The Glass Box Method to optimise spatial visualisation and self-directed learning in Engineering Graphics and Design students S de Villiers orcid.org/0000-0003-1686-886X Dissertation accepted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Scientiae in Curriculum Studies at the North- West University Supervisor: Dr Adri du Toit Co-supervisor: Dr Albert Kemp Graduation: December 2023 i DECLARATION I the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any university for a degree. _____________________ Signature Date: 13/03/2023 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and most importantly, my thanks go to Yahweh, my Heavenly Father, for giving me the necessary insight, foresight, wisdom, knowledge and discernment to complete this study. Furthermore, I want to express my sincere appreciation for the following people: • Giovan, my husband, thank you for all your prayers, unending love, patience and support. • Mom and Dad, for your continuous support, unending love, years of prayers and encouragement. • Dr Adri du Toit, who undertook the act of being my supervisor and who, despite all her other commitments, encouraged and supported me throughout the study. She always smiled and motivated me to the best of her ability. • Dr Albert Kemp, who undertook the act of being my co-supervisor and who, despite all his commitments, motivated and supported me throughout the study and who did not hesitate to call and give a word of encouragement when it was necessary. • Dr Erika Fourie, for assisting me with the quantitative data analysis. iii ABSTRACT Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD) student teachers often need help converting orthographic projection drawings into sectional isometric drawings. This can be ascribed to a lack of spatial visualisation skills. Literature on the struggles South African EGD educators and students face, along with possible solutions for how the subject might be improved, is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to determine and delineate the impact of the Glass Box Method with 3D printed models as a teaching and learning aid on EGD in higher education to optimise student teachers’ understanding of sectional isometric drawings while improving their spatial visualisation skills. EGD student teachers must be masters of spatial visualisation skills, as they have to interpret and comprehend the various topics of the curriculum to enable them to educate future EGD learners effectively. Furthermore, for students to effectively develop solutions to real-world problems, they must become self-directed. To open the door for these students’ future use of self- directed learning (SDL) as a critical competence, I (the module lecturer) further endeavoured to sensitise first-year EGD student teachers to the value and benefits of SDL. A mixed-methods design-based methodology (QUAL-quan), based on Sandoval's (2014) four-phase design-based process, was employed to explore and define how improvements could be made to the teaching and learning of EGD. The study population consisted of first-year Engineering Graphics and Design Education (EGDE) students at the Potchefstroom campus of the North-West University. Although there was no practical improvement in the students’ spatial visualisation skills, according to the quantitative data, the qualitative findings showed that the students did, however, believe that after the intervention, they better comprehended the conversion of orthographic projection into sectional isometric drawings. This study could have yielded more favourable results if the intervention had been implemented over a more extended period and if technical selection tests were a prerequisite for all education students who wanted to register for the EGDE module in higher education. The qualitative findings further showed that my efforts to sensitise first-year students to the value and benefits of SDL were received positively by students and that some students subsequently started implementing SDL strategies independently. Key terms: Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD); spatial visualisation skills; self-directed learning; Glass Box Method; sectional isometric drawings iv OPSOMMING Ingenieursgrafika en -ontwerp (IGO)-onderwysstudente het dikwels hulp nodig om ortografiese projeksietekeninge in isometriese snittekeninge om te skakel. Dit kan toegeskryf word aan die ontbreking van ruimtelike visualiseringsvaardighede. Literatuur oor die stryd wat Suid-Afrikaanse IGO-opvoeders en -studente ervaar, tesame met moontlike oplossings oor hoe dié vak verbeter kan word, is seldsaam. Hierdie studie het dus ten doel gehad om die impak van die Glaskasmetode met 3D gedrukte modelle as 'n onderrig- en leerhulpmiddel op IGO in hoër onderwys te bepaal en te skets ten einde onderwysstudente se begrip van isometriese snittekeninge te optimaliseer terwyl hulle hul ruimtelike visualiseringsvaardighede verbeter. IGO- onderwysstudente moet meesters van ruimtelike visualiseringsvaardighede wees, aangesien hulle die verskillende onderwerpe van die kurrikulum moet interpreteer en begryp om hulle in staat te stel om toekomstige IGO-leerders doeltreffend te onderrig. Hierdie studente moet voorts self-gerig raak om effektief oplossings vir lewenswerklike probleme te ontwikkel. Om ʼn geleentheid te skep vir hierdie studente se toekomstige gebruik van selfgerigte leer (SGL) as ʼn kritiese bevoegdheid het ek (die module-lektor) ook probeer om die eerstejaar-IGO-studente te sensitiseer oor die waarde en voordele van SGL. ’n Gemengdemetode ontwerpgebaseerde metodologie (KWAL-kwan), gebaseer op Sandoval (2014) se vier-fase ontwerpgebaseerde proses, is gebruik om te verken en te definieer hoe verbeterings aan die onderrig en leer van IGO gemaak kan word. Die studiepopulasie het bestaan uit eerstejaarstudente in ingenieursgrafika en -ontwerp opvoedkunde (IGOO, oftewel “EGDE” in Engels) aan die Noordwes-Universiteit se Potchefstroomkampus. Alhoewel daar volgens die kwantitatiewe data geen praktiese verbetering in die studente se ruimtelike visualiseringsvaardighede was nie, het die kwalitatiewe bevindinge getoon dat die studente wel geglo het dat hulle ná die intervensie die omskakeling van ortografiese projeksie in isometriese snittekeninge beter begryp het. Hierdie studie kon moontlik gunstiger resultate gelewer het as die intervensie oor 'n langer tydperk geïmplementeer is en as tegniese keuringstoetse ʼn voorvereiste was vir alle onderwysstudente wat spesifiek vir die IGOO- module in hoër onderwys wou registreer. Die kwalitatiewe bevindinge het verder aangedui dat my pogings om eerstejaarstudente te sensitiseer oor die waarde en voordele van SGL positief deur studente ontvang is en dat sommige studente daarna SGL-strategieë onafhanklik begin implementeer het. Sleutelwoorde: Ingenieursgrafika en -ontwerp; ruimtelike visualiseringsvaardighede; selfgerigte leer; Glaskasmetode; isometriese snittekeninge v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ II ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. III OPSOMMING ............................................................................................................................. IV CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ..................................... 1 1.1 Introduction and background to the study ................................................................ 1 1.2 Key words and clarifications ....................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Engineering Graphics and Design .................................................................................. 3 1.2.2 The Glass Box Method ................................................................................................... 3 1.2.3 Spatial visualisation ........................................................................................................ 4 1.2.4 Self-directed learning ..................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Problem statement ....................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Rationale for the study ................................................................................................ 5 1.5 Research question and aims ....................................................................................... 6 1.5.1 Primary research question ............................................................................................. 6 1.5.2 Secondary research questions ....................................................................................... 6 1.5.3 Aim and objectives of the study ...................................................................................... 6 1.6 Research design and methodology ............................................................................ 7 1.6.1 Research design ............................................................................................................ 7 1.6.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................... 7 1.6.2.1 Qualitative research techniques ..................................................................................... 8 1.6.2.2 Quantitative research techniques ................................................................................... 8 1.6.3 Planned intervention ....................................................................................................... 8 1.7 Philosophical orientation and research paradigm .................................................... 9 1.8 Population and sample ................................................................................................ 9 1.9 Data collection ............................................................................................................ 10 1.9.1 Measuring instruments ................................................................................................. 10 1.10 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 11 vi 1.10.1 Qualitative strategies .................................................................................................... 11 1.10.2 Quantitative strategies .................................................................................................. 11 1.11 Trustworthiness ......................................................................................................... 12 1.11.1 Qualitative research ..................................................................................................... 12 1.11.2 Quantitative research ................................................................................................... 13 1.12 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................... 13 1.13 Chapter division ......................................................................................................... 14 1.14 Chapter summary ....................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 16 2.2 Engineering Graphics and Design ............................................................................ 16 2.2.1 Definition ...................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.2 The origin and history of Engineering Graphics and Design ........................................ 17 2.3 Engineering Graphics and Design curriculum ........................................................ 21 2.3.1 Knowledge .................................................................................................................... 