seriously restrict activity 
Side effects of medications (for example blood pressure medications and 
numerous other drugs) 
Substance abuse (alcohol and some drugs are known to have depressive effects, 
and the negative social and personal consequences of substance abuse can also 
be a contributing factor to depression). However, it is not clear which comes first -
depression and attempts to control it with substances, or the use of substances that 
then cause depression 
Genetic causes (people with close family members who suffer from depression are 
more prone to depression). However, since no gene for depression has been 
found, this may be environmental rather than genetic 
Biochemical causes (an imbalance of neurotransmitters such as serotonin is 
known to affect the processing of thoughts and emotions) 
All of these risk factors or possible causes of mental illness can clearly be associated 
with the mining environment. Chenga and Cronje (2007) describe the mining 
environment as a "breeding ground" for mental health problems. People living in mining 
environments are exposed to social and environmental conditions that can have 
enormous direct and indirect impacts on their state of mental health. 
Families in remote mining towns constitute a specific sociological group living under 
unique geographical and socio-cultural circumstances. Isolation from friends and 
relatives and limited resources and opportunities for family members of mine workers 
are some of the distinct disadvantages of these towns. Decades ago it was observed 
that a large number of women in new and remote mining towns suffered from neurotic 
problems. In contemporary times there is a deficit of knowledge (see 'problem 
statement' under 1.3) about the mental health of women in remote mining towns. 
However, there are certain indicators of significant mental distress among women 
living in these particular environments (Sharma & Rees, 2007). 
58 
Sharma and Rees (2007) also indicate that an inquiry into psychiatric well-being among 
women of remote mining communities needs to consider the socio-cultural structure and 
processes within these communities, as well as the structural nature of the mining job 
that could be responsible for role strain-induced stress and mental health problems 
among these women. These concerns illustrate the fact that mining operations and its 
aftermath can definitely have a negative impact on the mental health of the surrounding 
communities. It is therefore necessary that mining companies are taking the proper 
steps in ensuring the sustainability of mining communities' livelihoods and are helping to 
prevent the living environments that can lead to mental health problems (a/so see 
Chenga & Cronje, 2007; Cronje & Chenga, 2007a). 
If proper steps aren't taken in reducing the negative impacts of mining on community 
mental health, it can also lead to a range of other quite devastating effects. These 
effects will consequently be discussed. 
3.7 THE EFFECTS OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS 
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2007), mental illness affects the 
functioning and thinking processes of individuals and greatly diminishes their social role 
and productivity in the community. In addition, because mental illnesses are disabling 
and last for many years, they can also take a tremendous toll on the emotional and 
socio-economic capabilities of relatives who care for the patient, especially when the 
health system is unable to offer treatment and support at an early stage. 
Some of the specific economic and social costs (WHO, 2007) include: 
lost production from premature deaths caused by suicide (generally equivalent to, 
and in some countries greater, than deaths from road traffic accidents) 
lost production from people with mental illness who are unable to work, in the 
short, medium or long term 
lost productivity from family members caring for the mentally-ill person 
reduced productivity from people being ill while at work 
59 
the cost of accidents by people who are psychologically disturbed, especially 
dangerous in people who are train drivers, airline pilots, factory workers and mine 
workers for instance. This is a very important point of concern for the mining 
environment where there are high amounts of fatalities due to accidents. 
supporting dependents of the mentally ill person 
direct and indirect financial costs for families caring for the mentally-ill person 
unemployment, alienation and crime in young people whose childhood problems, 
(e.g. depression and behaviour disorder) were not sufficiently addressed for them to 
benefit fully from the education available 
poor cognitive development in the children of mentally ill parents 
the emotional burden and diminished quality of life for family members 
From the effects identified here, it also becomes clear that mental illness in the 
members of mining communities can impact negatively on the rest of the community, as 
well as on the mining company through loss of production. 
3.8 CONCLUSION 
As is the case with CSR, Mental Health is a concept that is difficult to explain in a single 
definition. To get to a deeper understanding of the meaning of mental health, it has 
proven to be quite useful to explore some of its relevant concepts as well as the different 
components thereof. The care of mental health and more specifically the promotion of 
the mental well-being (positive mental health) of mining communities is a very important 
part of their sustainable development. Several mining communities are characterised by 
dreadful living conditions that may impact directly or indirectly on community mental 
health. If the mental health care of mining communities is an aspect that stays ignored 
and excluded from CSR programs, the dire social conditions that continue to plague 
these communities will persist. 
When attempting to determine the causes of mental health problems in mining 
communities, it seems best to use a perspective such as the BPS model that takes into 
consideration a broad perspective which includes social, biological and psychological 
60 
factors. Consequently, the chapter to follow will present the findings in terms of the 
current state of mental health (from a BPS perspective) in certain areas of the South 
African mining sector. 
61 
CHAPTER FOUR 
MENTAL HEALTH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINING SECTOR: FINDINGS 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 
The South African mining sector has enjoyed decades of profiteering and unchecked 
neglect of developmental needs of surrounding communities. Most of the communities 
surrounding South African mines are characterised by social problems that include 
poverty, poor health, unemployment, adult illiteracy, poor housing, family disorganisation 
and high influx of unaccompanied migrant labour (Cronje & Chenga, 2007). In addition, 
communities are often exposed to toxic environmental hazards from mine operation 
wastes. The mining environment is also fast growing and is associated with high 
earnings for the mining corporations which have an impact on the local communities 
who are usually unable to respond to this across-the-board momentum because of their 
rural based background. Consequently the local population experiences cultural shock 
and do not respond effectively to the developmental changes, occupational skills 
requirements and the rapid change from an agricultural based society to a cash 
dependent environment (Cronje & Chenga, 2007). In line with the objectives (as set out 
in Chapter One) and more specifically objective number 3 (see 1.4.2), this chapter 
aims at describing the current state of mental health of mining communities, according 
to the experiences of people that are working in and living around the mining sector. It 
must again be stated that when speaking of 'mining communities', this study refers to 
people that are significantly affected by the mining activities and are associated with the 
mine(s) through direct employment (in other words - mine workers at different levels as 
well as mine management) or through environmental, social and economic impacts (see 
2.4). In addition, this chapter further describes the main contributing factors (or causes) 
towards the above-mentioned state of mental health. 
Consequently, the quantitative data that was collected by means of the questionnaires 
will be presented. 
62 
4.2 COMPARING THE EXPERIENCE OF MINE MANAGEMENT AND 
MEMBERS OF CIVIL SOCIETY 
The four tables and two accompanying figures below, illustrate how different 
stakeholders in the mining sector (mine management and civil society groups which 
include members of mine communities) experience the mental health of people working 
and living in these environments. An indication is given of how these two groups view 
mental health in the mining communities by means of average scores that were 
obtained in the "Mining - Mental Health Questionnaire" {see 1.5.2 as well as 
Appendix). 
Table 1: Mine management's opinion on positive mental health in the communities 
Item Score 
(Percentage) 
Good living conditions 25% 
Satisfaction with life 37.5% 
Meaning in life 50% 
Dealing well with problems 37.5% 
Thinking clearly or cognitive ability 50% 
I Optimism about the future 50% 
63 
Table 2: The opinion of communitylcivil society groups on positive mental health 
in the communities 
Item Score 
(Percentage) 
Good living conditions 0% 
Satisfaction with life 0% 
Meaning in life 12.5% 
Dealing well with problems 12.5% 
Thinking clearly or cognitive ability 31% 
Optimism about the future 6% 
Figure 3: Graphic illustration of compared opinions - positive mental health 
100% 
90% 
70% 
60% 
50% 
40% 
30% 
20% 
10% 
0% 
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I Management 
i Community/Civil society 
64 
One aim of this research was that when determining the state of mental health in the 
mining communities, focus would not only fall on mental health problems or pathology, 
but that positive mental health components would also be taken account of (compare 
literature review in 3.3.2). By not only focusing on the things that are wrong, but also on 
those things that are right, it allows for a more comprehensive perspective on the overall 
condition of people's mental health. When looking at mental health through the scope of 
positive psychology, it involves conditions and processes that contribute to the 
flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups and institutions (Gable & Haidt, 
2005:104). This is in line with the definitions of mental health which describe it as not 
only the absence of disease, but also the presence of different components of well-being 
(see 3.3). Furthermore, this perspective will ultimately lead to the making of better 
policy recommendations for the improvement of mental health care in mining 
communities, by strengthening and building on some of the positive mental health traits 
of people and not only by treating illness. 
Judging from the respondents' opinions on the positive mental health in the mining 
communities (see Tables 1 & 2 and Figure 3) there are very little positive psychological 
qualities to be found. Noteworthy is that "good living conditions" and "satisfaction with 
iife" were the items that received the lowest scores for both groups. This may be an 
indication of a strong link between people's concrete needs and their positive emotions. 
Although both groups gave low percentages in terms of their view of the overall positive 
mental health, there is quite a 'gap' to be observed between the opinions of 
management and those of civil society. It can in other words be stated that there is 
room for improvement for mine management to become more 'in touch' with how 
communities really feel. This disparity in the two groups' perceptions may also be an 
indication on how stakeholder engagement from the companies' side can still improve. 
As stated above, one of the aims of data collection regarding the state of mental health 
was to take account of positive psychological components. It is therefore obvious that 
the other part of the focus fell on identifying certain mental health problems in the 
communities. The two following tables and figure give an indication of how the two 
groups experience negative mental health in the communities. 
