Jàmbá - Journal of Disaster Risk Studies ISSN: (Online) 2072-845X, (Print) 1996-1421 Page 1 of 9 Original Research Small-Scale Farmers Associations’ adaptive capacity to climate change in Swaziland sugarcane industry Authors: This study investigated the existing adaptive capacity for climate change impacts by Small- Bon’sile F.N. Mhlanga-Ndlovu1 2 Scale Famers Associations (SSFAs) in Swaziland’s sugar industry. The analysis of adaptive Godwell Nhamo capacity considered how the livelihood assets (natural, physical, financial, human and social) Affiliations: as discussed in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) help promote SSFAs’ adaptive 1Department of capacity to climate change. The study took place in the Lowveld. Data were generated through Environmental Sciences, a questionnaire from 45 SSFAs supervisors representing more than 2700 farmers. In addition, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa face-to-face interviews were undertaken with key informants, namely, Swaziland Water and Agricultural Development Enterprise, Swaziland Sugar Association, Ministry of Natural 2Institute for Corporate Resources and Energy, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Economic Planning and Citizenship, University of Development, and the United Nations Development Programme. The results indicate that the South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa farmers have less adaptive capacity, and this affects the implementation of adaptation measures. The priority action towards increased adaptation includes interventions on credit, Corresponding author: utility costs and taxes, land resources ownership and management, as well as information Godwell Nhamo, dissemination, especially early warning. nhamog@unisa.ac.za Keywords: Swaziland; Sugar; Adaptation; Climate Change; Farmers. Dates: Received: 14 June 2018 Accepted: 15 June 2018 Published: 25 June 2019 Introduction How to cite this article: Climate change has become the primary environmental concern of the 21st century (Dessler & Mhlanga-Ndlovu, B.F.N. Parson 2006). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Africa & Nhamo, G., 2019, remains one of the most vulnerable continents to climate change because of its poor adaptive ‘Small-Scale Farmers capacity (IPCC 2014). Among the representative key risks for the region are compounded stress Associations’ adaptive capacity to climate change on water resources, reduced crop productivity and livelihood as well as food insecurity. in Swaziland sugarcane Researchers have observed temperature increases coupled with impacts on the physical and industry’, Jàmbá: Journal of biological systems over the past century (Maponya & Sylvester 2012). Literature indicates that Disaster Risk Studies 11(2), any future change in climate will most certainly have some form of impact, not only on conditions a697. https://doi.org/ 10.4102/jamba.v11i2.697 of the physical environment but also on the overall socio-economic aspects of life. Climate change effects on rainfall and temperature render agriculture the most susceptible sector Copyright: (Mahendra 2011). © 2019. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Swaziland faces a major decline in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a result of climate change Creative Commons impacts. This is because the main economic growth and development contributing sectors such as Attribution License. agriculture and water resources are also climate sensitive (SSA 2013). The Swaziland Sugar Association (SSA) maintains that the sugar industry provides 59% of agricultural output, 35% of agricultural wage employment and about 8% to the country’s GDP output (SSA 2011). The projected climate change impacts resulting in reduced water availability, health stress on the labour force and natural resources degradation will, therefore, affect the sector’s contribution towards GDP (Deressa, Hassan & Poonyth 2005). The major issue, therefore, is whether Small- Scale Farmers Associations (SSFAs) in the Lowveld sugar industry have the required adaptive capacity to climate change. This study seeks to determine climate change adaptive capacities associated with SSFAs involved in sugarcane farming in Swaziland. The adaptive capacity assessment followed the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) as presented by the Department for International Development – DFID (DFID 1999). The SLF assists in assessing access to and ownership of natural, financial, Read online: human, physical and social capital assets necessary to cope with climate variability and change. Scan this QR To this end, a single research question and objective were established. What adaptation measures code with your smart phone or are SSFAs in the sugarcane industry of Swaziland’s Lowveld region employing in response to the mobile device changing climate and what are the barriers to climate change adaptation? The objective was to to read online. assess adaptive capacities of these SSFAs within the context of the SLF. http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 2 of 9 Original Research Literature review The documented environmental, economic and social impacts of climate change (Schulze & Dlamini 2005) Adaptive capacity is considered by Engle (2011) as the indicate some negative consequences for the agriculture positive features of a system to reduce vulnerability. Adaptive sector in Swaziland. Predicted climate change impacts capacity represents the set of both biophysical and socio- include a reduction of rainfall, increased evaporation rates, economic factors that determine people’s ability to cope with decreased run-off and aggravation of droughts, salinisation, stress or change in terms of the likelihood of occurrence and wind