22 2.3.2 Skills ............................................................................................................................. 22 2.4 Spatial visualisation ................................................................................................... 23 2.4.1 The importance of spatial visualisation in Engineering Graphics and Design .............. 24 2.4.2 Measuring spatial visualisation skills ............................................................................ 24 2.4.3 Optimising spatial visualisation skills ............................................................................ 26 2.5 Teaching and learning aids to optimise spatial visualisation skills ...................... 27 2.5.1 The Glass Box Method ................................................................................................. 29 2.5.2 Challenges related to the use of these various aids in developing spatial visualisation skills ......................................................................................................... 30 2.6 The importance of spatial visualisation skills for EGD student teachers ............. 33 2.7 Self-directed learning ................................................................................................. 33 2.7.1 How to sensitise students to self-directed learning and the importance thereof .......... 34 2.8 Chapter summary ....................................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................. 37 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 37 vii 3.2 Research problem, purpose and research questions ............................................. 37 3.3 Research aims and objectives .................................................................................. 38 3.4 Paradigm and philosophical orientation of the study ............................................. 39 3.5 Research design ......................................................................................................... 43 3.6 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 44 3.6.1 Mixed-methods design-based research ....................................................................... 44 3.6.2 Population and sampling .............................................................................................. 46 3.6.3 Data collection .............................................................................................................. 47 3.6.3.1 Qualitative data collection methods .............................................................................. 47 3.6.3.2 Quantitative data collection methods ........................................................................... 49 3.7 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 51 3.7.1 Qualitative data analysis .............................................................................................. 51 3.7.2 Quantitative data analysis ............................................................................................ 54 3.7.2.1 Descriptive statistics ..................................................................................................... 54 3.7.2.2 T-test (Paired t-test and Wilcoxon signed-rank test) .................................................... 54 3.7.2.3 Reliability ...................................................................................................................... 56 3.8 Trustworthiness of the research ............................................................................... 56 3.9 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................... 59 3.9.1 Informed consent .......................................................................................................... 59 3.9.2 Ethical approval ............................................................................................................ 60 3.10 Chapter summary ....................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 4: THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE GLASS BOX METHOD TO ENHANCE SPATIAL VISUALISATION ....................................................................................................... 62 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 62 4.2 The intervention ......................................................................................................... 62 4.2.1 The contact sessions .................................................................................................... 62 4.3 Planning and design of the intervention .................................................................. 64 4.3.1 Aims and objectives ..................................................................................................... 64 4.3.1.1 Constructive module alignment .................................................................................... 65 4.3.1.2 Communicating module information ............................................................................. 66 4.3.2 Module content ............................................................................................................. 67 viii 4.3.2.1 Evaluating different resources ...................................................................................... 67 4.3.2.2 Resource availability .................................................................................................... 70 4.3.3 Teaching strategies ...................................................................................................... 70 4.3.4 Module planning ........................................................................................................... 71 4.3.4.1 Student participation ..................................................................................................... 75 4.3.5 Feedback ...................................................................................................................... 75 4.3.6 Profile of students ......................................................................................................... 75 4.3.6.1 Pre-knowledge of sectional isometric drawings............................................................ 76 4.3.6.2 Prior understanding or awareness of SDL ................................................................... 76 4.4 DBR Phase 2: Implementation of the intervention .................................................. 76 4.4.1 Week 1: Oblique projection .......................................................................................... 76 4.4.1.1 Lesson 1 ....................................................................................................................... 76 4.4.1.2 Lesson 2 ....................................................................................................................... 77 4.4.2 Week 2: Perspective projection .................................................................................... 78 4.4.2.1 Lesson 3 ....................................................................................................................... 78 4.4.2.2 Lesson 4 ....................................................................................................................... 80 4.4.3 Week 3: Perspective projection and axonometric drawings ......................................... 81 4.4.3.1 Lesson 5 ....................................................................................................................... 81 4.4.3.2 Lesson 6 ....................................................................................................................... 82 4.4.4 Week 4: Axonometric projection ................................................................................... 84 4.4.4.1 Lesson 7 ....................................................................................................................... 84 4.4.4.2 Lesson 8 ....................................................................................................................... 85 4.4.5 Week 5: Axonometric projection ................................................................................... 87 4.4.5.1 Lesson 9 ....................................................................................................................... 87 4.4.5.2 Lesson 10 ..................................................................................................................... 89 4.4.6 Week 6: Axonometric projection ................................................................................... 91 4.4.6.1 Lesson 11 ..................................................................................................................... 91 4.4.6.2 Lesson 12 ..................................................................................................................... 93 4.4.7 Week 7: Axonometric projection ................................................................................... 94 4.4.7.1 Lesson 13 ..................................................................................................................... 94 4.4.7.2 Lesson 14 ..................................................................................................................... 96 4.4.8 Week 8: Methodology (PAT) ........................................................................................ 97 4.4.8.1 Lesson 15 ..................................................................................................................... 97 4.4.8.2 Lesson 16 ..................................................................................................................... 98 ix 4.4.9 Week 9: CAD ................................................................................................................ 99 4.4.9.1 Lesson 17 ..................................................................................................................... 99 4.4.9.2 Lesson 18 ................................................................................................................... 101 4.4.10 Week 10: Revision ..................................................................................................... 102 4.4.10.1 Lesson 19 ................................................................................................................... 102 4.5 Chapter summary ..................................................................................................... 104 CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND RESULTS ............................................................................ 106 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 106 5.2 Findings and results from data analysis ................................................................ 106 5.2.1 DBR Phase 1: Determine the research problem ........................................................ 106 5.2.2 Determine which teaching and learning aids are currently being utilised to improve EGD teacher students’ spatial visualisation skills at a particular South African university ........................................................................................................ 113 5.2.3 DBR Phase 3: Determine to what extent the Glass Box Method, with the use of 3D printed models, is being incorporated in EGD teacher preparation at a particular South African university .............................................................................. 