65 
Table 3: The opinion of mine management on negative mental health of 
communities 
Item Score 
(Percentage) 
Constantly feel stressed 78% 
1 Can't overcome their difficulties 62.5% 
Generally struggle with life 50% 
Get scared/panicky for no good reason 37.5% 
Feeling worthless 12.5% 
Life is entirely hopeless 12.5% 
Table 4: The opinion of communitylcivil society groups on the negative mental 
health of communities 
Item Score 
(Percentage) 
| Constantly feel stressed 93%~~ I 
Can't overcome their difficulties 87.5% 
Generally struggle with life 87.5% 
Get scared/panicky for no good reason 62.5% 
Feeling worthless 81% 
Life is entirely hopeless 75% 
66 
Figure 4: Graphic illustration of compared opinions - negative mental health 
# 
JP _** ^ 
** 
• ? .*PN ,*° 
if 
if s 
JSV 
.<f 
& 
c? s / & 
I Management 
I Community/Civil society 
Contrary to the positive mental health indicators, the two tables and the figure above 
illustrate that there is a large number of negative mental health elements to be found in 
the mining communities. According to the data, management and civil 
society/community groups agree that stress is the biggest mental health problem in the 
mining sector. There seems to be less of a disparity between opinions of the two groups 
when it comes to negative mental health compared to opinions on positive mental 
health; although it is still largely the case when looking at certain indicators, e.g. "life is 
entirely hopeless". It is also evident from the data that negative mental health qualities 
are experienced in a more intense way than the positive mental health qualities. Where 
none of the positive mental health indicators went above the 50% mark, only 3 indicators 
(from mine management) regarding negative mental health were not above 50%. With 
low measures of positive mental health and with very high measures of negative mental 
health, it seems the state of mental health in these South African mining communities is 
in very bad shape. 
67 
In the next section of this chapter, the qualitative data that was collected during the 
interviews and focus groups will be presented and discussed. 
4.3 IDENTIFYING THE MAIN MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES IN THE SOUTH 
AFRICAN MINING SECTOR 
From the interviews and focus groups held in specific mining environments in the 
country (see 1.5.1.2) the following main concerns regarding mental health were 
identified. These concerns give a more thorough description of how respondents 
experience the mental health of people living and working in the mining environment, but 
may also serve as their description of the causes of or factors contributing to the 
current situation. The issues that were identified are the following: 
Stress 
Unnatural and unhealthy work environment 
- Migrant issues 
Poor living conditions 
Substance abuse 
- Shift work 
- Safety and physical health concerns 
Mine culture 
- Stigma attached to getting MH care 
Impact of mining on workers' home and social life 
As already implied in Chapter Three (see 3.3.3), the approach that was followed during 
the identification process of these mental health issues was inclusive of the biological, 
the psychological, as well as the social domains of life. In other words, the 
biopsychosocial (BPS) model of Engel (1980) was applied during this phase of data 
collection. In doing so, it allowed for a wider perspective (than for example the 
biomedical model) on identifying the causes of these mental health issues, which 
consequently also allowed the person being interviewed a larger degree of freedom to 
68 
participate in directing the flow of the conversation. Most of the concerns identified have 
more than one source of origin, for example substance abuse may happen as a result 
of biological (genetic predisposition), psychological (anxiety) and/or social (peer 
pressure) causes. 
4.3.1 Stress 
The leading issue that stands out when discussing mental health in the South African 
mining environment is stress. Stress can definitely be identified as the most prevalent 
mental health problem as well as the biggest contributing factor to other mental health 
problems in the mining sector. However, stress does not only lead to other mental 
health problems (see 3.4), but it can also be the root cause of physical and social 
problems, e.g. heart conditions or accidents happening as a result of poor concentration. 
People living and working in the mining environment experience stress for a variety of 
reasons that range from financial pressures, to coping with the expectations of the 
physical mine environment. The following are some of the comments people made 
when discussing the problem of stress as it is linked to different types of stressors 
found in the mine environment: 
• Production: reaching targets and deadlines 
"People are under pressure to deliver...especially for middle to top management there is 
a temptation for people to work very late and even over weekends..." (Mine manager) 
"I have a budget to work with that has to be booked, otherwise I will not be able to fulfil 
my responsibilities...If you have 60 people that work under you and they don't care 
about tomorrow it is difficult and stressful...and management pressure you, they want 
the work to be done...if you don't deliver, they will give the work to another 
contractor...and there are lots of competition, you have to perform." {Mine contractor) 
"There are exceptionally high levels of expectation here on people to perform. 
Consequently the stress levels are very high." (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"...for new guys coming to work in the mine it is also very stressful...you sometimes have 
seven or eight bosses on top of you that each have their own will and own mind on how 
69 
things should be done...I see a lot of people that just come in to work at the mine and 
when you look again, they are gone...even management positions change all the time. 
You constantly have to get accustomed to someone new in charge of you. People get 
sick and tired of the whole thing very quickly..." (Mine contractor) 
"When you are a mine worker, you are like a ham burger...the people who work under 
you is the bun underneath, then you have management on top and you are the meat in 
the middle that has to cope with all the stress and pressure coming from both sides." 
(Shift supervisor) 
"There is a lot of restructuring that goes on the whole time in the industry...in my own 
department I can't really say that people are suffering from mental illness, but you know 
that these processes are affecting them when they suddenly become sick or they are 
edgy and anxious at work...me myself is also very on the edge at the moment because I 
have got so many appointments to attend to and other things that I should do and there 
is just not enough time to get to all of it... The higher you are up on the hierarchy, the 
more stress you experience because you have more responsibilities." (Mine manager) 
"...there are also other outside pressures that have a direct impact on the mining 
industry...like Eskom's recent power 'load shedding'...it is especially the gold mines that 
has been very badly affected by this." (Mine captain) 
• Transforms tion 
"Transformation is definitely playing a big role in the mining environment, placing people 
under a lot of pressure...especially on those people who have been working in the 
industry for a long time and is used to doing things in certain ways. There are some 
people that find it more difficult to accept and adapt to the expectations of 
transformation."{Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"...transformation is about change. Therefore it is a new thing to a lot of people working 
in the mine environment and it can be very stressful. Those who see it benefiting 
someone else on account of skin colour or gender may feel that they are now an 
endangered species...to those who are benefiting from it, they sometimes feel that they 
now have to perform even better to be able to show that they actually deserve it..it is a 
very controversial issue that becomes very stressful." (Mine manager) 
70 
"You may have some people working for you that are not on scratch yet as your 
numbers have to be BEE compliant, but production needs to keep flowing the whole 
time...this creates a lot of pressure.. ."(Medical doctor) 
"...for women who come into the mine it can also be stressful when they do work that 
has traditionally been known as a man's job and now having to try and work twice as 
hard trying to prove themselves...for the other people who may have to start taking 
instructions from women it may also be stressful" (Mine manager) 
• Financial pressures 
"Many people working in the mines have trouble with their finances...some are making 
use of short-term cash loan schemes...when people are constantly under stress 
because of these types of worries, their concentration is not what it should be and on a 
psychological level it also affects their behaviour e.g. someone who under normal 
circumstances would never steal, may start to do so now out of need..." (Medical 
doctor/Mine manager) 
"The unemployment rate in the communities is very high...people don't have any place 
to go around here to find work, except for in the mines. Then you can't complain with 
how things are at work, because this is all that you have and you can't choose 
something better" (Official of local government) 
Taylor and Repetti (1997) state that work stressors are among the most common and 
upsetting stressors that people report and because the majority of adults work full-time, 
they may be exposed to the health-compromising effects of these conditions over the 
long term. Chronic stress is the mechanism most commonly offered to explain the 
adverse effects of the work environment on health. Lerner et al. (1994) found that work 
strain is negatively associated with health-related quality of life, including physical 
functioning, role functioning related to physical health, vitality, social functioning and 
mental health. Work-place stress is usually the result of high demands on the job, real 
or perceived lack of control concerning those demands, poor day-to-day organisation 
and communication and an unsupportive work environment. The following table (see 
Table 5) lays out many other factors that lead to job stress (Helpguide, 2008). When 
comparing these factors to the quotes given above, it is evident that the mining 
environment is a place that contains most of (if not all) these factors or stressors: 
71 
Table 5: Factors that may lead to job stress 
Types of Job 
St res so rs Examples 
Specific work 
factors 
- Excessive workload 
- Tedious or meaningless tasks 
- Long hours and low pay 
- Infrequent rest breaks 
- Unreasonable performance demands 
Physical 
environment 
- Noise and overcrowding 
- Poor air quality 
- Ergonomic problems 
- Health and safety risks (heavy equipment, toxic chemicals) 
Organisational 
practices 
- Unclear responsibilities or expectations 
- Conflicting job demands 
- Multiple supervisors 
- Lack of autonomy or participation in decision-making 
- Inefficient communication patterns 
- Lack of family-friendly policies 
Work-place 
change 
- Fear of layoff 
- Frequent personnel turnover 
- Lack of preparation for technological changes 
- Poor chances for advancement or promotion 
- Tensions brought about by greater work-place diversity 
Interpersonal 
relationships 
- Distant, uncommunicative supervisors 
- Poor performance from subordinates 
- Office politics, competition, and other conflicts among staff 
- Bullying or harassment 
- Problems caused by excessive time away from family 
Source: He/pguide (2008) 
4.3.2 Unnatural and unhealthy work environment 
As indicated earlier (see 3.4 as well as the Table above), an environment that is chaotic, 
unsafe or dangerous is a risk factor for developing mental health problems. This factor 
is closely linked to the other work stressors that were mentioned above and may also be 
classified as a work stressor, but because it is such a huge and impacting characteristic 
of the mining environment it will be treated here as a separate mental health concern. 
The following quotes provide an indication of people's opinions regarding the work 
environment in the mining sector: 
72 
"Mine activities are impacting on a person's mental health because it is not natural for a 
human being to work in a dark hole...people also have to work long shifts down there...it 
can be described as a 'hostile environment' to work in" (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"It is a very hard working environment, especially for someone who is new. It takes time 
to get used to and you can't start pressuring the new people from the beginning because 
you will get a lot of resistance." (Mine manager) 
Taylor and Repetti (1997:414) indicate that environments exert direct effects on 
health that may be largely unmediated or unmoderated by psychological and social 
processes, except insofar as they lay the initial groundwork for their occurrence. Louw 
and Edwards (1998) point out that South Africa has the deepest mines in the world. 