and dust storms (because of landscape degradation impacts of weather and climate-related events (Nicholls, and land clearing) and increased frequency of extreme Hoozemans & Marchand 1999). Research indicates that climatic events (SASA 2002). On studying three catchments farmers’ ability to perceive climate change is a very critical in Swaziland, namely, Komati, Mbuluzi and Ngwavuma precondition for their resultant choice to adapt (Gbetibouo (Matondo, Peter & Msibi 2004), the authors concluded that 2009). Decentralising power to local levels such as SSFAs to stream flow in these catchments will be reduced under promote adaptive capacity against climate change stresses changing climate conditions. The expected decreases in will have to include planning, management and monitoring stream flow because of climate change will necessitate the of natural and other resources (WRI 2009). implementation of policies and strategies that will promote practices for conserving water resources (Matondo, Peter & Deressa et al. (2005) undertook a study on climate change Msibi 2004). A study on the Mbuluzi catchment, which impact on sugarcane by means of the Ricardian Model for feeds the Mnjoli Dam (a reservoir used primarily for storing both rain-fed and irrigated production. The results indicated irrigation water for sugarcane within the Royal Swaziland that sugarcane production is highly vulnerable to changes in Sugar Corporation [RSSC]), concluded that with a 2°C climate conditions. Another study conducted on climate increase in temperature, coupled with a 10% reduction in change impact on sugarcane by the Southern African Sugar precipitation, inflows to the reservoir will reduce by about Industry (SASA) revealed that the total revenue per hectare 34% in median years (Schulze & Dlamini 2005). This of sugarcane is likely to decrease with projected temperature condition indicates the level of vulnerability the sugarcane intensification (SASA 2006). The report further stated that industry will face as a result of climate change impacting changes in precipitation would also impact sugarcane on the availability of water resources and at the right time production, but not as severely as temperature changes for irrigation purposes. would. The studies show that less land would be used for the cultivation of sugarcane because of the changes in climate A study on change impacts and adaptation of the Swaziland that renders land and soil no longer suitable for sugarcane sugar industry by Knox et al. (2010) indicate that climate cultivation (SASA 2006). In an earlier study, the SASA reveals change is already affecting sugarcane farmers in the country. that there would be an increase in flash floods and a tendency The authors indicate that climate change will likely render towards a warmer climate (SASA 2002). With such trends, the current peak capacity of existing sugarcane irrigation insects, pests and diseases were expected to thrive as the schemes in Swaziland inadequate to fulfil the projected ecological balance gets disrupted. This viewpoint is increases in irrigation demand in almost 50% of the years confirmed by Nayamuth and Nayamuth (2002) who maintain under unlimited water availability. Climate change will place that insects may colonise new areas and new species could more pressure on the existing challenges that include loss of move into sugarcane growing areas. Land suitability may farm productivity and change in land suitability for current change, resulting in a shift in sugarcane growing areas, thus agriculture commodities (Tsabedze 2005). competing with other crops for appropriate arable land and growing areas. Land-use changes will have to be analysed in Water resources in Swaziland are predicted to become relation to mills and infrastructure as well as the surrounding increasingly limited because of climate change (World Bank communities (Dale 1997). A deterioration of sugarcane 2007). To this end, technologies that combine soil fertility quality will potentially reduce milling efficiencies, and the improvement and the storage and the efficient use of water cost of production and increase in sugar prices in the world will become essential to ensure adaptation within the market could reduce the adaptive capacity of farmers such as agricultural systems (Ahmed, Sanders & Nell 2000). Soil and SSFAs (Parry et al. 2004). water conservation is considered beneficial because this has the potential to (1) improve soil fertility, (2) enhance soil The issue of sucrose decrease is also of concern to climate water storage and (3) ensure crop buffer against droughts change and adaptive capacities of SSFAs. A decrease in and floods (World Bank 2007), which are projected to be more sucrose yield will need to be countered by mass irrigation, frequent because of climate change in Swaziland (Manyatsi, the growing of drought-resistant varieties and a change in Mhazo & Masarirambi 2010). crop cycles, while the negative effects of climate change may be countered by a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide, which A critical factor that influences the adaptive capacity of is essential for plant growth (SASA 2002). All these factors communities is their access to and control over natural, point to an increased vulnerability, necessitating improved human, social, physical and financial resources (Simane et al. adaptability if the sugarcane industry, including the SSFAs in 2012). Access to and control over the resources necessary for Swaziland, has to thrive. adaptation is influenced by many other factors such as http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 3 of 9 Original Research policies, institutions and power structures (Dulal, Brodnig & account of events from further probing by