117 5.2.4 DBR Phase 3: Determine to what extent the application of the Glass Box Method enhances the EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills ................................ 119 5.2.4.1 DBR Phase 3: Quantitative results for measurement of EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills ............................................................................................ 123 5.2.5 DBR Phase 3: Explore how first-year EGD student teachers are sensitised to the existence and potential benefits of SDL for their own continued lifelong learning in this subject .............................................................................................................. 125 5.3 Triangulation ............................................................................................................. 126 5.3.1 Triangulation of qualitative data ................................................................................. 126 5.3.2 Triangulation of quantitative data ............................................................................... 127 5.3.3 Final triangulation ....................................................................................................... 128 5.4 Chapter summary ..................................................................................................... 129 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................... 131 6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 131 6.2 DBR Phase 4: Conclusions ..................................................................................... 131 x 6.2.1 Establish which type of teaching and learning aids are currently being utilised to improve EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills at a particular South African university ........................................................................................................ 131 6.2.2 Uncover to what extent the Glass Box Method, with the use of 3D printed models, is being incorporated in EGD teacher preparation at a particular South African university .................................................................................................................... 132 6.2.3 Determine to what extent the application of the Glass Box Method enhances these student teachers' spatial visualisation skills ...................................................... 133 6.2.3.1 Spatial visualisation skills ........................................................................................... 133 6.2.4 Explore how first-year EGD student teachers can be sensitised to the existence and potential benefits of SDL for their own continued lifelong learning in this subject ........................................................................................................................ 133 6.3 Limitations of the study ........................................................................................... 134 6.4 Contributions of the study ...................................................................................... 135 6.5 DBR Phase 4: Recommendations for further research ........................................ 135 6.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 136 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 137 ADDENDUM A: CONSENT FORM ......................................................................................... 150 ADDENDUM B: FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW WITH STUDENTS ........................................ 154 ADDENDUM C: INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS WITH LECTURERS ......................................... 155 ADDENDUM D: MCT PRE-TEST ............................................................................................ 156 ADDENDUM E: MCT POST-TEST .......................................................................................... 162 ADDENDUM F: ETHICS APPROVAL LETTER ...................................................................... 168 xi LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1: A comparison of the two most frequently employed spatial visualisation tests ................................................................................................................ 25 Table 2-2: Teaching and learning aids in EGD ................................................................ 28 Table 2-3: Summary of challenges faced related to using various teaching and learning aids in developing spatial visualisation skills and ways to overcome them ............................................................................................... 32 Table 3-1: Characteristics of social constructivism .......................................................... 42 Table 3-2: Themes and categories for the qualitative analysis ........................................ 53 Table 3-3: Effect sizes ..................................................................................................... 55 Table 3-4: Criteria and strategies to ensure trustworthiness in this mixed-methods design-based study ........................................................................................ 57 Table 4-1: An overview of the scaffolding of the intervention .......................................... 63 Table 4-2: Module outcomes on first-year EGDE eFundi site ......................................... 66 Table 4-3: The learning outcomes of axonometric drawings ........................................... 67 Table 4-4: Work programme and time schedules ............................................................ 72 Table 4-5: Planning and design of intervention ............................................................... 73 Table 4-6: Lesson 1 ......................................................................................................... 77 Table 4-7: Lesson 2 ......................................................................................................... 78 Table 4-8: Lesson 3 ......................................................................................................... 79 Table 4-9: Lesson 4 ......................................................................................................... 81 Table 4-10: Lesson 5 ......................................................................................................... 82 Table 4-11: Lesson 6 ......................................................................................................... 83 Table 4-12: Lesson 7 ......................................................................................................... 85 Table 4-13: Lesson 8 ......................................................................................................... 86 xii Table 4-14: Lesson 9 ......................................................................................................... 88 Table 4-15: Lesson 10 ....................................................................................................... 90 Table 4-16: Lesson 11 ....................................................................................................... 92 Table 4-17: Lesson 12 ....................................................................................................... 93 Table 4-18: Lesson 13 ....................................................................................................... 95 Table 4-19: Lesson 14 ....................................................................................................... 96 Table 4-20: Lesson 15 ....................................................................................................... 97 Table 4-21: Lesson 16 ....................................................................................................... 99 Table 4-22: Lesson 17 ..................................................................................................... 100 Table 4-23: Lesson 18 ..................................................................................................... 101 Table 4-24: Lesson 19 ..................................................................................................... 102 Table 5-1: Typical quotes as evidence of the lack of spatial visualisation ..................... 108 Table 5-2: Evidence of students’ understanding or definition of spatial visualisation skills .............................................................................................................. 110 Table 5-3: The importance of spatial visualisation skills ................................................ 112 Table 5-4: Examples of quotes from participants identifying various teaching and learning aids ................................................................................................. 114 Table 5-5: Familiarity with the Glass Box Method ......................................................... 118 Table 5-6: Improve spatial visualisation skills with the use of the Glass Box Method ... 120 Table 5-7: Paired sample statistics of MCT pre- and post-test ...................................... 123 xiii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Six principal views of the Glass Box .......................................................................... 4 Figure 2-1: Floorplan view of a fortress, part of a statue of king Gudea, from Lagash in Mesopotamia .................................................................................................. 18 Figure 2-2: An exploded view of a weight-lifting device with a toothed brake ............................ 19 Figure 2-3: Orthographic drawings of a human foot and head ................................................... 20 Figure 2-4: Illustrations of drawing I and XXIV in the second edition of Géométrie descriptive ...................................................................................................... 21 Figure 2-5: The six principal views of a model ........................................................................... 29 Figure 2-6: The process of unfolding the Glass Box .................................................................. 29 Figure 3-1: Interdependence of the philosophical assumptions ................................................. 40 Figure 3-2: The four-phase design-based research process ............................................ 45 Figure 3-3: MCT questions ............................................................................................... 50 Figure 4-1: Constructive alignment model ........................................................................ 65 Figure 4-2: Glass Box Method .......................................................................................... 68 Figure 4-3: 3D CAD software with model .......................................................................... 68 Figure 4-4: 3D Printed models used in the implementation of the intervention ................ 69 Figure 4-5: eFundi Portal for the module EGDE ............................................................... 69 Figure 4-6: The Depot portal ........................................................................................... 103 Figure 4-7: The Depot course content ............................................................................ 104 Figure 5-1: Codes generated from interviews indicating a lack of spatial visualisation .. 