Although the industry is trying to improve the safety standards in the mines, the working 
conditions in the mines remain very poor. High humidity, loud noise, lack of fresh air, 
harmful gasses and poor light all contribute to a very stressful working environment. 
4.3.3 Migrant issues 
Many of the migration patterns in Southern Africa started in colonial times as the result 
of exploitation of minerals. These patterns are still in existence today and many of the 
mine workers that are currently working in South Africa's mines can be classified as 
migrant labourers. Migrant labour is a complex issue that is known to have a link with 
various social problems such as xenophobia, substance abuse, prostitution and 
indirectly also to health problems such as the spread of diseases, for instance 
HIV/AIDS. The following comments provide an illustration of people's attitudes on the 
migrant labour system of the mining environment and how it impacts on mental health. 
"A lot of people that work on the mines are migrants. They come here and start a new 
life for themselves apart from the life they leave at home, because they are away from 
home for long periods of time. It may be that they have a wife and kids back home but it 
often happens that they start a second family here also. Some of the migrant workers 
even own cattle here that they have to try and get transport for when they go back to 
their original homes again. Ail of this creates extra costs of living which they have to 
cope with and which consequently also create financial stress...This 'having to pay all 
73 
the time' lifestyle is making them feel negative about life and even depressed." (Medical 
doctor) 
"For migrant workers it is also very difficult when they get a call from home, saying that 
there is some kind of a problem, but now they are here, miles away and there is nothing 
they can do about it except to worry about it the while at work... When they want to go 
home to go and sort out the problem and they live in Mozambique for instance, it would 
take about a whole week to be away from work...if they decide to stay here, some will 
internalise the problem and others will behave aggressively..."{Mine manager) 
"The work that we do here has had the result that there has been an influx of a lot of 
aspiring job seekers coming into this town. Especially for local government in terms of 
delivery of medical services, it has created some problems. The load of needs that has 
to be met is too big." (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"/ have to tell you, there are more migrants working here in the mines than our own 
people...at some stage when I was living in Natal, I experienced that there were more 
Nigerians than Zulu people and it is them that bring in all the drugs..." (Mine contractor) 
"... there is also a big impact of the 'big virus' [HIV] on these people. We did a test a while 
ago in one of the mining squatter camps behind one of the big mines in the area. We 
went to test 968 people randomly for HIV which included men, women and children and 
from them, there were 572 people infected with HIV. That is 59% of people that is HIV 
positive. If I would take you there, you will see the rows and rows of children's graves 
there and then you will understand the big impact that this virus has on those 
people...and it is mostly migrant workers that come from Mozambique, Zimbabwe or 
from the Eastern Cape." (Medical doctor) 
"Migrant workers often abuse alcohol because they miss their home and have nothing to 
do here but to get drunk after work and to find another woman to keep them busy...there 
is now a need for stable family structures for a healthy community." (Medical doctor) 
"There are a lot of Mozambique and Zimbabwean people working here...some of the 
local people feel that they came to steal their jobs and wives and this creates a lot of 
conflict...the situation is getting worse every day." (Mine contractor) 
74 
"People are afraid that the migrants who come into the mine will take away their work. 
This causes a lot of stress." (Mine worker) 
"...it is a vicious cycle of circumstances. When workers have spent the whole day 
underground, they want some entertainment when they get back up. Then they go for a 
few drinks and the next thing that they want is to get a woman..." (Medical doctor) 
Apart from the social problems that are related to migrant labour, literature (Ruiz, 2004) 
reveals that the migration process produces "acculturation stress". This stress can 
lead to the development of psychiatric conditions such as posttraumatic stress disorder, 
depression, substance use and abuse, suicide, etc. 
4.3.4 Poor living conditions 
Generally, the housing conditions in mining communities are very poor. There is a 
serious shortage of adequate housing and a large part of the population is living in tin 
shacks (poorly constructed corrugated sheds) as their permanent home. Initially some 
of these tin shacks were set up by migrants, but in some areas the tin shacks 
accommodate both the local people and the migrants. The poor housing conditions 
have been blamed for the increase in the spread of disease because of overcrowding. 
In addition, these poor housing conditions also cause family disorganisation and early 
sexual experiences for the young, because in some instances, a shack can house three 
to four families and at times they are only separated by curtains. The mining 
communities are further characterised by high unemployment levels for the local 
community members as well as a large number of documented and undocumented 
migrants seeking work (Cronje & Chenga, 2007). 
"The mines, because of the blasting they do underground make our houses to shake 
and crack and it affects us...also the pollution that comes from the smelter has an effect 
on us." (Community group) 
"There is a lot of unemployment in the community...the mines tell us that we don't have 
the skills to be employed by them, but they promised us that they will come and give us 
training... but still nothing has happened and people sit without jobs... we need the mines 
75 
to provide us with jobs, because if there is a lot of unemployment, there is a lot of crime 
in the community and that creates many social problems." (Community group) 
"We don't have good sanitation here in the community...there is rubbish lying all over the 
place. Some days we also don't have water or electricity. You feel that you want to leave 
this place and go somewhere else." (Community group) 
"The blasting of the mines cracks our houses...glasses fall and break and even the 
floors don't last very long...there is also a lot of pollution around here and there are 
many people that have TB." (Youth group) 
"We get a lot of people that come here and say that they talk to their hearts' the whole 
time. That is just another way of saying that they are stressed or depressed. ... This is 
because they are unhappy with their living conditions and with their environments." 
(Medical doctor) 
"The living conditions of people living around the mines are very poor, but people get 
used to it and later on they stop noticing that the way in which they live their lives are in 
such a bad state...this is opposite to good mental health...we would expect more from 
the companies in letting the communities know about the effect of them being here on 
people's mental health." (Official of local government) 
Wright and Kloos (2006) found that more favourable ratings of one's housing 
environment are related to multiple well-being outcomes. In addition, different levels of 
housing environments have differential effects on various domains of individuals' well-
being. According to the World Health Organisation (2001) depression is more 
common among the poor than the rich. There is also evidence that the course of 
disorders is determined by the socioeconomic status of the individual (Kessler et a/., 
1994; Saraceno & Barbui, 1997). This may be a result of service-related variables, 
including barriers to accessing care. Poor countries have few resources for mental 
health care and these resources are often unavailable to the poorer segments of 
society. Even in rich countries, poverty and associated factors such as lack of 
insurance coverage, lower levels of education, unemployment, and racial, ethnic 
and language minority status create overwhelming barriers to care. The treatment 
gap for most mental disorders is large, but for the poor population it is massive. Poor 
76 
people often raise mental health concerns when seeking treatment for physical 
problems. The relationship between mental and behavioural disorders, including those 
related to alcohol use, and the economic development of communities has not been 
explored in a systematic way. It appears, however, that the vicious cycle of poverty and 
mental disorders at the family level may well be operative at the community and country 
levels (WHO, 2001:40). 
4.3.5 Substance abuse 
One of the biggest concerns that were found regarding mental health in the mining 
sector is the abuse of substances such as alcohol and drugs. The drinking of alcohol 
seems to be the biggest problem and is associated with all levels of employment in the 
mines as well as affecting young and old, male and female, migrant as well as local 
members living in the mining communities. As indicated earlier, it is difficult to 
determine whether substance abuse takes place as a result of other mental health 
problems (such as depression and anxiety), or if it should rather be classified as a cause 
of mental health problems. It seems that in the South African mining environment it can 
be both. The following quotes are comments that were made by respondents regarding 
this matter: 
"Workers get trapped in this cycle of feeling that they need to drink to go to sleep to go 
to work to go drinking again, etc... You should see how they sit and drink in the 
taverns...and it is not only over weekends, but also during the week. When these 
workers get drunk they feel that they are more manly and then go sleeping around and 
the next moment they know, they are infected with HIV." (Medical doctor) 
"Some of the youth use drugs...because life around here is not right. Some youth don't 
go to school...they also have babies very early...there are some girls here that are 
thirteen or fourteen years old that are pregnant...the people use drugs to cope with life." 
(Youth group) 
"People drink a lot. After work, they go to the club to drink away the stress of the week 
and then at least for that moment, you forget about your problems and all the other 
pressures that you are under...and so it carries on day after day." (Mine contractor) 
77 
"...substance abuse also happens under the senior people [management] working in the 
industry. You also find it under their families. Drugs are freely available these 
days...almost everywhere in the country." (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"...a lot of the mine workers go to drink in the afternoon. What happens the following 
morning is that they go to work with a hangover, the concentration is not there and then 
accidents happen."(Medical doctor) 
According to a MRC (Medical Research Council) report, alcohol abuse is particularly 
prevalent in certain professions, such as among sex workers, workers in the mine 
industry and workers in the fruit and wine industry (Health24). Many of South Africa's 
social and health problems can be attributed to the misuse of alcohol, with sexual risk 
behaviours considered to be one such problem (Pithey & Marojele, 2002). Regarding 
the mining industry, there are certain factors to be found in the environment that 
predispose mineworkers to drink and misuse alcohol. Unsatisfactory work and 
living conditions mean that mine workers often live in single-sex hostels based at the 
mine sites with one of the only places to socialise being the liquor outlets. Boredom and 
peer pressure are also associated with this lifestyle and can further contribute to drinking 
among miners (Pithey & Marojele, 2002). 
Pick ef al. (2003) found that in the South African mining industry, low levels of education 
and low job categories can be positively associated with alcohol misuse and cannabis 
use. Being a contract worker is also positively associated with cannabis use. 