interviewers. Shah 2010). For climate change adaptation to be effective, it Research assistants administered the questionnaires in person is important that the enabling environment offers the poor and this meant that all responses on the instrument were population like SSFAs of Swaziland the rights, resources and filled in. There were no instances of respondents indicating access they require to sustain and benefit from ecosystems, they were not comfortable with any questions as this was public services and markets. This is because the poor are cleared during the pilot phase. There was also an opportunity often faced with lack of resource rights and inadequate given for the respondent to give additional comments or access to markets, finance, information and technology, make any other contributions on issues that may not have resulting in increased vulnerability compared to climate been included in the questionnaire. change effects (WRI 2009). Smallholder adaptive capacity to climate change risks is generally lowered by overdependence Sample questions included one like, ‘please rate which of the on natural resources, limitations in human and physical following operations are influenced by too much rainfall’, capital as well as poor infrastructure (Shewmake 2008). with ploughing time, planting time, weeding, irrigation, Therefore, in this study, the adaptive capacity of the SSFAs fertiliser application, repening, burning, cutting and was explored in order to determine and identify what transport/haulage as options. The same closed responses adaptive strategies may already be operational and what were utilised for probing questions on ‘too little rainfall’, ‘too may need to be designed and/or supported in response to much heat’ and ‘too low heat’. Other questions asked for future climate variability and change. The next section draws types of fertilisers used, time of the day at which irrigation attention to materials and methods used in generating and took place and sources of climate change information with analysing data. options for radio, extension officers, newspaper and ‘other’. Questions on adaptive capacity were further asked, such as, Materials and methods ‘which of the adjustments listed below did you do or plan to do to address impacts of climate change in order of The Lowveld region is the study site (Figure 1). The main importance?’ The responses were mainly closed-ended, and reason for selecting it is that it has about 70% of the 400 included change crop variety, change planting time, build a sugarcane farmers in Swaziland. In addition, the literature water reservoir, implement soil conservation techniques, get reveals that climate variability and change will be more an insurance policy, increase irrigation, decrease irrigation, severe in this region (Matondo et al. 2004). An estimated 45 change irrigation system, change irrigations times, change SSFAs made up the total population for the study, and these from crop type and other. Some qualitative questions were came from the Komati Downstream Development Project also utilised to probe responses from key informants. One (KDDP), Royal Sugar Corporation (RSSC) and Outgrowers such question was ‘what are the major challenges experienced as well as Ubombo and Outgrowers of the Lowveld. and potential areas of improvement in combating climate change in the Lowveld?’ Some of the responses that emerged On average, an SSFA is made up of 60 individual farmers included lack of information available on the subject, a call who amalgamate their small portions of land. On the for more research and awareness raising, a need for more technical front, the SSFAs have supervisors who are part of training and capacity building, and a call for improvement in the committees that run the SSFAs. Given the knowledge and climate adaptation modelling. hands-on approach of the supervisors, the work purposively sampled these supervisors with 10+ years’ stay on the farms Presentation of results and as respondents to the survey questionnaire. To this end, a discussion of findings total of 45 supervisors (representing 45 SSFAs and an estimated more than 2700 farmers) was the realised sample. This section presents the result and discussions on adaptive Further details on the population and sample sizes are capacity assessment performed following the SLF. Each of indicated in Table 1. The literature (SSA 2011) shows that the highlighted SLF assets discussed earlier will now be small-scale farmers usually own land amounting to about considered in turn in the next subsections. one ha individually, which they pull together into the SSFAs. The smallest SSFA encountered was about 68 ha, while the Adaptation through natural assets largest SSFA encountered was 305 ha. The natural resource stock upon which farmers obtain resources useful for sugarcane production include land, The questionnaire contained multiple-choice, closed-ended water, clean air, forests, erosion protection and biodiversity, questions that were for quantitative analysis and open-ended which the communities utilise for a livelihood. Land is one of questions for qualitative analysis. Data for closed-ended the key natural assets available to SSFAs in the study area. questions were entered into the Statistical Package for Social The SSFAs have access to land through chiefs and have no Sciences (SPSS) software programme for analysis and plotting individual ownership titles. The results indicate that SSFAs of descriptive statistics. On the other hand, the inclusion of are allocated small pieces of land by the chief and have to open-ended questions was critical to allow the respondents pull the land together with other farmers in order to farm to think ‘outside the box’ letting them use their own words to profitably. It emerged that the SSFAs tend to mismanage their narrate their experiences and also aiding in giving detailed land, thereby minimising their adaptive capacity to climate http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 4 of 9 Original Research N Key Highveld Middleveld Lowveld 0 50 km Lubombo Source: Goudie and Williams (1983:12). FIGURE 1: Location of study area. http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 5 of 9 Original Research TABLE 1: Small-Scale Famers Associations in the study area (n = 45). Location in the Lowveld SSFAs SSFAs SSFAs Sample 40 (1–4 years old) (5–9 years) (10+ years) 35 KDDP small-scale 5 18 14 14 30 RSSC + outgrowers - 36 16 16 Ubombo + outgrowers - 106 15 15 25 Total sample 45 20 SSFAs, Small-Scale Famers Associations. 