107 Figure 5-2: Codes generated from interviews explaining students’ definition/understanding of spatial visualisation ........................................... 109 Figure 5-3: Codes generated from the interviews to indicate the importance students attribute to spatial visualisation skills for EGD .............................................. 111 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aids identified by the participants ................. 114 Figure 5-5: The participant students’ familiarity with the Glass Box Method .................. 117 Figure 5-6: Possible improvement of spatial visualisation according to the participants ................................................................................................... 120 Figure 5-7: Triangulation of qualitative data .................................................................... 127 Figure 5-8: Triangulation of quantitative data ................................................................. 128 Figure 5-9: Final triangulation ......................................................................................... 129 file:///C:/Users/07646/OneDrive/Documents/NWU/Meesters%202022/Final%20Dissertation/Final/Completed%20dissertation/26520400_Shirene_de_Villiers_Dissertation%20post%20TrIn.docx%23_Toc133335879 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file:///C:/Users/07646/OneDrive/Documents/NWU/Meesters%202022/Final%20Dissertation/Final/Completed%20dissertation/26520400_Shirene_de_Villiers_Dissertation%20post%20TrIn.docx%23_Toc133335884 1 CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction and background to the study Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD) students learn how to communicate graphically (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2011; Rust, 2017). However, to do that, they must have basic skills, which include, among others, the ability to read, understand and interpret graphical drawings and the skills to spatially visualise objects (Konadu-Yiadom, 2016). It is recognised that spatial visualisation skills are essential skills people in a technical and engineering profession should possess (Alqahtani et al., 2017). Katsioloudis et al. (2014) and Norman (1994) argue that spatial visualisation skills are one of the most important predictors of students' success when they must manipulate particular objects and use computer-aided design (CAD) software. In conjunction with spatial visualisation skills, it is also essential that students become self-directed (Kemp, 2020) to acquire an effective understanding of how to overcome specific problems and challenges they might face in the EGD classroom. Different types of spatial abilities can be identified, such as spatial intelligence and spatial visualisation. Gardner (as cited in Lieu & Sorby, 2015) describes spatial intelligence as the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and then perform alterations and adaptations to those perceptions. According to him, humans process many basic intelligences, and spatial intelligence is one of them. In comparison, spatial visualisation is described as the ability to mentally alter or transform any two-dimensional (2D) drawing or three-dimensional (3D) object (Lieu & Sorby, 2015). Katsioloudis et al. (2014) are more specific with their description of spatial visualisation by describing it as the ability to fold and unfold flat objects, rotate different objects, and alter the position of objects in the mind's eye. However, for the purpose of the current study, I (the researcher) referred to spatial visualisation, because I wanted to determine the participating students' ability to convert 2D drawings into 3D drawings. According to Khoza (2017), Singh-Pillay and Sotsaka (2017) and Tumkor and De Vries (2015), there are different teaching and learning methods that can be used to improve the spatial visualisation skills of EGD students, namely traditional sketching, the use of physical models, CAD software, and the Glass Box Method. A study by Mohler and Miller (as cited in Kemp, 2020) showed that using traditional sketching activities can positively improve students' spatial visualisation skills. To support this finding, Lieu and Sorby (2015) and Rodriguez and Rodriguez 2 (2016) studied the importance of using traditional sketching to improve students' overall spatial visualisation skills. On the other hand, Katsioloudis and Jovanovic (2014) concluded that using 3D printed models enables students to better understand the specific drawing being taught, thus implying that 3D printed models can improve the spatial visualisation skills of EGD students. CAD software is used to draw, design and develop different mechanical or machine components (Newton et al., 2018). Kemp (2020) found that incorporating CAD software as part of a combination of teaching and learning aids for EGD enabled student teachers to understand the theories of the engineering field more clearly because of how their spatial visualisation skills were improved through the use thereof. Kemp's (2020) study added to the findings of Makgato and Khoza (2015) that insignificant teaching and learning methods used by teachers in the EGD classroom contribute to the disproportionate number of students who lack of the necessary spatial visualisation skills. Makgato and Khoza (2015) also found that students tend to have difficulty when converting orthographic projection drawings (2D) into isometric drawings (3D) because of a lack of spatial visualisation skills. However, Tumkor and De Vries (2015) discovered an improvement in students’ spatial visualisation skills when they combined 3D models with the Glass Box Method. This method enables the educator to place a 3D model in a glass box, draw the different views of the model on the six planes of the box, and then unfold the glass box to represent an orthographic drawing (2D) of the 3D model that was placed inside (Plantenberg, 2010, 2016). While completing my bachelor’s degree in Engineering Graphics and Design, during our practical assessments, which took place twice a year for four weeks, I encountered the same problem identified by Kemp (2020) and Makgato and Khoza (2015). During my practical assessment, it was clear that the learners experienced difficulty when they had to spatially visualise an object in their mind's eye and make alterations and transformations to the 2D drawing or 3D object. A lack of the necessary spatial visualisation skills, along with insufficient combinations of teaching and learning aids, as well as insignificant teaching and learning methods applied in the EGD classroom caused the learners to struggle to convert orthographic projection drawings (2D) into an isometric drawing (3D) (Katsioloudis & Jovanovic, 2014; Makgato & Khoza, 2015). Therefore, the focus of the current study was to incorporate multiple teaching and learning aids, such as traditional sketching with pencil and paper, and integrating the Glass Box Method used by Tumkor and De Vries (2015), instead using 3D printed models that were placed in a glass box. This allowed student teachers to project the different views visible on the six planes of the glass 3 box to improve their spatial visualisation skills when converting orthographic projection drawings (2D) into sectional isometric drawings (3D). Student teachers, however, have limited time to complete the EGD module. Hence, it is crucial that student teachers start taking responsibility for their own learning and use their own initiatives by becoming self-directed learners (Newton et al., 2018) while simultaneously improving their spatial visualisation skills (Kemp, 2020). When realising the importance of spatial visualisation and SDL for EGD student teachers, these student teachers must be provided with appropriate instructional methods to enhance these skills (Alqahtani et al., 2017). Sorby (as cited in Katsioloudis et al., 2014) states that if students are provided with opportunities to improve their spatial visualisation skills, they would demonstrate greater self-confidence and improve in mathematics and science. They would be more likely to persist in an engineering profession. Educators should also sensitise students to the value and benefits of SDL so that they become aware of their duty towards and responsibility for their own learning (Reyneke & Botha, 2019). 1.2 Key words and clarifications 1.2.1 Engineering Graphics and Design Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD) can be described as a graphical language or communication method presented through different drawing forms (Khoza, 2014). Engineers, draughters and educators mostly use this type of language or communication to better understand various technical ideas and concepts – that is, the form, size and structure of mechanical objects (Khoza, 2017). According to the DBE (2011), the South African subject EGD encompasses internationally accredited principles with technological and academic applications. The main focus of the EGD subject is to equip EGD learners with specific basic knowledge and different drawing skills and techniques to enable them to understand, decode and produce drawings within the contexts of Electrical Technology, Mechanical and Civil Technology (DBE, 2011). 1.2.2 The Glass Box Method The Glass Box Method is a teaching and learning aid used by Tumkor and De Vries (2015), who placed a 3D model in a glass box. The box consists of six planes, each representing one of the six principal views (i.e., front, back, left, right, top and bottom), as seen in figure 1-1 (Plantenberg, 2016). 4 Figure 1-1: Six principal views of the Glass Box Source: Plantenberg (2016) Figure 1-1 shows the views of the 3D printed model in the glass box which are then projected (drawn) onto the six planes. Next, the glass box is unfolded, which reveals all six principal views in an orthographic projection drawing (2D). 1.2.3 Spatial visualisation Spatial visualisation is the ability to create a new viewpoint through manipulating, rotating, twisting, or inverting an object in three dimensions (Lieu & Sorby, 2015; Strong & Smith, 2002). Alqahtani et al. (2017) describe spatial visualisation as the process of visualising a well-structured drawing or image and then being able to produce, recall, retrieve and convert the drawing or image. It is an applied cognitive skill associated with success in any technological field of education. According to Kemp (2020), spatial visualisation is an important skill EGD student teachers should possess that enables them to create and comprehend EGD drawings. Examples are first- and third-angle orthographic projections, axonometric drawings, such as isometric, dimetric and trimetric, and the sectioning of these drawings, which signify some of the fundamentals of EGD education. 1.2.4 Self-directed learning According to Tan et al. (2011), self-directed learning (SDL) can be seen as the planning and managing of one's own learning without the assistance of an educator. In agreement, Bagheri et al. (2013) stated that SDL is an independent student activity where they organise all aspects of their learning experience. Knowles (1975) provided a more elaborate explanation of SDL, stating that it involves individuals taking the initiative to identify their learning needs, establish their own 5 objectives, find potential resources for learning, employ effective learning approaches, and ultimately, assess their own learning results, either with or without assistance from others. 