Employees in lower job categories and lower levels of education are more likely to be in 
the more physically demanding jobs and may use substances to cope with stress. 
Substance abuse (in the form of alcohol or other drugs) does not only affect an 
individual's work performance, personal relationships and physical health, but also many 
other aspects including the people surrounding the individual. Mental health and social 
problems that people are more at risk for as a result of substance abuse are various 
psychological disorders (e.g. mood disorders) (Kessler ef a/., 1996; Castaneda et al., 
1996), homelessness (Fischer & Breaky, 1991), child adaptation and behaviour 
disorders (Johnson & Leff, 1999) and HIV/AIDS (NIAAA, 2000). 
Cronje and Chenga (2007) indicate that alcohol abuse in mining communities manifests 
itself in the form of increased violence during the weekends after payday, men not 
78 
returning home or not turning up for work for a period of two to three days after pay and 
reports of rape around the beer holes. Health problems related to alcohol problems 
according to the communities include risk of rape, risk of transmission of HIV/AIDS and 
stress because of lack of money after a period of bingeing. There is also a lack of 
knowledge in the communities regarding the impact of alcohol on people's physical and 
mental health which is reflected by the lack of help-seeking behaviour relating to alcohol 
problems. Many factors are contributing to this; some of these include not perceiving 
alcoholism as an illness; therefore not seeking medical help, inadequate and 
overcrowded health care facilities making it difficult to undertake appropriate 
assessment for an alcohol-related diagnosis, nonexistent support groups, poor access 
to relevant therapeutic intervention in the area and shame and stigma associated with 
having an alcohol-related problem (Kleinman, 1980). 
4.3.6 Shiftwork 
Rosa and Colligan (1997:iii) point out that working at night makes it difficult to get 
enough sleep and that sleeping after night work is usually shorter and less refreshing or 
satisfying than sleep during the normal night-time hours. Brain and body functions slow 
down during the night-time and early morning hours. The combination of steep loss and 
working at the body's low-point can cause excessive fatigue and sleepiness. This 
makes it more difficult to perform well, which increases the risk of accidents. Also, 
shift work can be stressful because of frequent switching from a day to night schedule 
and because of separation from family and friends. The following comments were given 
relating to shift work and the consequent effect on mine workers' mental health. 
"Some managers work the people [who work] under them into the ground because they 
create this money chasing culture where people have to be available for work seven 
days a week...a lot of people end up with depression because they can't cope with the 
pressure."(Medical doctor) 
"...another problem that is related to the unnatural work environment is that people don't 
get enough rest. They work and live in a noisy environment. When people do shift work 
here, they come and go 24 hours a day...it is a restless setup to be part of." (Medical 
doctor/Mine manager) 
79 
"...also, the harder people work, the less time they have to exercise and exercise is also 
important for people's mental health." (Medical doctor) 
The circadian rhythm is a major body rhythm with regular ups and downs in the 24-
hour day. Many systems in the body are very active at certain times of day and not 
active at all at other times of day. Usually the most activity happens in late afternoon or 
early evening. For example, the body's ability to produce energy from food 
(metabolism) is highest in the afternoon to evening. The least activity usually happens 
in the middle of the night when most people are asleep. This is one reason why people 
feel most active and alert around 4 to 6 o'clock in the afternoon, and sleepiest at 4 to 6 
o'clock in the morning (Rosa & Colligan, 1997). The human body is meant to be active 
during daytime hours, while during night-time hours it is meant to sleep which allows it to 
recover and replace energy. Working at night and sleeping during the day is opposite to 
the body's "biological" clocks and what the body naturally wants to do. This may make 
sleeping difficult; it may also mean that the body cannot recover as quickly from physical 
and mental exertions/demands. Circadian rhythms are associated with changes in 
mental and physical performance. Circadian rhythms may also partly explain why job 
performance can vary over a 24-hour period, with a low point occurring very late at night 
or very early in the morning (OHCOW, 2005). 
4.3.7 Safety and physical health concerns 
The mining environment in South Africa is characterised by a range of physical health 
risks which include the risk of physical injury and even death as a result of mine 
accidents, as well as physical health concerns such as Noise Induced Hearing Loss 
(NIHL), getting infected with HIV/AIDS and STIs, Tuberculosis (TB), Silicosis or even 
poisoning due to air, water or ground pollution. These risks seem to translate into 
mental health problems either in the form of people under pressure of having to be on 
guard against it all the time, or as a result of having failed to be protected against it (e.g. 
experiencing stress after learning that one has been infected with HIV/AIDS). People's 
comments regarding concerns about safety and physical health and how it relates to 
mental distress are given below. 
80 
"Our thoughts and emotions are part of us as a whole...We have had a case where a 
man has died in an accident as a result of a mistake he made on a big vehicle, not 
concentrating where he went...In the investigation afterwards it came out that he has 
been acting 'absent minded' for the last two weeks or so after he found out that he has 
been diagnosed with HIV."(Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"There is a lot of pressure on the mines regarding the fatal accidents. When you are in a 
position where you have people that work under you in the mine, there is just so much 
more pressure to cope with because of this accidents. A mine will easily get closed 
down these days if there is a fatal accident. People working in the mines have to cope 
with a huge amount of safety measures and safety awareness campaigns, while still 
having the pressure from top to produce and show the figures." (Medical doctor) 
"...also because of the danger of working underground...the physical dangers are there 
and you always have to be conscious of what you are doing...because you have to be 
vigilant of what you are doing the whole time, it affects you mentally. Especially if you 
are in management you always worry about people getting things done in the correct 
way."(Mine manager) 
"...we are scared the whole day of picking up some illness. You have to watch where 
you walk and what the things are that you touch. There are a lot of diseases that you 
can pick up in the mine."(Mine worker) 
The presence of major physical diseases affects the mental health of individuals as well 
as of entire families. Most of the seriously disabling or life-threatening diseases, 
including cancers in both men and women, have this impact. The case of HIV/AIDS is 
an illustration of this effect. The mental health consequences of this epidemic are 
substantial. A proportion of individuals suffer psychological consequences (disorders 
as well as problems) as a result of their infection. The effects of intense stigma and 
discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS also play a major role in psychological 
stress. Disorders can range from anxiety or depressive disorders to adjustment disorder 
(Maj et a/., 1994a). Cognitive deficits can also be detected if looked for specifically (Maj 
et a/., 1994b; Starace et al., 1998). In addition, family members also suffer the 
consequences of stigma (see 4.3.9) and, later, of the premature deaths of their infected 
family members. The psychological effects on members of families broken and on 
81 
children orphaned by AIDS have not been studied in any detail, but are likely to be 
substantial. These complex situations, where a physical condition leads to psychosocial 
consequences at individual, family and community levels, require comprehensive 
assessment in order to determine their full impact on mental health (WHO, 2001:44). 
4.3.8 Mine culture 
One of the issues identified by this research which may have a more subtle way of 
impacting on people's mental health is the unique 'culture' of the mining industry. This is 
especially relevant for the people who are working in the mines, and it has been 
identified as impacting on all levels of employment. People who work in the mining 
environment seem to demonstrate more 'hardy' and less emotional types of 
personalities than people who are working in other professions. A few reasons come to 
mind when trying to explain the existence of this 'mine culture'. One of these possible 
explanations is that it has been 'created' by people as a mechanism that helps them 
cope with all the pressures that surround the environment. Those who work 
underground seem to have created this culture as a way to cope with the physical 
expectations of the environment, while those in management positions use this culture 
as a way of pushing to meet deadlines and ever rising production targets. Because 
people's working life is such a huge part of their life in general, this hardy and robust 
culture associated with working in the mines seems to have an immense impact on the 
shaping of employees' state of mental health. A few quotes that illustrate people's 
opinions on this matter will consequently be presented. 
"The people that you work with underground don't have a lot of sympathy for you if you 
behave emotionally. It is almost like being in the army...there is no time for sitting and 
crying on a rock somewhere. A lot of these people's only focus in life is to get rocks out 
of the ground and they have no interest in how someone working under them is feeling 
emotionally" (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"This hard and stressful mine culture also create a lot of problems at home for the 
workers of fop management. The men constantly go on this 'team building' breakaway 
weekends to go and relax and forget about the pressures at work...I hear complaints 
from some of the women that when their husbands return from these, its like they are 
82 
totally different people...there is obviously also a lot of liquor that floats around during 
these breakaway teambuilding exercises and everything that goes along with that..." 
(Medical doctor) 
"When you are underground, except for being a hostile environment with a lot of 
dangers, you are always surrounded by men. All that these men talk about is mining and 
you get no other stimulation...and people's behaviour start to change. You see that 
people become wired because of this rough environment and only being surrounded by 
men ail the time." (Mine manager) 
"If you would take someone who grew up in a mining environment and you give him 
something else to do, he will easily get bored. This is because he is used to being 
pushed all the time and working underpressure..." (Mine manager) 
"I always tell my wife that if she would get the chance to go underground with me one 
day, she would not recognise me down there. You have to change your personality...you 
walk around all day having to shout at other people and people get angry very quickly...it 
is a very tough environment to work in."(Mine worker) 
There is much evidence in literature (Louw & Edwards, 1998; Barlow & Durand, 2002) 
that supports the claim of the influence of the social environment (including culture) on 
shaping people's personalities as well as impacting on their overall mental health. The 
social environment does not only impact on people's personalities and behaviours; it 
also has an influence on a biological level. People can therefore easily get affected and 
in a way also 'infected' by other people's personalities and behaviours, especially when 
spending enough time with them, as in the case with the mining industry where large 
groups of people are constantly working together under huge amounts of pressure. 