15 10 variability and change. To this end, if adaptive capacity to 5 climate change impacts of the SSFAs is to improve, land 0 access must be accompanied by land rights enforced through Increased river level Decreased river level a formal Land Policy. However, the Land Policy has remained River levels in the draft form for a long period in Swaziland. FIGURE 2: Responses on observed river levels. The study revealed that in an effort to help SSFAs improve land and resource management, the Swaziland Water and irrigation purposes, and affecting the functioning of the Agricultural Development Enterprise (SWADE) has been irrigation system. All these effects in turn affect the yield and assisting communities to develop a Chiefdom Development quality of the sugarcane crop and the net revenue. Water Plan (CDP). This CDP guides all development interventions storage infrastructure is very important for drought and helps in the identification and transformation of conditions, yet the results indicate that 89% of the farmers available natural resources into products required for surveyed stated that they do not have on-farm water storage sustainable livelihoods, including addressing the negative infrastructure to store irrigation water for use during dry impacts of climate change. The CDP development strategies spells. The remaining 11% of the farmers claimed that the and interventions include livestock commercialisation, storage infrastructure they have is not enough to store water environment management, public health, potable water and for use during drought conditions. The choice of the right sanitation, road and electricity infrastructure, community irrigation system for the right climatic conditions and soils is, tourism development, land tenure security and other cross- therefore, very important in sugarcane production as it cutting issues such as education, gender equality and access ensures water use efficiencies and a resultant increase in to social grants. In analysing these strategies, the study found yield. Farmers have observed drastic modifications in river out that these interventions are actually very important in flow (and by implication the quality, quantity, erosion rate promoting adaptive capacities of the SSFAs in the study area. and sedimentation) in the two river basins as confirmed by It emerged that SWADE was working in partnership with the the results in Figure 2. Global Environment Facility (GEF) to develop and implement sustainable land management approaches too. The two Most of the SSFAs in the study area utilise water from the organisations collaborate to address the root causes of Komati and Usutu River systems with a few utilising water biodiversity loss and the implications for climate change. The from the Mbuluzi River. However, the farmers stated that project establishes conservation areas and promotes the use the dams have both negative and positive impacts on their of fuel-efficient stoves and solar power for cooking and livelihoods. The positive impacts include water availability lighting in households. This initiative helps to improve the for sugarcane irrigation throughout the year. Negative adaptive capacity of the SSFAs. impacts affecting livelihoods include the fact that flood peaks have increased downstream of the dams, drowning The study revealed that water availability and accessibility is irrigation equipment such as pumps. Silt deposition also another vital natural resource important for adaptation worsened over the years as the river flow lessened causing utilised by SSFAs. The construction of the Maguga and clogging of pipes, thereby reducing the amount of water Lubovane dams allowed these farmers access to water for reaching the sugarcane crop and increasing operation and irrigation. Water from the dams ensures a constant supply maintenance costs. even during times of drought. Water is also used for watering gardens around farmers’ homesteads and sugarcane farms, Adaptation through financial assets an element that stands out as an adaptation measure. The After natural assets, financial capital was identified by study further revealed that the SWADE, working with other farmers as one of the most important assets for building national organisations, has installed water supplies to some adaptive capacity. The study indicates that sugarcane farmers communities for other income-generating businesses to help have limited access to credit from banking institutions the small-scale farmers improve their livelihoods as an provided through government support. The main challenge adaptation measure. on utilising the financial assets for adaptation, however, is that the loans attract high interest rates and thereby add to Floods and droughts affect sugarcane production in many the high operational costs that affect net income. The SSFAs’ ways, such as directly impacting on agronomic processes operation cost structure is reflected in Figure 3. Harvesting and activities, affecting river water quantity and quality for costs are significantly higher for the small-scale farmers http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access No of respondents Page 6 of 9 Original Research Additional revelations were that only 3% of the respondents 5 1. Crop upkeep (38%) 2. Maintenance (4%) had a drought strategy. The 97% of the respondents who do 3. Overheads (7%) not have this strategy indicate that the farmers are not 4. Harvesng (38%) 5. Labour (13%) prepared for climate change, and thus, their adaptive capacity is quite low for drought-related stresses, yet it is so prevalent. 