1.3 Problem statement Many EGD student teachers experience difficulties when they must convert multi-faced models from either an orthographic projection drawing (2D) into a sectional isometric drawing (3D) or the other way around (Khoza, 2014). According to Singh-Pillay and Sotsaka (2020), the South African education system tends to favour the improvement of written, numerical and verbal skills rather than spatial visualisation skills. Furthermore, a study by Strydom (2020) showed that the South African education system at the time did not encourage the development of activities that would develop students' SDL. In the literature, it is documented that spatial visualisation skills can be seen as one of the fundamental skills students need to function effectively in the EGD classroom (Branoff & Dobelis, 2012; Rodriguez & Rodriguez, 2016; Uttal et al., 2013). Dynan et al. (2008) state that EGD students must be self-directed to effectively develop solutions to real-world problems, identify and explain underlying statements, and become increasingly more responsible for their own learning. 1.4 Rationale for the study In the South African education system, little research has been conducted in the field of EGD (Kemp, 2020). Thus, most literature used in studies is mainly from fields of engineering that are relevant to this form of drawing used in South Africa. The lack of literature on EGD as subject makes it difficult for educators to determine the areas of improvement because there is little information about the struggles educators and students face and how the subject might be improved (Kemp, 2020). This highlighted an opportunity to determine the effectiveness of teaching and learning EGD through the integration of the Glass Box Method, with 3D printed models, which I designed using 3D CAD software to improve students' spatial visualisation and sensitise them to the use of SDL as a useful competence. Therefore, the purpose of this study was (1) to uncover how the application of the Glass Box Method, with the addition of 3D printed models, could optimise the spatial visualisation skills of student teachers so that they could more successfully interpret orthographic projection (2D) drawings and convert them into sectional isometric (3D) drawings (see sections 5.2.4 & 6.2.3), 6 and (2) to sensitise the student teachers to the potential benefits of SDL so that they could become more self-directed in their own continued lifelong learning (see sections 5.2.4 & 6.2.3). 1.5 Research question and aims 1.5.1 Primary research question The following research question guided the study: How can the application of the Glass Box Method, using 3D printed models, optimise the spatial visualisation skills of Engineering Graphics and Design student teachers and contribute to sensitising them to SDL as a learning strategy? 1.5.2 Secondary research questions The following secondary research questions were used to address the above-stated primary research question: • Which type of teaching and learning aids are currently being utilised to improve EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills at a particular South African university? • To what extent is the Glass Box Method, with the use of 3D printed models, being incorporated in EGD teacher preparation at a particular South African university? • To what extent does the application of the Glass Box Method enhance these student teachers' spatial visualisation skills? • How can first-year EGD student teachers be sensitised to the existence and potential benefits of SDL for their own continued lifelong learning in this subject? 1.5.3 Aim and objectives of the study The primary aim of this study was to determine how the application of the Glass Box Method, with the use of 3D printed models, could optimise the spatial visualisation skills of Engineering Graphics and Design student teachers and contribute to sensitising them to SDL as a beneficial learning strategy. The following objectives contributed to attaining this primary aim: • to establish which type of teaching and learning aids are currently being utilised to improve EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills at a particular South African university; 7 • to uncover to what extent the Glass Box Method, with the use of 3D printed models, is being incorporated in EGD teacher preparation at a particular South African university; • to determine to what extent the application of the Glass Box Method enhanced these student teachers' spatial visualisation skills; • to explore how first-year EGD student teachers could be sensitised to the existence and potential benefits of SDL for their own continued lifelong learning in this subject. 1.6 Research design and methodology 1.6.1 Research design In this study, a mixed-methods design-based study was conducted, using a social constructivist paradigm. Convenience sampling was used to select participants. This method ensured an accurate analysis of how EGD student teachers' spatial visualisation and understanding of SDL could be optimised. Data were generated by means of focus group and semi-structured individual interviews and a personal observation journal. Pre- and post-tests were used to test the EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills before and after the intervention. Their spatial visualisation skills were tested using the Mental Cutting Test (MCT). The qualitative data were analysed using content and conversation analysis to fully comprehend all the written materials and verbal data. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics to understand the data relations. 1.6.2 Methodology A mixed-methods design-based methodology (QUAL-quan) was used to determine and define how improvements could be made to the teaching and learning of EGD – specifically, the conversion of orthographic projection drawings (2D) into sectional isometric drawings (3D), based on Sandoval's (2014) four-phase process (see chapter 3). The four-phase design-based research process by Sandoval (2014) entails the following: • Phase 1: Designing a potential solution to the specific problem in the form of different teaching and learning methods. • Phase 2: Testing the different teaching and learning methods in the classroom. • Phase 3: Evaluating and analysing the effectiveness (or lack) of the different teaching and learning methods. • Phase 4: Reflecting on the outcomes and identifying all the successes and areas of improvement. 8 1.6.2.1 Qualitative research techniques Astalin (2013) describes qualitative research as a systematic inquiry that allows researchers to form an understanding of a cultural or social phenomenon by constructing a holistic and narrative description. Qualitative research is a term used to describe the different methodologies used. In the current study, focus group and semi-structured individual interviews were conducted to obtain information regarding the participants' thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a specific topic (DeJonckheere & Vaughn, 2019) (see section 5.2). An observation journal was used to keep written records of the evaluation and reflection phases (McNiff, 2017) in the design-based cycle of this study. The purpose of this journal was to document the progress of the research – that is, what was being done, how well each method was being implemented, how the student teachers interacted with the different methods being implemented, and what I (as researcher) was doing during each lesson. In addition, an in-depth literature review was conducted to compare various studies and their findings; to identify the teaching and learning aids used in the South African EGD curriculum and in teacher preparation at the university where the study was conducted; and to explore the importance of spatial visualisation skills and why first-year EGD student teachers needed to be sensitised to SDL (see chapter 2). 1.6.2.2 Quantitative research techniques Pre- and post-tests are academic tests given to participating students throughout a programme to evaluate their academic progress from the beginning of a programme up until the end (Sanders, 2019). In the current study, to test the student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills, they wrote the Mental Cutting Test (MCT) as a pre- and post-test to determine how they could visualise a particular object in their mind's eye, cut it, and then rotate it to verify the correct answer (see Addenda D & E). This test was initially developed as a college-entrance examination (CEEB, 1939). The pre- and post-tests showed whether the interventions that took place in the EGD classroom had affected the student teachers' spatial visualisation skills (see section 5.2.4). 1.6.3 Planned intervention At the start of the current study, the student participants wrote the MCT to determine their level of spatial visualisation skills at the time. Utilising a total of 19 contact sessions over 10 weeks with 9 the first-year EGD students, I introduced and implemented the Glass Box Method, with 3D printed models, in order to explain to the student teachers how to convert orthographic projections into sectional isometric drawings. This was done by placing the 3D printed model in the glass box and allowing the students to draw the six principal views. The box was then unfolded to provide the students with an orthographic projection of the 3D printed model that was placed inside. The students were also able to interact with the glass box and the model during class sessions. Throughout the intervention, I introduced the student teachers to the benefits of becoming more self-directed in their own learning process to sensitise them to SDL and its valuable contribution, considering that it is a core aspect of the North-West University (NWU) Teaching and Learning Policy. This was done continuously throughout the intervention and in-between contact sessions by using the learning management systems (LMSs) eFundi and the Depot™. In the LMSs, the student teachers had to complete assignments and activities on their own by applying the spatial visualisation skills they might have obtained during the face-to-face contact sessions. At the end of this study, the student participants wrote the MCT again, which served as a post- test to determine whether there was any improvement in their spatial visualisation skills after the interventions (see chapter 4). 1.7 Philosophical orientation and research paradigm This study was based on a social constructivist paradigm (see section 3.4). Social constructivists believe that each individual tries to make meaning of or understand the world in which they live and work and that individuals develop their own meaning of things they experience (Creswell, 2014); this might contribute to the fostering of SDL (Karataş et al., 2021). In this study, social constructivism was an appropriate paradigm because I focused on understanding the meaning- making of each individual (participant) and their understanding of a particular situation through interviews and open-ended questions (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). 1.8 Population and sample Convenience sampling was used as the sampling method (Ormrod & Leedy, 2005) (see section 3.6.2). Participants in EGD classrooms in the Faculty of Education at the Potchefstroom campus of the NWU were selected. Convenience sampling is described as choosing individuals who are available and accessible at the time of the research (Cohen et al., 2011). 