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4.3.9 Stigma attached to receiving mental health care 
Partly as a result of this 'hardy mine culture', but also as a result of other factors, there 
seem to be a stigma attached to receive mental health care in the South African mining 
industry. The effect of this is that mental health problems will often only be identified 
once it is too late. The next two quotes illustrate this point. 
"There is no time for softies here in the mine. You have to be tough to make it down 
here... You also can't go crying to your boss, he'll just tell you that you should take your 
things and leave..." 
"We had an incident at a previous mine where I worked, where a man committed suicide 
by jumping down one of the mine shafts. He was responsible for opening and closing 
the doors of the lifts and one morning after everybody was inside the lift, he just opened 
the door and waved goodbye to all the others and he jumped. It came out later that he 
had some problems at work and that he had to face a disciplinary hearing for something, 
but he never told anyone how he really felt..." (Mine manager) 
The United States Surgeon General's Report on Mental Health (DHHS, 1999) describes 
the impact of stigma as follows: 
Stigma erodes confidence that mental disorders are valid, treatable health 
conditions. It leads people to avoid socialising, employing or working with, or 
renting to or living near persons who have a mental disorder." 
Further: 
"Stigma deters the public from wanting to pay for care and, thus, reduces 
consumers' access to resources and opportunities for treatment and social 
services. A consequent inability or failure to obtain treatment reinforces 
destructive patterns of low self-esteem, isolation, and hopelessness. Stigma 
tragically deprives people of their dignity and interferes with their full 
participation in society. 
84 
From the impacts identified in the quote above, it becomes evident that stigma can have 
major negative effects on the delivery of mental health care in the mining industry. It 
can prevent community members (including mine employees at all levels) from obtaining 
the care they need, and it can worsen the impacts of existing mental health problems. 
4.3.10 Impact of mining on workers' home and social life 
The mining industry does not only impact on people's mental health at work, but it also 
impacts on their mental health in terms of having an effect on their personal and social 
life. This has been explained as being as a result of people constantly being under 
pressure to produce in a tough environment embedded in a rough culture and 
consequently taking this home with them after work. The following quotes will illustrate 
and explain respondents' experiences of the issue in more detail. 
"/ have been through two previous marriages as a result of my work. "(Mine contractor) 
"Mining has a huge impact on mental health...Some days you spend more time at work 
that you do at home. And when you are not at work, you sit and worry the whole time if 
the other people who are still at work are actually doing the job right. You think of work 
all the time..." (Mine worker) 
"The divorce rate in the mining industry is very high...people get stressed at work and 
they then come home and you have to take it out on someone and it also causes a lot of 
family problems. It you take the general mining family, you will see that people are at 
their second or third wife already..." (Mine manager) 
"...especially when you work where I work - in production, there are a lot of pressures. 
You have a lot of people who work under you. The place needs to be safe. Then there 
are the pressures coming from management. This has an impact not only on your work, 
but later also on your home. This is because most mines work on a shift basis...usually 
three shifts per day. When you work night shift, you get to your home early the next 
morning, you are tired and want to go to sleep. Then your wife wakes up and has to go 
to work. You don't get time for each other. When she gets back from work, you get 
85 
grumpy because you have to get up and go to work yourself. It can drive people away 
from each other..."(Mine worker) 
Most social and family events happen during the evening or on weekends. Because 
shift workers are on the job in the evening or on weekends, or because they sleep 
during the day, they often miss out on social or family activities. A shift work schedule 
affects not only the worker but also the rest of the family. For example, children at play 
must be quiet during the day because the shift worker is asleep (Rosa & Colligan, 1997). 
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) indicate that work life conflict arises from the 
incompatible emotional and behavioural demands of work and non-work roles in 
such a way that participation in one role is made more difficult by participation in the 
other. This conflict can result in even more stress at home or at work, poorer health, 
higher turnover and absenteeism, reduced job satisfaction and less organisational 
commitment (Brough AO'Driscoll, 2005; Eby etal., 2005). 
Work life conflict has also been linked to fatigue, psychological ill health, depression 
and increased physical symptoms amongst eight-hour shift workers (Loudoun & Bohle, 
1997). Other negative mental and physical health effects of work life conflict include 
anxiety, burnout, somatic complaints, raised cholesterol levels and substance abuse 
(Frone, 2003). There is considerable evidence that shift workers in general suffer 
acutely and chronically impaired health (Costa, 2003). There is also growing evidence 
that they have an increased risk of divorce and of children with anxiety and behaviour 
problems (Pisarski et a!., 2006). 
4.4 CONCLUSION 
A summary of the findings suggest that it is clear that the mining environment definitely 
impacts on people's mental health. Utilising the BPS model, impacting factors (causes) 
from all three spheres were identified, namely the social, psychological and 
biological dimensions (see 3.2.3). Some of the factors are also overlapping across the 
dimensions. From the personal and focus group interviews that were held in different 
mining areas in the country, it became evident that there are a huge amount of mental 
health problems to be found in the South African mining sector. People also 
experienced the overall state of mental health of the mining communities to be 
86 
composed of more negative than positive mental health components. The findings of 
this research can therefore serve as a confirmation to the research of Chenga and 
Cronje (2007:147-149), that describes the mining environment as a 'breeding ground' for 
mental health problems. 
In the following chapter, focus of the discussion will fall on the current policy of the 
extractive industry in South Africa with regard to mental health care. 
87 
CHAPTER FIVE 
MENTAL HEALTH CARE AND CSR POLICY IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN 
MINING SECTOR 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
Against the background of the mental health issues identified in the previous chapter 
and in accordance with the objectives (see 1.4.2 nr. 4) outlined in Chapter One; the aim 
of this brief chapter is to determine whether mental health care currently forms part of 
mining companies' CSR strategies. More importantly, this chapter also aims at 
determining whether mental health care should form part of companies' CSR policies 
and strategies. The current policies of mining corporations in terms of mental health 
care will therefore be explored by discussing their commitment to occupational health 
in the industry, as well as by identifying services (Employee Assistance Programmes) 
that relate to mental health care. In addition, attention will also be given to the 
viewpoints of different stakeholders in the industry regarding the need for the inclusion 
of mental health care in companies' CSR programmes. 
5.2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN MINING SECTOR 
In general, mining companies in South Africa show that they are committed to 
occupational health. This is evident from most mining companies' websites. For 
example: 
AngloGold Ashanti state that they are committed to providing a working environment 
that is conducive to safety and health. The company places the management of 
occupational safety and health as a prime responsibility for line management. 
Lonmin state that they continue to promote the wellness of each employee by 
integrating occupational health and hygiene with medical health care delivery. 
Xstrata state that they aim to eliminate occupational illnesses through providing a 
work-place that is free from significant occupational health and hygiene hazards 
88 
and proactively work with employees and contractors to contribute towards healthier 
lifestyles. 
Therefore the principle of occupational health seems to be of primary importance in 
company policies. The meaning of occupational health will consequently be explored: 
Since 1950, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World Health 
Organisation (WHO) have shared a common definition of occupational health: 
Occupational health should aim at: the promotion and maintenance of the highest 
degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the 
prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working 
conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from 
factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an 
occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological 
capabilities; and, to summarize, the adaptation of work to man and of each man to 
his job (cited in Wikipedia, 2007). 
The term "occupational health services" (Agius, 2007) means services entrusted with 
essentially preventive functions and are responsible for advising the employer, the 
workers and their representatives in the undertaking, on: 
the requirements for establishing and maintaining a safe and healthy working 
environment which will facilitate optimal physical and mental health in relation to 
work; and 
the adaptation of work to the capabilities of workers in the light of their state of 
physical and mental health 
From the definitions above, it is evident that occupational health is more than just the 
promotion of the physical health of employees, because it also involves the mental and 
social well-being of workers. Although the policies of mining companies in South 
Africa usually involve the promotion of 'occupational health' of their employees, mental 
health care is not mentioned in particular as part of those policies; at least not when 
looking at their (the companies') annual reports. 
89 
At this stage it might be useful to note that all mining companies in South Africa have to 
comply with the Mine Health and Safety Act (MHSA) of 1996. Some of the objectives 
of this Act are to protect the health and safety of persons at mines; to require employers 
and employees to identify hazards and eliminate, control and minimise the risks relating 
to health and safety at mines; to provide for enforcement of health and safety measures 
at mines; to provide for investigations and inquiries to improve health and safety at 
mines; and to promote a culture of health and safety in the mining industry. In terms of 
health care, the act states that where it is reasonably practicable, every manager must 
institute the measures necessary to secure, maintain and enhance health and safety; 
and also to prepare a document that establishes a policy concerning the protection of 
employees' health and safety at work. Every manager who establishes or maintains a 
system of medical surveillance must engage the part-time or full-time services of an 
occupational medical practitioner. An occupational medical practitioner must take every 
measure that is reasonably practicable to promote the health and safety of employees at 
the mine. The manager must also supply the practitioner with the means to perform 
his/her functions. 
Because "Mental Health" is not specifically mentioned in any part of this legislation, it 
seems that mining companies do not have any legal obligations in terms of mental 
health. However, if "Health" (in the MHSA) is to be defined in terms of the World Health 
Organisation's definition it should include mental health, which leads to the 
conclusion that mining companies actually do have a legal obligation towards it. 
Apart from that, if mining companies publicly state that they are committed to 
occupational health, it can be argued that they automatically have a corporate 
responsibility towards the mental health of the mine workers. The social well-being 
of employees is also indicated as being part of occupational health. This leads to the 
conclusion that mining companies have a responsibility towards physical as well as 
mental health care of the entire mining community (see Research Question under 1.3). 
5.3 EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMMES (EAPs) 
As another way of determining the industry's current policy on the issue of mental health 
care, it is necessary to note that some of the 'bigger' mining companies do have a 
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service which mine workers can use to get to some form of mental health care. This 
service is called EAPs (Employee Assistance Programmes) and it usually runs through 
companies' HR departments. Through these programmes workers can usually, after 
going through the lines (e.g. shift supervisor to the mine captain to one of the HR 
practitioners), get into contact with contracted (non-permanent) social workers. 