1 All the respondents indicated that they have no early warning systems or flood management strategy for the climatic stresses already experienced and forecasted. When the respondents were asked what adaptive measure they would implement first against climate change, building a reservoir was selected as the most important measure, followed by 4 increasing the extent of irrigation. This is particularly a true reflection because 89% of the respondents indicated that they 2 do not have water storage infrastructure, and of the 11% 3 storage infrastructure, the response was that it is not enough to cater for water shortages during drought incidences when Source: Based on RSSC 2013 FIGURE 3: Farm operational cost structure. water requirement for the crop is high. Other adaptive measures that emerged included changing from one crop to because of the distance to the mill. The main operational another crop, changing planting and irrigation times, costs incurred in the production of sugarcane comprise changing irrigation systems, changing crop variety and harvesting and crop upkeep. acquiring insurance. When respondents were asked about the constraints that Adaptation through human assets hinder them from employing adaptation measures, 88% Sugarcane farming is a labour-intensive industry, and cited lack of money, while 12% cited lack of information. therefore, the availability of the human asset is very The results further indicate that the sugar industry is important. The farmers in the study area have access to of high importance to the national government and, informal and formal education systems provided by the therefore, receives attention locally and from international, national government through the University of Swaziland developmental and donor partners. The government has and the National Agriculture Skills Training College, and been in negotiations with the European Union to offer through capacity-building courses and demonstration subsidy support to the small-scale farmers, which has come training offered by SWADE, SSA and Ubombo extension as preferential pricing. The government support has been services. Swaziland Water and Agricultural Development realised in the support rendered in the expansion of irrigation Enterprise has helped a great deal in capacitating SSFAs activities through SWADE and the Lower Usutu Smallholder through their community empowerment process, which Irrigation Project (LUSIP). Judging from the amount of culminates in the development of businesses that serve as a support the sugar industry is currently receiving from the vehicle for wealth creation. The SSA, RSSC and Ubombo government, prospects are high that adaptive capacity extension services also offer mentoring services not covered through financial assets is set to improve in the study area by SWADE. The training received by the farmers has despite the economic turmoil faced. improved adaptation in the study area. Each SSFA gets support from an extension officer from SSA, SWADE and Adaptation through physical assets RSSC. However, it was revealed during the study that The study shows that generally the availability of physical education and human capital endowments increase the assets is not a major challenge as the SSFAs are able to access likelihood of embracing new technologies, as they enhance tractors and other farm equipment. The use of computers, the ability of farmers to perceive climate change. However, telephone, email and cellophane for communication and farmers from the SSFAs were not informed, skilled or trained. improved farm management is very poor within SSFAs. An This situation reduces their adaptive capacity. estimated 86% of these farmers rely on agriculture extension staff for information dissemination on both agriculture and Adaptation through social assets climate. All respondents rated the cellular phone (100%) as The farmers in this study area have access to a number of the most widely used means for information exchange, social assets that are enabled mainly through formal and including in times of emergency. This was followed by the informal institutions. Extension services from SSA, RSSC, radio (Walkman), which was rated second by 40% and SWADE and Ubombo Sugar are available and are offered notice boards. Nevertheless, cellular phone usage depends through field visits, seminars, capacity-building and on network coverage for effective communication, an training sessions. The SSA has developed training manuals aspect which is still very poor in the study area. The most that cover all the resources needed to grow sugarcane (e.g. common sources of climate information among farmers are climate, soils, water, labour, transport, equipment and radio and television. capital) as well as all the technical aspects of production http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 7 of 9 Original Research (e.g. varieties; land preparation; weeds, disease and insect It is important to also mentor small-scale farmers on the control; irrigation; fertiliser recommendations; chemical climate change issues such that it is mainstreamed into daily ripening; harvesting and cane quality) with