10 The study population consisted of all first-year EGD student teachers registered at the time, as well as previous and current EGD lecturers (teacher educators) with a minimum of five years of experience each, and who happened to be accessible and available at the time of the research. The minimum number of students required to participate in this study was 40, which ensured that enough data could be collected so that an accurate study could be conducted. The educators in the field of technology were selected based on their subject knowledge of EGD, as well as the years of experience they had in the subject. The convenience sampling method was applied as follows: • First-year EGD students who were registered as contact students at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University formed the experimental group (n=40). • First-year EGD students who were registered as UDL (distance) students at the North- West University formed the control group (n=5). • Tertiary EGD lecturers with a minimum of five years’ experience in the field of EGD at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. 1.9 Data collection Data collection is a process in which information is gathered and evaluated to formulate answers to specific research questions. Qualitative data gathering is more explanatory, unlike quantitative data gathering, which is more numerical in nature (Jovanic, 2019). In this study, qualitative data were collected using focus group and individual interviews and by making notes in a personal observation journal (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015). Quantitative data were collected through pre- and post-tests (MCT) to test the students’ spatial visualisation skills in the first-year EGD teacher preparation module. 1.9.1 Measuring instruments Through focus group interviews, information was obtained from the student participants regarding their perceptions and experience of EGD and spatial visualisation skills in order to determine how the Glass Box Method might have helped improve their spatial visualisation skills. Information was obtained from two EGD lecturers through the use of semi-structured individual interviews in order to determine the struggles they observed that student teachers faced in the EGD classroom, as well as how these struggles could be overcome with the integration of the Glass Box Method. The MCT was used as a pre- and post-test to determine the student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills before and after the integration of the Glass Box Method. 11 In addition to the above-mentioned, I kept written records of the evaluation and reflection phases in the design-based cycle of this study. The journal served as a progress tracker to evaluate and reflect on the activities that took place throughout the study. 1.10 Data analysis According to the University of Pretoria (UP, 2021), data analysis is regarded as the most fundamental part of any form of research, because it requires the researcher to use logical and analytical reasoning when patterns, trends and relationships must be determined in order to interpret and decipher all the data that have been gathered. In this study, the qualitative data were analysed by means of content and conversation analysis, and the quantitative data were analysed through descriptive statistics with the assistance of the Statistical Consultation Services of the NWU (see section 3.7 & chapter 5). 1.10.1 Qualitative strategies The inductive content analysis process supported me in developing theories and identifying and determining different themes by examining all the verbal and written material, as well as the recordings and transcripts of interviews (Thomas, 2006). Furthermore, the use of conversation analysis allowed me to define any sequential or structural patterns of interaction, contributing to comprehending the extent to which the participants constructed their own meaning of drawings, thus making it possible to determine and establish how the students' spatial visualisation skills had improved (Maree, 2016). All the unprocessed data were organised, coded with headings, then categorised according to these titles, which aided me in developing an understanding of all the collected qualitative data (see section 3.7.1). 1.10.2 Quantitative strategies Descriptive statistics were used to summarise, organise and reduce the collected quantitative data from the pre- and post-tests with the assistance of the Statistical Consultation Services of the NWU. The statistics from the students’ MCT pre- and post-test results provided insights into if, and to what extent, the Glass Box Method, with 3D printed models, which was utilised in the first-year EGD teacher preparation module, affected these students' spatial visualisation skills (see section 3.7.2). 12 1.11 Trustworthiness 1.11.1 Qualitative research To ensure the trustworthiness of a qualitative study, the following criteria, as mentioned by Creswell and Creswell (2018), Korstjens and Moser (2018), and Lincoln and Guba (1985), must be met: credibility; transferability; dependability; and confirmability. Credibility establishes certainty regarding whether the research data and findings made represent the information that was drawn from the participants’ original data and that accurate interpretations were made based on the participants’ views (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Transferability mainly focuses on the extent to which the results of a qualitative study can be transferred to another setting or context and by using other participants (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Dependability refers to the reliability and consistency of whether the research findings can be repeated if the research was conducted with the same subject in the same context (Moon et al., 2016). Confirmability is achieved when the researcher can show that the findings are not influenced by any personal opinions and that they are based solely on responses by the participants. This study was based on current issues at stake in EGD teacher preparation, namely the improvement of students’ spatial visualisation skills through the Glass Box Method, with the addition of 3D printed models. The following strategies, recommended by Creswell and Creswell (2018), Korstjens and Moser (2018), and Leedy et al. (2019), were used to ensure the trustworthiness of the study: prolonged engagement, method triangulation and audit trails. Prolonged engagement: Korstjens and Moser (2018) and Lincoln and Guba (1985) describe prolonged engagement as long-lasting engagement and interaction in the field of study and with the participants. According to Creswell (2008), method triangulation is the process of using various types of data (e.g., interviews and field notes) and gathering information from different individuals (e.g., students and lecturers). An audit trail refers to a record that is kept on how the study was conducted and how conclusions were made. It provides a clear and transparent summary of all the steps taken in the study, with relevant supporting documents (Carcary, 2020). In the current study, I spent six months in the research field (i.e., the first-year EGD teacher educator classroom) and searched for and gathered as much evidence as possible. This prolonged engagement ensured and authenticated the credibility and dependability of the study. 13 Individual and focus group interviews with students and lecturers were conducted to gather data, and I also kept written records of the evaluation and reflection phases within the design-based cycle of this study. 1.11.2 Quantitative research The trustworthiness of a quantitative study is mainly measured through the validity and the reliability thereof, therefore special attention was given to ensure these aspects (see section 3.8). Heale and Twycross (2015) define validity as the extent to which a certain concept or test item measures what it is intended or expected to measure. Burke (2017) refers to reliability as the extent to which a specific research instrument consistently measures items and if it would have the exact same result if it were to be used in the same situation on various occasions. Therefore, the current study will only be considered valid and reliable if it produces the same results within the same context and circumstances when it is repeated on different occasions. 1.12 Ethical considerations According to Arafin (2018), ethical considerations and values are crucial in any study; therefore, in the current study, I ensured that the confidentiality of participants were protected at all times and that the necessary written informed consent from the EGD student teachers was obtained. I completed the required ethical training through TRREE (Training and Resources in Research Ethics Evaluation), an accredited provider of ethical training. Ethical clearance was obtained from Edu-REC (see Addendum F & section 3.9) with the ethics number NWU-00289-22-S2. Thereafter, permission was obtained from the North-West University Research Data Gatekeeper Committee (NWU-RDGC) with approval number NWU-GK-23-99. While conducting the interviews, I gave special attention to the interview questions to ensure that each participant’s ethical values were not affected. As the researcher, I accepted full responsibility to ensure confidentiality throughout the research and data collection process. The participants were provided with informed consent forms, were given free choice to participate in the study (or not) and were informed that they could withdraw from the study - without penalty - at any given point. Furthermore, the participants were also informed that all the collected data would only be used with their permission. 14 1.13 Chapter division Chapter 1: Orientation to and overview of the study In the first chapter, the problem that was addressed, the rationale for conducting this research, the study aims and questions, the purpose of this study, and a general overview of what the research entailed were discussed. Chapter 2: Literature review This chapter outlines the framework for the study by presenting an in-depth literature review regarding the teaching, learning and history of the EGD subject, as well as the use of the Glass Box Method to improve spatial visualisation and exploring the importance of sensitising SDL in first-year students. Chapter 3: Research design and methodology Chapter 3 discusses the design and methodology utilised in the research, as well as the sampling and data collection methods that were used. Chapter 4: The Implementation of the Glass Box Method to enhance spatial visualisation In the fourth chapter, I explain the development and evaluation of integrating the Glass Box Method, with 3D printed models, sketching, and 2D CAD, to optimise the spatial visualisation skills of first-year EGD student teachers. I also elaborate on the importance of nudging first-year student towards the idea of SDL and how and where this strategy was implemented throughout the intervention. Chapter 5: Findings and results In this chapter, the raw and unprocessed data are analysed and discussed in order to determine improvements in the students' spatial visualisation skills and their grasp of SDL. 15 Chapter 6: Conclusions, limitations and recommendations In the concluding chapter, the key findings regarding improving the first-year EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation and grasp of SDL are provided. Recommendations are made as to where this study can be improved, and possible areas in which further research can be conducted are also identified. 