There are, however, a few problems with this service in terms of providing adequate 
mental health care: 
The first problem with this service is that mental health care is not readily available 
to employees when they need it, as is the case with medical care which is provided 
on site. 
- Another problem is that employees' privacy and anonymity are immediately 
compromised when having to make appointments with these service providers 
through the company's HR department. 
Moreover, these services do not cater for the rest of the mining community and only 
applies to employees who are often not even aware of these programmes. 
Social workers are also not as qualified for certain important aspects of mental 
health care as specialised mental health workers such as psychologists or mental 
health counsellors. 
5.4 THE INCLUSION OF MENTAL HEALTH CARE IN CSR POLICIES 
The following quotes illustrate participants' opinions about mental health care in the 
mining industry. The discussions specifically included their views on the need for the 
inclusion of mental health care in the CSR policies of the mining corporations, as well as 
different ways in which companies can start with or improve on their mental health care 
efforts. 
".../ think it is definitely necessary to try to improve the mental health of people in the 
mining environment...may be someone within the company can be given the 
responsibility to look after the provision of mental health care... The mines can also do 
some awareness campaigns or programmes that will make people more aware of the 
91 
availability of EAPs... Research can also be done to determine the state of mental health 
in the industry. Mine management will buy into the idea of mental health care if they can 
see from scientific studies that there may be impacts on profits if they do not look after 
the mental health of its employees." (Medical doctor/Mine manager) 
"The most important way of solving the mental health problems in the mining industry is 
to firstly change the environment in which the people are working and living. It will help 
to provide counselling, etc., but it will not solve the real problem. The whole mining setup 
needs to change... for example, more can be done for migrant workers by bringing their 
families to come and live with them here."(Mine HR manager) 
"The mines are indeed doing something in terms of developing their surrounding 
communities and also by helping us with funding for our different programmes [e.g. HIV 
programmes], but they can do a lot more. The amount which they are providing at the 
moment is only a small drop in the water bucket when comparing it with their earnings... 
More can be done in the area of education and life skills training for the communities." 
(Medical doctor) 
"/ believe that there is definitely a need for companies to do more in terms of providing 
mental health care on the mines... I think that the companies can easily appoint 
someone who can work as a permanent employee to provide the workers with 
counselling services. The mining houses have got more than enough money to do 
something like this... This person can for instance work in the company's HR department 
and the shift supervisors can refer people to him when they see that someone working 
in the mine might have some personal problems or things like that. We [the shift 
supervisors] will definitely be able to identify if someone has a problem, because you 
can easily see when a worker is not concentrating on their work and is thinking about 
other things...especially for the migrant workers, it [counselling] will definitely help for 
someone from Mozambique or some other place when they have problems at home and 
then cannot concentrate at work..." (Shift supervisor) 
"Companies can provide counselling type of services, but they should have systems in 
place that will prevent certain workers from abusing these services... "(Contractor) 
92 
"We are expecting more from the mines in terms of community development than what 
is currently happening. More can be done in the area of education, especially for their 
employees, as well as improving the infrastructure in the communities." (Local 
government official) 
"I think that it is very important for companies to do more in the area of mental health 
care. ...Maybe they can appoint professionals like psychologists to provide counselling 
for the workers and help them to achieve a better balance between work and play and 
all the other facets of fife." (Mine manager) 
"If you want to get the best out of your people [workers] you have to make the 
investment of caring for their mental health, otherwise you will have a lot of negative 
people working under you and it will affect productivity. People will also take more sick 
leave and labour turnover will become higher. A happy work-force will boost 
production..."{Shift supervisor) 
The comments provided above demonstrate how certain stakeholders in the South 
African mining industry feel about the inclusion of mental health in companies' CSR 
policies. It is interesting to note that quite a few of the participants were aware of the 
overall importance of mental health in the work-place (see 4.3) and also knew of some 
of the risks involved with not having a mentally healthy work-force (see 3.7). In this 
regard, the ILO (2001) states that company policies are moving in new directions and 
employers are showing an interest in reducing costs related to absenteeism, improving 
their productivity and fulfilling their social responsibility towards their employees. The 
increased concern about stress in the work-place has prompted a more open attitude 
towards mental health issues and the growth of preventive programmes in the work 
place. However, a broad coordinated approach covering prevention, promotion, and 
rehabilitation still needs to be developed. Much has to be achieved to move from policy 
to concrete practices in promoting mental health in the work-place (ILO, 2001). Linking 
on this, it must be stated that including mental health care in company CSR 
programmes must not merely be a case of putting pen onto paper. CSR goes deeper 
than policies and programmes and is actually an expression of the dominant value 
systems at work in companies (Smit, 2007). CSR should be a statement about what 
the company stands for and would stand by, even if this sometimes incurs costs, results 
in a lost business opportunity, or requires addressing tough global issues of relevance to 
93 
business and society, but beyond the immediate competence of the individual company 
(World Economic Forum, 2004). 
Sir Geoffrey Chandler, a former Shell executive who was responsible for developing 
Shell's first General Business Principles in 1976, argues: 
I don't believe ethical behaviour should depend on its paying. To suggest that doing 
right needs to be justified by its economic reward is amoral, a self-inflicted wound 
hugely damaging to corporate reputation. ...Doing right because it is right, not 
because it pays needs to be the foundation of business, with principle, not profit, the 
point of departure. There does have to be a choice about priorities. ...If we are to 
preserve the most effective mechanism the world has known for the provision of goods 
and services - that is the market economy with the public limited company its main 
instrument - then it has to be underpinned by principle. Financial failures can destroy 
individual companies. Moral failure will destroy capitalism (World Economic Forum, 
2004). 
5.5 CONCLUSION 
Through the exploration of the industry's view on occupational health, as well as 
respondents' opinions on the matter, it has been found that mental health care is not 
currently applied and practised in a sufficient manner in the South African mining sector. 
It has further been determined that mining companies do have a social responsibility 
towards the mental health care of the surrounding communities including their 
employees. Consequently, the findings revealed that there is definitely a need for the 
inclusion of mental health care in the CSR policies and programmes of mining 
companies. The protection and improvement of the mental health of mining 
communities is going to be a complex task involving multiple decisions. It will require 
priorities to be set among mental health needs, conditions, services, treatments, 
prevention and promotion strategies, as well as choices to be made about funding 
(WHO, 2001). 
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CHAPTER SIX 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.1 CONCLUSION 
This study found that CSR and 'mental health' are both complex terms for which no 
universally accepted definitions exist. They are, however, very important concepts that 
still need to be considered by the mining industry, especially with regard to its impacts 
relating to the development of surrounding communities. Both these concepts have a 
strong link to the principle of sustainable development. Apart from describing the 
meaning and importance of the concepts CSR and mental health, this study aimed at 
determining the state of mental health of mining communities in South Africa by also 
identifying the contributing factors (causes) towards this {see Objectives - 1.4). It has 
been found that people experience a huge amount of mental health problems that 
occur as a result of various impacts (physical, social and psychological) from the 
mining sector. Because of the large impact that mining activities have on the mental 
health of mining communities, it is quite surprising that mental health is an issue that up 
until now has not received much attention in research as well as in the industry, as it has 
been found that the area of mental health is currently not sufficiently part of companies' 
CSR policies. 
The major aim of this research was, however, to determine whether mental health care 
should form part of mining companies' CSR strategies (see Objectives - 1.4). This 
study has found that "mental health care" is still a huge gap that needs and waits to be 
filled in terms of mining companies' CSR performance. Mining companies have this as 
part of their social responsibilities not only because mining activities have an impact on 
communities' mental health, but also because it seems that companies have a legal (at 
least an ethical) obligation towards mental health care. This gap in the social care of 
mining communities should be interpreted as an enormous opportunity for the industry 
to help improve the quality of life of people living and working in the mining 
environment and also to contribute in a meaningful way to sustainable social 
development. 
95 
To achieve the above, the following recommendations for improving CSR performance 
through the inclusion of mental health care can be applied by mining companies. 
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 
6.2.1 General recommendations 
Mental health care should not only be included as a subdivision of physical health; it 
should be considered an independent aspect of community care. When taking up 
the idea of community mental health in mining policies, it would be best for companies to 
include it as part of a well-formed CSR-strategy In constructing such a strategy, the 
following recommendations can be of assistance. To begin with, it is important to realise 
that the lack of an all-embracing definition of CSR should not deter business from 
grappling with the issue (Holme, & Watts, 1999). 
Hamann (2003) gives a description of how a mining company can best embark on its 
transition towards CSR: 
Firstly, it needs to be aware of the many initiatives surrounding corporate social 
responsibility. For the mining sector, one of the main initiatives is the international 
Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project (MMSD, 2002), whose 
regional component has produced an important report on the role of mining in the 
region. 
Secondly, a key starting point is the development of a corporate policy supported by 
top management. Such a policy should, at least, contain the following: 
- a set of principles and policies (see 6.2.2) that should implement 
international standards, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; 
- a set of targets linked to measurable performance indicators; such 
indicators provide a vital tool for the company - "you can't manage what you 
don't measure" - but they should be established and audited in consultation 
with key stakeholders; and 
96 
- clear management, accounting and reporting structures to ensure ongoing 
improvement in the implementation of the policy at site level. 
To demonstrate good corporate citizenship, firms can report compliance with a 
number of CSR standards or principles. Compliance with these principles will 
provide a good start for mining companies by giving them a CSR platform on which they 
can further build upon and expand their CSR reach to include the area of mental health 
care. 