details of operations. Key informants revealed that capacity building choices available. On many occasions, in collaboration with remains the key and that investment in technological extension officers, farm input and equipment suppliers offer measures is also crucial for improved adaptation. Selected advisory services to farmers through workshops and responses from the key informants on their role, the main meetings. Farmer groups, associations and mill boards are challenges on combating climate change and proposed active in this area. Farm visits and networking days are ways to sustain adaptive capacities within the sugar organised through extension officers. The established industry and the country are listed in Table 2. networks and institutions encourage participation in decision-making, empower farmers and promote knowledge The study revealed that the sugar industry is highly sharing, which has helped farmers to adapt. The working regulated through institutional structures and regulations. relationship between large- and small-scale farmers also The main players involved in policy formulation towards helps to improve adaptive capacity in the sugar industry. the sugar industry include the Ministry of Agriculture, TABLE 2: Adaptive measures for climate change. Key informants Role of institution in addressing climatic Major challenges and areas of improvement Sustained climate change disasters before and after in combating climate change in the Lowveld adaptive capacity Ministry of Agriculture • Policy formulation towards climate change • Not enough information available on the • Formulate and implement policies adaptation subject • Programmes that encourage climate change • More research needed • Capacity building • Awareness raising on climate change • Awareness raising on predicted climate • More training and capacity building change disasters to farmers • Promoting crops that are climate resilient • Technological improvement for modelling • Information dissemination that is user-friendly for farmers United Nations Development • Support government on climate proofing • Not enough information available on the • Formulate and implement climate change Programme agriculture through fast tracking policies subject responsive policies and implementing programmes • More research needed • Invest in climate change programmes • More training and capacity building Ministry of Natural Resources • Policy formulation on climate adaptation • Rainfall prediction is a challenge • Investments on technological improvement and Energy related to natural resources, especially water resources • Agriculture consumes about 96% of the water resources in Swaziland Ministry of Economic Planning • Ensuring that sectors include policy • It is not yet clear what climate change is and • Clear communication on impacts and and Development formulation on climate adaptation in planning how climate change will affect the economy necessary adaptation measures is needed • Supporting government in prioritisation of economic growth sectors Meteorology Department • Data collection and storage on weather • Not enough data exist for prediction at a • Invest in data collection, management and smaller scale monitoring • Inform policy formulation on climate change • A few gauging statins exist and even the few that are there, not all weather stations are functional • Information dissemination on weather and related disasters • Early warning Swaziland Water and • Capacity building • Not precise information on climate change • Invest in capacity building and awareness Agricultural Development Enterprise • Awareness raising on predicted climate • Early warning systems not available change disasters to farmers • Sugarcane grows over several years and, therefore, makes it difficult to implement quick adaptation measures Royal Sugar Corporation • Capacity building • Not precise information on climate change • Invest in capacity building and awareness • Awareness raising on predicted climate • Early warning systems not available change disasters to farmers • Sugarcane grows over several years and, therefore, makes it difficult to implement quick adaptation measures Ubombo • Capacity building • Not precise information on climate change • Invest in capacity building and awareness • Awareness raising on predicted climate • Early warning systems not available change disasters to farmers • Sugarcane grows over several years and, therefore, makes it difficult to implement quick adaptation measures Swaziland Sugar Association • Capacity building • Not precise information on climate change • Invest in capacity building and awareness • Awareness raising on predicted climate • Early warning systems not available change disasters to farmers • Facilitating early warning mitigation • Sugarcane grows over several years and, measures with the Swaziland Cane Growers therefore, makes it difficult to implement Association, among others quick adaptation measures http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 8 of 9 Original Research Ministry of Economic Planning and Development and Human assets analysis indicated that there is a skills Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy. The Meteorology challenge faced by the SSFAs, worsened by migration of Department is pivotal for climate data and disaster skilled labour to better paying jobs in urban areas and warnings. The United Nations Development Programme through employment by large-scale farms. Overall, the (UNDP) has contributed greatly in capacity-building findings point out that the SSFAs are undertaking a number initiatives at both national and local level. The UNDP has of coping and adaptation measures. contributed through financial and technological means towards the