1.14 Chapter summary This chapter outlined the study that was undertaken to improve first-year EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills using the Glass Box Method with 3D printed models. In addition, it was explained that to strengthen this classroom-based learning, students were introduced to SDL as a supplementary way in which they could continue to set and work on their learning goals for self- directedly improving their spatial visualisation and EGD practical skills. Key details of the study were outlined, such as the problem, research question, methods and ethical considerations. These are unpacked in more detail in subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 discusses significant literature that contributed to my understanding of the relevant concepts and the connections between them, which, in turn, informed the planning for this study. 16 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Chapter 2 unpacks the key concepts of the study in a conceptual-theoretical framework and the links between these concepts. The framework also includes the theoretical underpinnings of the study. The key concepts in the current study were: Engineering Graphics and Designs (EGD), its origin, history and inclusion in the South African school curriculum; the importance of spatial visualisation skills and how it can be optimised; teaching and learning aids that can be used to improve these skills; and lastly, sensitising first-year EGD student teachers to the importance of SDL. 2.2 Engineering Graphics and Design EGD is delineated by means of a detailed definition, followed by an overview of the origin and history of the subject. 2.2.1 Definition For many years, humankind has expressed itself through pictures and drawings to communicate ideas. However, various concepts and theories about communication came with diverse cultures, which led to the need for a worldwide generic method of communicating graphically (Engelbrecht, 2015). This method of communication is called “engineering drawing”, “engineering design”, and/or “technical drawing”. The term “Engineering Graphics and Design” is more commonly used in South Africa (DBE, 2011) and therefore, this term (and its abbreviation EGD) is used throughout this study to refer to all three of the above-mentioned terms. Roknuzzaman (2015:1) defines “engineering drawing” as follows: Engineering drawing can be defined as a graphical language used by engineers and other technical personnel associated with the engineering profession which fully and clearly defines the requirements for engineered items. It is a two- dimensional representation of a three-dimensional object. Bieniawaski (as cited in Stacey, 2009:292) defines “engineering design” as follows: 17 Engineering design is the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. “Technical drawing” is a universal term identified by educators, engineers and draughters and means the graphical communication of all relevant information necessary to transform technological concepts into reality, such as the size and form of mechanical objects, civil structures and electrical legends (Goetsch et al., 2016). It is an old-fashioned term that was associated with the vocational subjects of older curricula and has been replaced by the term Engineering Graphics and Design – the name of the subject in the current CAPS curriculum – which was introduced in 2011 (DBE, 2011). The South African Department of Basic Education describes “Engineering Graphics and Design” as follows (DBE, 2011:8): Engineering Graphics and Design (EGD) teaches internationally acknowledged principles that have both academic and technical applications. The emphasis in EGD is on teaching specific basic knowledge and various drawing techniques and skills so that the EGD learners will be able to interpret and produce drawings within the contexts of Mechanical Technology, Civil Technology and Electrical Technology. The central theme in the above-mentioned definitions is graphical communication. Therefore, an assumption can be made that in the world of technology and engineering, drawings are used as a universal language to determine a physical object's exact shape and dimensions without using words. By looking deeper into the origin and history of this universal graphical language, one might identify how the Engineering Graphics and Design subject came into existence. 2.2.2 The origin and history of Engineering Graphics and Design Throughout the years, Engineering Graphics and Design has evolved. However, some main aspects and principles have remained the same (Lieu & Sorby, 2009). For example, showing a sketch or drawing a specific component is still used to effectively communicate a specific idea (Kemp, 2020). In addition, most EGD drawings in the past were drawn by hand, and these drawings included all the necessary information needed, such as dimensions, geometry, symbols, and material types. 18 One of the earliest known examples of a documented EGD drawing can be found in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France. It is a drawing scraped on a stone tablet that accurately represents the floor plan of a fortress in Girsu (figure 2-1). This drawing forms part of a statue portraying Gudea, the then king of the city of Lagash in Mesopotamia, dating back to the earliest part of Chaldean art (approximately 2150 BC) (Carlbom & Paciorek, 1978). According to planar geometric projections, it is clear that this type of drawing can, in current EGD terms, be classified as an orthographic drawing (Carlbom & Paciorek, 1978; Kemp, 2020). Figure 2-1: Floorplan view of a fortress, part of a statue of king Gudea, from Lagash in Mesopotamia Source: Tasheva (2012) Mainly recognised for his artistic talent that was evident in the Renaissance period, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) revealed, through his sketches, the scientific precision and imaginative capacity that form part of the history of EGD. Da Vinci’s sketches represent a diversity of interests that covers engineering, biology, architecture, astrology, physiology, aeronautics, and hydraulics (Sampaio, 2018). He was exceptionally skilled in creating 3D drawings and was known for adding his impressions to the drawings to improve them (Barr, 2012). Sampaio (2018) mentions that Da Vinci was one of the first artists to create an exploded view of a mechanical drawing (see figure 2-2). This finding plays a significant role in engineering drawing or EGD practices today because it would be nearly impossible to visualise any modern object, and how its parts fit together, without 19 the aid of an exploded view. Exploded views illustrate the exact links of the various components that the entire product or object consists of. It is a certain view of a drawing that indicates the various parts in an assembly that is separated outwardly, illustrating how they fit together. Figure 2-2: An exploded view of a weight-lifting device with a toothed brake Source: Sampaio (2018) Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) was known as the greatest artist of the German Renaissance (Ruhmer, 1999). A few months after his death, several of his manuscripts were published as the Four Books on Human Proportions in 1528, which contained drawings of various human body parts (Bell, 2012). As seen in figure 2-3, Dürer followed the basic principles of orthographic drawing, which is still used today when drawing orthographic projections (Kemp, 2020; The Morgan Library & Museum, 2010). 20 Figure 2-3: Orthographic drawings of a human foot and head Source: The Morgan Library & Museum (2010) The notion of projections obtained over two orthogonal planar surfaces and later placed in one single plane might today seem rather obvious and straightforward. However, this was not the case up until 1795 when Gaspard Monge proclaimed the first doctrine of descriptive geometry science (Sampaio, 2018). In 1795, Monge published Géométrie descriptive – a book that is seen as one of the most fascinating books in engineering drawing history (Booker, 1963). At the age of 20, Monge was able to join the Real School of Military Engineering of Méziçères because of his exceptional intelligence and mathematical ability. Owing to his mathematical ability and interest in the field, his primary focus was to determine “the curvature of surfaces and the resolution of the spatial intersection between curved surfaces of double curvature” (Sampaio, 2018:2). Below (see figure 2-4) are some of the drawing illustrations that can be found in the second edition of his book that was edited in 1811. 21 Figure 2-4: Illustrations of drawing I and XXIV in the second edition of Géométrie descriptive Source: Booker (1963) According to Barr (2012) and Booker (1963), the descriptive geometry system invented by Monge was later universally adopted and now forms part of the scientific foundation of EGD that is still being taught today at tertiary level. The above-mentioned architects, artists and engineers can all be seen as contributors to the development of modern EGD. Unknowingly, they played a significant role in the methods used at present for drawing in secondary and tertiary education (Kemp, 2020). This historical overview gives insight into how EGD has evolved and how certain principles applicable to EGD have stayed much the same throughout the years. 2.3 Engineering Graphics and Design curriculum Educational institutions follow a set of guidelines that determines what should be taught and how it should be taught. These guidelines are called the curriculum. Stellenbosch University (SU) describes a curriculum as a framework that places a subject in a broader context by showing how learning is supposed to progress, how it needs to contribute to the achievement of specific aims, and how it ought to be assessed and measured (SU, 2022). The main focus of a teacher training 22 curriculum is to equip student teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills required to face challenges and solve problems that form part of the world (UNESCO, 2022). In South Africa, the school curriculum that student teachers must be prepared for to teach is called the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS). Each subject has a CAPS for a certain school phase, as does EGD. 2.3.1 Knowledge The content in the EGD CAPS document is divided into various topics and then into three areas of focus (DBE, 2011). The areas of focus in EGD are Mechanical, Electrical and Civil Technology. This indicates the extensive range of content covered within the EGD curriculum. The content taught in this curriculum represents the knowledge that student teachers, who are being prepared as EGD teachers, will require to develop to have a complete understanding of the subject – in other words, understanding what to teach and how to teach it. The main topics covered in the EGD curriculum that are relevant to this study are as follows (DBE, 2011:8): • General drawing principles for all technological drawings • Freehand drawing • Instrument drawings • First- and third-angle orthographic projections • Isometric drawing • Perspective drawing • Computer-aided drawing (CAD). In addition to