6.2.1.2 Principles of good CSR 
• Tripartite Declaration of Principles 
In the 1960s and 1970s, the activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) provoked 
intense discussions that resulted in efforts to draw up international instruments for 
regulating their conduct and defining the terms of their relations with host countries, 
mostly in the developing world. Labour-related and social policy issues were among 
those concerns to which the activities of MNEs gave rise. The ILO's (International 
Labour Organisation) search for international guidelines in its sphere of competence 
resulted, in 1977, in the adoption by the ILO Governing Body, of the Tripartite 
Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (MNE 
Declaration) {ILO, 2006). 
The principles laid down in this universal instrument offer guidelines to MNEs, 
governments and employers' and workers' organisations in such areas as employment, 
training, conditions of work and life and industrial relations. Its provisions are reinforced 
by certain international labour Conventions and Recommendations which the social 
partners are urged to bear in mind and apply, to the greatest extent possible. The aim 
of the Tripartite Declaration of Principles is to encourage the positive contribution which 
multinational enterprises can make to economic and social progress and to minimise 
and resolve the difficulties to which their various operations may give rise, taking into 
account the United Nations resolutions advocating the establishment of a New 
International Economic Order, as well as subsequent developments within the United 
Nations, for example the Global Compact and the Millennium Development Goals (ILO, 
2006). 
97 
• Principles for Global Corporate Responsibility: Bench Marks for 
Measuring Business Performance 
The Bench Marks (Bench Marks Foundation, 2003) is one of the most comprehensive 
sets of social and environmental criteria and business performance indicators available. 
The Bench Marks principles offer an ethical standard of measurement on which to base 
decisions about global corporate social responsibility as, for example, when policies 
about investment and the management of investments are being developed. The 
purpose of the Bench Marks is to promote positive corporate social responsibility. 
The Bench Marks Principles for Global Corporate Responsibility cover a variety of 
different areas in which companies should present responsible behaviour: 
When considering the Wider Community, there are: Ecosystems, National 
Communities, Local Communities and Indigenous Communities. Regarding the 
Corporate Business Community, there are the following themes ('areas of CSR') and 
sub-themes: Employees - Conditions, Health and Safety, Women in the Work-force, 
"Minority" Groups, Persons with Disabilities, Child Labour, Forced Labour, Suppliers and 
Contractors, Financial Integrity, Ethical Integrity, Corporate Governance, Shareholders, 
Joint Ventures, Partnerships and Subsidiaries, Customers and Consumers. 
The following specific recommendations can provide mining companies with some 
direction on how to embark on their 'CSR towards mental health care' strategies. 
6.2.2 Specific recommendations 
Adopting a public health approach to the issue of mental health care in the mining 
industry suggests that preventative activities should be developed by the companies 
as part of their CSR strategies. Price et al. (1988) suggest that three types of health 
prevention can be identified, namely primary, secondary and tertiary: 
Primary prevention activities seek to eliminate causal factors in the development 
of problems. This level focuses primarily on the community (rather than the 
individual) and the conditions within which may be harmful (Sands, 1991). Primary 
prevention is a very important aspect of mental health care for the mining industry. 
98 
Prevention is always better than cure and in this level companies should help to 
improve the conditions at work as well as in the communities that are responsible 
for creating mental health problems. One example of this may be moving of migrant 
workers' families to come and live with them in the mining communities. Caplan 
(1964) suggests that efforts at primary prevention be directed at the "provision of 
supplies." Individuals need physical (food, housing), psychosocial (cognitive and 
affective stimulation, interpersonal relationships), and socio-cultural (cultural 
values, customs and expectations) support to develop and sustain mental health. In 
a public health context, a classical example of primary prevention is the prevention 
of cholera through the provision of clean drinking water. In a work context, 
preventative interventions to improve psychological well-being seek to change job 
characteristics that are causally related to psychological distress. Theoretically, 
opportunities to improve psychological well-being might include reducing 
excessively high workloads, improving poor shift systems, or increasing employees' 
control over their work. 
Secondary prevention activities aim at reducing the severity or duration of 
disorders and at avoiding the development of more serious, chronic or disabling 
conditions. Early identification (case finding), assessment and intervention 
(crisis intervention and short-term therapy) are some ways in which this level of 
prevention is implemented. Thus, early-screening programs for HIV/AIDS, cancer, 
or developmental delay in children would all be classified as secondary prevention 
activities within a public health context. Occupational stress interventions of this 
form include stress management training programs, whereby "at-risk" employees 
are taught a range of strategies that they can then apply to cope better with 
demands of their work. 
- Tertiary prevention activities deal directly with existing disorders or problems. It 
refers to reducing the rate of mental disability in the community through efforts at 
rehabilitation. The aim of tertiary activities may be either to cure the disorder, or to 
limit the extent to which a chronic disorder is disabling or restricting for the 
individual. Many medical and surgical treatments could be classified as tertiary 
prevention (e.g. prescribing penicillin, performing an appendectomy) as could most 
rehabilitation activities (e.g. physiotherapy, the use of prosthetic devices, 
occupational therapy). Services such as counselling and psychotherapy which 
are provided within work-places, or the provision of debriefing sessions for staff 
99 
that have been exposed to extreme traumatic experiences, are examples of tertiary 
prevention activities in work settings (Reynolds, 1997). The lack of transitional 
facilities, outpatient services and social programmes can interfere with the 
rehabilitation of persons with mental disabilities (Sands, 1991). 
Mining companies should therefore strongly consider appointing professional mental 
health workers such as registered mental health counsellors (or even psychologists) 
who can work for the mines as permanent employees. These counsellors will be able to 
help with presenting psychological interventions programmes (e.g. on life skills, 
HIV/AIDS, substance abuse, stress management, etc.) with employees on the mining 
site as well as in the communities. Registered counsellors can also work in the mines' 
clinics (e.g. providing individual or group counselling to employees) as well as in the 
companies' HR departments by helping with psychometric testing of new mining staff. 
Further research also needs to be done that will aim at understanding the real impacts 
of the industry on community mental health better, as well as making a more thorough 
(psychological) assessment of the state of mental health in the South African mining 
industry. 
Integrated within the mental health care strategy as it gets implemented across all three 
levels of prevention, mining companies must adhere to some basic principles for the 
promotion of mental health. These principles (Langsley, 1985) will consequently be 
described: 
Community mental health services should be accessible to those who seek 
treatment, that is, they should be near the residences and places of work of clients, 
rather than in remote hospitals. Accessibility also suggests that treatment facilities 
should be located near public transportation stops and that services should be 
available evenings and weekends. An additional aspect of accessibility pertains to 
the match between treatment provided and the population served. Community 
mental health services should be culture and gender sensitive and tailored to 
clients' individual needs. Community boards that govern mental health agencies 
have a responsibility to not only those who seek treatment, but also to those 
residents who are well or have hidden problems. 
100 
Services that are delivered are driven by the second principle, accountability to 
the entire community. Community mental health boards are composed of local 
citizens who view the needs of the catchment area corporately. In order to identify 
and meet the evolving needs of the locality, they arrange to have needs 
assessments performed and engage in planning efforts to meet identified needs. 
But accountability also suggests responsibility to the poor, ethnic minority groups 
and consumers. These populations should have a voice in the governance of 
community mental health agencies (Langsley, 1985). 
Another principle is that services should be comprehensive (Langsley, 1985). 
Community mental health services should include a range of services from 
outpatient clinics to day treatment centres to inpatient facilities. Within these 
programs, alternatives such as psychotherapies (individual, family and group), 
social skill development, and vocational rehabilitation should be offered. At the 
same time, the community itself should have a diverse range of alternative 
residential settings in which clients may live. Community treatment should be 
responsive to all age groups (including children and older adults); available around 
the clock on an emergency basis, and address special problems such as substance 
abuse. Furthermore, it should be flexible and adapted to the needs of the 
populations served. Services such as outreach programs, mobile treatment teams 
and on-site consultation should be provided and needs such as transportation, 
housing, socialisation and leisure activities should be addressed (Bachrach, 1986). 
A related principle is that continuity of care should be assured (Langsley, 1985). 
The diverse services that are offered should be linked through cooperative 
relationships between providers or a consistent liaison between services, such as 
the case manager. Continuity of care is essential in the context of a complex, 
fragmented, bureaucratic social service delivery system. The chronically mentally ill 
in particular require continuous services that are longitudinal, psychological and 
financial (Bachrach, 1986). First of all, this population needs services over a long 
period of time. Furthermore, they must feel comfortable, welcome and encouraged 
to utilise services. In addition, services must be affordable or subsidised. 
Another principle of community mental health is that treatment providers should 
constitute a multidisciplinary team (Langsley, 1985). To provide comprehensive 
services that meet clients' psychiatric, social and vocational needs, expertise of 
101 
professionals of different disciplines is needed. The knowledge, skills and 
perspectives of diverse professionals contribute to a holistic understanding of the 
client and the provision of multidimensional treatment or rehabilitation. 
Psychiatrists, psychologists, community mental health nurses, counsellors, 
recreation therapists, music therapists and occupational therapists are among the 
professionals who participate in teams. 
Finally, the ideology emphasises prevention, which was discussed previously. 
Early case finding and intervention, education, rehabilitation and psychotherapy are 
ways of implementing this principle (Langsley, 1985). 
The World Health Organisation (2007) also gives the following general principles for 
mental health legislation to protect the rights of the mentally ill. Mining companies must 
try to adhere to these principles: 
Respect for individuals and their social, cultural, ethnic, religious and 
philosophical values. 
Individuals' needs taken fully into account. Individual's need for health and 
social care must be assessed thoroughly. In particular, it is important to ensure that 
the views of an individual {and his or her carers) are considered. For this to happen 
there must be close liaison between health, housing and social care services. 