establishment of institutions to fast-track the To this end, the study recommends that if SSFAs are to policy formulation process. The Sugar Act provides for the improve their adaptive capacity through natural and capital operation of the SSA and an agreement, which regulates assets, then the Government of Swaziland must enact the the affairs of the sugar industry. The regulated setup within much awaited land policy to guide the utilisation and the sugar industry ensures reliable income generation preservation of land resources, especially in rural areas. In through improved cooperation and the agreement on sugar addition, farmers should move to sugarcane varieties, which sales. Adaptive capacity of the farmers is promoted in that are high yielding, drought tolerant, more resistant to pests the Sugar Act covers the sugarcane production, administration and diseases and have shorter periods of maturity, which and coordination of sugarcane supply to the mills, and require substantial capital outlays. Therefore, improving establishes dispute resolution structures, the pooling of the financial flows through reduced interest rates on loans and proceeds from the sale of sugar and molasses and the sharing granting land title deeds would contribute greatly in of the net proceeds between the growers and milling sections. providing buffers as the SSFAs adapt to the changing climate. The agreement further covers the calculation of the price The government is further encouraged to review credit paid for cane deliveries and cost sharing aspects. conditions for SSFAs, developing weather-based index insurance schemes and review tax and charges for fuel and Other Acts and policies that guide sugarcane production electricity as well as providing subsidies. Other measures to include the Water Act, Environment Management Act, the Draft consider include improved provision and dissemination of Land Policy and Irrigation Policy. The Environment relevant climate information, which must include climate- Management Act promotes sustainable, efficient and equitable smart agriculture and early warning mechanisms. Lastly, the use of natural resources that support sugarcane production. government and other players need to build water storage Awareness on environmental degradation by large-scale infrastructure. agriculture such as sugarcane production has resulted in strict requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments and Comprehensive Mitigation Plans. The promulgation of Acknowledgements the Water Act in 2003 tightened the water permitting system, This paper was presented at the first National Conference which changed the allocation system from a volumetric on Disaster Risk Science and Management in system to a crop water requirement system. ‘South Africa’s response in a changing global environment’, 02–04 March 2015, at the Ranch Resort, Polokwane, Conclusions and recommendations South Africa. Jointly hosted by the University of Venda, School of Environmental Sciences, South Africa, and National The objective of this study was to assess the adaptive Disaster Management Centre (representing Department capacities of SSFAs in Swaziland’s Lowveld to climate of Cooperative Governance), South Africa. Faculty variability and change. Although the methodology did not collaborators were Mr Tendayi Gondo, Prof. Agnes Musyoki set out to calculate an adaptive capacity index, the results and Mr Edmore Kori. point to SSFAs that have difficulty in adapting to climate change. Key factors highlighted include the lack of appropriate and adequate information, lack of research from Competing interests extension services, lack of awareness and appropriate The authors declare that they have no financial or personal technology, lack of capacity and inadequate early warning relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them systems. Overall, SSFAs do not have enough flexibility, in writing this article. decision-making and control over their natural and capital assets, particularly land and access to credit, in order to effect changes in production, irrigation and management systems Authors’ contributions as and when required. Close to 90% of the respondents B.F.N.M.N was responsible for conceptualisation, literature indicated that they do not have water storage infrastructure. search and write-up of the manuscript as this was from their The analysis revealed that SSFAs suffer from external PhD. G.N. was the supervisor for the research and was parameters with a bearing on their financial assets. Such responsible for the refinement of the manuscript. parameters include the cost of input commodities, sugar prices, inflation rates, taxes and exchange rates. An analysis Funding Information on accessibility and availability of the social assets indicated that networks exist in the study area that promote working This research received no specific grant from any funding together, skills development, cooperation and cost sharing. agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. http://www.jamba.org.za Open Access Page 9 of 9 Original Research Data availability statement Knox, J., Rodríguez, W., Díaz, J.A., Nixon D.J. & Mkhwanazi, M., 2010, ‘A preliminary assessment of climate change impacts on sugarcane in Swaziland’, Agricultural Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data Systems 103(2), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2009.09.002 Mahendra, S., 2011, Climate change, rural livelihoods and agriculture (focus on food were created or analysed in this study. security) in Asia-Pacific region. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai Working Papers 2011-014, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai. 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