Care and treatment provided in the least restrictive environment. To uphold 
this principle, legislation should be framed so that involuntary (formal) hospital 
admission is a last resort. This can be achieved through: clearly defined grounds for 
detention; procedural safeguards when the power to detain is used; an obligation to 
discharge when grounds for detention are no longer met; an independent review of 
the decision to detain. 
Provision of care and treatment aimed at promoting each individual's self-
determination and personal responsibility. It is vital that individuals are given the 
opportunity to exercise choice and make decisions about their own care and 
treatment. Where individuals are unable to make decisions for themselves, steps 
are taken to determine their wishes and feelings; clear information on treatment and 
detention is readily available; appropriate provisions for confidentiality are in force. 
102 
Provision of care and treatment aimed at achieving the individual's own 
highest attainable level of health and well-being. In addition to issues of quality 
and continuity of care, this principle addresses the question of a "right" to treatment. 
In this regard: there should be no restrictions on an individual's contact with friends 
and family, except in rare and clearly defined circumstances; stringent safeguards 
from abuse, exploitation and neglect should be in place. 
6.3 SOME FINAL REMARKS 
As a way of concluding this research, the implications of the inclusion of mental health 
care in CSR policies for mining companies as well as communities, will be briefly 
outlined: 
When looking at the financial implications it seems that CSR towards mental health 
care definitely makes good business sense for mining companies. By 
improving the mental health of mine workers and of the rest of the mining 
community, productivity should rise; and 
There should be a decline in the amount of work days lost due to absenteeism of 
their employees. 
Mining companies will also form stronger relations with the surrounding 
communities and build on its reputation. 
Because of the interrelatedness of the mental and physical health spheres, CSR 
towards mental health will indirectly also help in improving the physical health of 
mine workers. 
The promotion of the mental health of mine workers should also help in making the 
mining environment a safer place as there should also be a decrease in the 
amount of mining accidents (e.g. due to workers being able to concentrate 
better). 
According to the definition by the WBCSD (see 2.2), CSR for mining companies 
should involve the improvement of the quality of life of its employees, their families, 
the local community and society at large. By caring for the mental health of mining 
communities, mining companies can contribute enormously to their quality of life 
103 
and therefore improve on their overall CSR and sustainable development 
performance. 
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Appendix 
YUNIBESITI YA BOKONE-BOPHIRIMA 
Hfe NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
? NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT 
Dear Sir/Madam, 
We are inviting you to participate in a research project that investigates Corporate Social 
Responsibility and Mental Health in South African mining communities. The research is 
done in the fulfilment of a M.A. Degree in Sociology at the North-West University. 
The aim of this research is to determine the impact of mining on the mental health of 
different stakeholders in the mining sector (i.e. management, employees and community 
members). In doing so, the research aims to identify the need for the inclusion of 
community mental health care in the Corporate Social Responsibility programmes of mining 
companies. The findings of the research will be used to make policy recommendations and 
in addition assist companies to get a better understanding of their CSR position with regard 
to occupational and community mental health. This will also help facilitate practical 
implementation of companies' CSR activities in the area of mental health care. 
To ensure that the research findings are sufficiently comprehensive to make effective 
recommendations, the research will include several stakeholders in the mining industry 
such as mining companies' representatives that include employers, employees and trade 
unions; surrounding community representatives including members of the communities, 
community leaders and civil society; as well as government representatives. 
The research method for data collection will either be in the form of an interview or a written 
questionnaire for you to answer and return to the research team within an agreed period of 
time. The interviews will be done on one to one or focus groups (8-12 people) basis. 
Whatever the form of data collection that is undertaken, the researchers will ensure that you 
will be informed within a reasonable time to ensure that the interview time and venue is at 
your convenience. It is expected that the focus groups or interviews will not take longer 
than 1 hour. The questionnaire takes about 20 minutes to complete. 
Although you may not benefit directly from participating in the survey, your contributions will 
help to inform the discussion on CSR in the mining environment. We hope that this in turn 
will promote better relationships between mining companies, their communities and other 
stakeholders. Please regard this research as an opportunity to be part of a "growing voice 
of society" that seeks to promote a better quality of life for mining communities in South 
Africa. 
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please do not hesitate to contact us 
on the details below. 
Sincerely, 
Prof. Freek Cronje (Study Leader) 
Johann van Wyk (Student) 
I 
122 
Appendix 
RESEARCH CONSENT FORM 
Survey on Corporate Social Responsibility towards mental health care 
in South African mining communities 
We would like to take this opportunity to thank you for agreeing to participate in the above-
mentioned survey. 
There are no known harms associated with participation in this research. 
All individual, company records and notes of participation will be kept strictly confidential, 
such that only the researchers will have access to this information. 
The results from this study may be published in the form of a research report and 
academic/professional journal papers. 
Information about the project will not be made public in any way that identifies any individual 
or company participants. 
Participation is completely voluntary. It may be discontinued at any time for any reason 
without explanation and without penalty. 
I have read the above information and I understand that I can ask questions or withdraw at 
any time. I consent to participate in this research study. 
Participant's signature 
For and on behalf of 
Investigator's signature 
Date 
YUNIBESITI YABOKONE-BOPHIRIMA 
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT 
123 
Appendix 
MINING ? MENTAL HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE 
This questionnaire consists of 30 items that will require you to give an opinion about the 
current state of mental health in the mining communities, as well as the company's CSR 
performance with regard to community mental health care. 
RELEVANT DEFINITIONS 
Corporate Social Responsibility: is the responsibility of an organisation for the impacts of 
its decisions and activities on society and the environment through transparent and ethical 
behaviour that: is consistent with sustainable development and the welfare of society; takes 
into account the expectations of stakeholders; is in compliance with applicable law; and is 
consistent with international norms of behaviour that are integrated throughout the 
organisation (Working definition, ISO 26000 Working Group on Social Responsibility, 
Sydney, February 2007). 
Stakeholders: are people or institutions that are affected, or might be affected, by an 
organisation's activities. Likewise, stakeholders can, in return, affect the activities of that 
organisation (WBCSD). One should also realise that there are others with a burning interest 
in mining company activities who may not seem to be actually affected by the company's 
actions but who should also be included in the stakeholder grouping. This could mean Non-
Government Organisations (NGOs) who are not even present in the country where the 
mining is taking place and who seem to have no tangible connection to the operation or its 
activities (MMSD, 2002). 
Mining communities: "...where the population is significantly affected by a nearby mining 
operation. The community may be associated with the mining venture through direct 
employment or through environmental, social, economic or other impacts. The community 
can range in size from a city to a village..." (Veiga et ai, 2001). 
124 
Appendix 
DIRECTIONS {Questions 1-27): Below are 27 statements with which you may agree or 
disagree. Using the 1-5 scale below, indicate your opinion of each item by marking with a X 
the appropriate number in the chosen block following that item. Please be open and honest 
in your responding. 
1 = Strongly Disagree 
2 = Disagree 
3 = Neither Agree or Disagree 
4 = Agree 
5 = Strongly Agree 
GENERAL CSR POLICY 
1. The company has a documented commitment 
to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in a 
formulated CSR policy (guiding principles 
which inform and guide the implementation of 
the CSR strategy). 
2. The CSR policy is available to the general 
public (e.g. published in different media 
sources or on the Internet, etc.) 
3. This policy is also available to the local 
communities in a manner that is accessible to 
them (e.g. their own language). 
4. Formal reports of the company's CSR 
performance are subject to external, 
independent verification. 
1 2 3 4 5 
GENERAL CSR PRACTICE 
5. The company's vision and corporate values 
were prepared in consultation with 
stakeholders. 
6. The company's strategy for implementing CSR 
was formulated in consultation with 
stakeholder groups. 
7. Relevant management have specific 
responsibilities for implementing the CSR 
strategy. 
125 
Appendix 
8. Targets and time scales for CSR 
implementation have also been identified and 
set in consultation with stakeholder groups. 
9. Progress in implementing CSR is continually 
being communicated to employees, the public 
and stakeholder groups (i.e. CSR reporting). 
CSR - MENTAL HEALTH POLICY 
10. The company views health in holistic terms of 
well-being of body, mind and spirit; and not 
merely as the absence of sickness or disease. 
11. The company subscribes to the principle that 
every worker has the right of access to health 
care (including mental health care), including 
accessible and affordable therapies and 
medicines. 
12. The company realises its potential impact on 
the mental health of its communities by 
adopting its own set of policies to minimise 
negative effects. 
CSR - MENTAL HEALTH PRACTICE 
13. The company provides care for diseases and 
illnesses associated with social mining 
environmental factors (e.g. HIV/AIDS and 
STIs, substance abuse). 
14. The company is actively taking all necessary 
steps to ensure the psychological, emotional 
and social well-being of its employees. 
15. The company provides care for the mental 
health of its surrounding communities (e.g. 
counselling and intervention programs). 
Appendix 
COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH 
16. The living conditions of people living in mining 
communities are excellent. 
17. People living in mining communities are 
generally satisfied with life. 
18. People living in mining communities feel that 
their lives are meaningful. 
19. People living in mining communities are 
dealing with problems well. 
20. People living in mining communities are 
thinking clearly. 
21. People living in mining communities are feeling 
optimistic about the future. 
22. People living in mining communities constantly 
feel stressed. 
23. People living in mining communities feel that 
they can't overcome their difficulties. 
24. People living in mining communities are 
generally struggling with life. 
25. People living in mining communities can get 
scared or panicky for no good reason. 
26. People living in mining communities are 
thinking of themselves as being worthless. 
27. People living in mining communities feel that 
life is entirely hopeless. 
Appendix 
In your opinion: 
28. What is/are the contributing factor/s to the current state of the mental health in the 
mining communities? 
29. Should mental health care also (along with physical health care) be part of the 
company's Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) strategy? (Please motivate) 
30. In what ways or with regard to what aspects, can the company provide care for the 
mental health of its communities? 
128