the above-mentioned, EGD student teachers need to master various technical skills to comprehend how the content knowledge they have gained must be applied practically. For this study, the main topics that were focused on were the general drawing principles for EGD drawings, freehand drawings, instrument drawings, first- and third-angle orthographic projections, isometric drawings, perspective drawings, and CAD. 2.3.2 Skills EGD student teachers must become masters of the various fundamental skills required for EGD: they should have the ability to communicate graphically, read and interpret graphical drawings, and apply spatial reasoning (Singh-Pillay & Sotsaka, 2020). All these skills are addressed in the 23 specific aims of EGD in the CAPS curriculum and are therefore deemed as requirements for teaching the subject successfully. According to the DBE (2011:8-9), EGD specifically aims to teach: • graphical drawings as the primary means of communication in the technological world; • specific basic content and concepts within the contexts of Mechanical Technology, Civil Technology and Electrical Technology; • various instrument and freehand drawing techniques and skills; • solving technological problems through graphical drawings; • the application of the design process; • the implementation of CAD as a drawing method. To enable student teachers to link knowledge and skills – for example, when interpreting multi- faced drawings that represent various planes of a 3D drawing – they have to be able to visualise these planes in their “mind’s eye”; in other words, they have to make sense of the visual communication using spatial visualisation. With the necessary spatial visualisation skills, EGD student teachers would be better equipped to meet the aims set out for the subject by the DBE. In the current study, the main focus was on how student teachers could be enabled or supported in converting orthographic projections into isometric and sectional isometric drawings. Kok and Bayaga (2019) and Makgato and Khoza (2015) identified these topics as areas where students tend to struggle the most, thus making them the ideal areas to test and aim to develop students’ spatial visualisation skills. This also provides opportunities to incorporate various teaching and learning aids to improve these students’ spatial visualisation skills as part of their preparation as future EGD teachers. 2.4 Spatial visualisation Spatial visualisation is the skill or ability to formulate or create a new viewpoint by manipulating an object in a 3D visionary space (Strong & Smith, 2002). According to Gardner (as cited in Lieu & Sorby, 2009), spatial visualisation can be seen as an ability or skill that makes it possible for someone to perceive the spatial world accurately and transform those perceptions. In other words, spatial visualisation is a process of visualising a well-structured image and then being able to recall, convert, retrieve and produce the image (Alqahtani et al., 2017). Katsioloudis et al. (2014) 24 give a more detailed description of spatial visualisation and describe it as the ability to unfold, fold, rotate and change the position of an image or object in the mind’s eye. 2.4.1 The importance of spatial visualisation in Engineering Graphics and Design Norman (1994) argues that one of the most important predictors of students' success when having to manipulate various objects is to have proper spatial visualisation skills. Therefore, one of the fundamental skills required by EGD student teachers is the ability to interpret and comprehend the various topics of EGD, such as orthographic projections, isometric and sectional isometric drawings, mechanical and mechanical assembly drawings (Tumkor & De Vries, 2015), all of which rely on having good spatial visualisation. Considering the importance of spatial visualisation skills for EGD students, it is crucial that sufficient teaching and learning aids, as well as appropriate teaching-learning methods, are provided and utilised to support the development and enhancement of these skills. A study by Sorby (as cited in Katsioloudis et al., 2014) revealed that when students are provided with adequate opportunities to improve their spatial visualisation skills, they would show greater confidence in themselves and their work. Clearly this would contribute to the preparation of future EGD teachers. 2.4.2 Measuring spatial visualisation skills Pre- and post-tests can be used as a measurement tool to ascertain students’ level of spatial visualisation skills by presenting them with various activities that require different degrees of mental rotation to complete (Allam, 2009). Various spatial visualisation tests can be used to assess students’ spatial visualisation skills, like the Purdue Spatial Visualisation of Rotations (PSVT-R) Test and the Mental Cutting Test (MCT). These two tests are the most frequently used in the engineering sector. However, they are among the few that are non-analytic – that is, they can only be finished by mentally making image alterations to the provided drawings. The PSVT- R and the MCT are compared below (table 2-1) to indicate the differences between these spatial visualisation tests as regards the challenges and various skill sets required in each. 25 Table 2-1: A comparison of the two most frequently employed spatial visualisation tests Spatial Visualisation Tests Type Description Instructions Example Purdue Spatial Visualisation of Rotation (PSVT-R) This test measures students' mental spatial rotational skills. 1. Identify the rotation of the objects in the top line. 2. Analyse the object in the middle line. 3. Apply the same rotation as in the top line, then choose the correct answer in the bottom line. Mental Cutting Test (MCT) This test measures students’ mental cutting skills, visualisation skills, and spatial relations. 1. Identify the 3D object display. 2. Analyse the trace indicating the cutting plane. 3. Mentally cut and rotate the object to see the cut surface clearly. 4. Identify the corresponding image. Source: Compiled by the author from literature by Guay (1976) and Kelly (2014). 26 For the current study, the MCT was used as a pre-and post-test to determine whether the first- year EGD student teachers’ spatial visualisation skills have improved after the intervention. The MCT best suited the requirements for this study, seeing that the problem identified and addressed in this study was to improve the student teachers' spatial visualisation skills in order to aid them in converting orthographic projection drawings into sectional isometric drawings. An in-depth explanation of the MCT and its application in the current study is further provided in chapters 3 and 4. If students’ spatial visualisation skills are measured and deficiencies are identified, ways to improve this vital skill need to be explored. 2.4.3 Optimising spatial visualisation skills According to Friess et al. (2016), students' spatial visualisation skills must be addressed and developed at an early stage in their educational process. This might contribute to and develop the drawing skills necessary to bridge the gap between their current spatial visualisation skills and what is required to teach EGD or use in practice (Friess et al., 2016). Although research identifies various methods as having a positive influence on spatial visualisation skills (Tumkor & De Vries, 2015), explicit agreement on which approach or combination of methods is best for optimising spatial visualisation skills is elusive (Zhu et al., 2008). One reason for this is because the development of spatial visualisation skills differs for each subject and cognitive level. Omar et al. (2019) state that it is important that educators determine which methods are the most efficient to optimise spatial visualisation skills while also considering the content of each subject as well as the cognitive level of the students. One South African University is viewed as an exceptional contributor to preparing student teachers for Technology subjects, including EGD, in the South African school curriculum (NWU, 2019). Part of these student teachers’ preparation includes knowledge and skills to support various types of graphical communication in the form of modules coded EGDE (EGD Education). To improve student teachers’ ability to comprehend and create sectional isometric drawings, the first-year EGDE course objectives are summarised as follows: • Comprehend and apply subject content and general drawing technique principles. • Analyse, select and evaluate the projection of sectional views and solid bodies. • Distinguish, evaluate and solve loci problems. • Create advanced 2D drawings using a CAD program. • Appreciate the interrelation between EGD and other engineering subjects (NWU, 2022). 27 The above-mentioned EGDE course objectives and how they were applied in this study as part of the study intervention are further discussed and explained in chapter 4. Various teaching and learning aids must be included as part of teaching and learning in EGD to optimise the spatial visualisation of student teachers. The following section delves deeper into the teaching and learning aids currently being used in EGD classrooms in general, and in particular at the university (the NWU) where the study was conducted, as well as the challenges faced when incorporating them. 2.5 Teaching and learning aids to optimise spatial visualisation skills Teaching and learning aids are vital components in any classroom. They can illustrate and reinforce specific skills and keep students engaged throughout the lesson (Kija & Msangya, 2019). Wellington (2014) describes teaching and learning aids as any material that the educator or the students can use to support the learning process. They can be concrete materials – these materials are used primarily within the working environment, or artificial materials – designed mainly by the educator and used to develop specific skills or give a clear insight into various topics. Physical items, such as posters or drawings on a board, and virtual items, using software or applications technology, contribute to the broad collection of teaching and learning aids. Various subject groups use different terminologies, for example, teaching and learning aids, media, resources, materials, and more. Therefore, there is no set definition of precisely what teaching and learning aids are. However, in the subject field of EGD, aids refer to 3D printed models, the Glass Box Method and all the other more minor components used in the classroom, whereas learning media refer to 3D printers, 3D scanners, and so forth. Teachers must know how to effectively utilise teaching and learning aids to support their learners, therefore using or modelling the use of such aids are included in teacher preparation programmes. In the current study, various teaching and learning aids were used to support the learning process of the EGD student teachers in the first-year EGDE module. These were intended to develop and improve their spatial visualisation skills. The teaching and learning aids used during this study are summarised in the table below (table 2-2), with more emphasis on the Glass Box Method, and are further elaborated on in chapters 3 and 4. Also see section 2.4.3 for methods to optimise spatial visualisation skills. 28 Table 2-2: Teaching and learning aids in EGD Teaching and learning aids Type Description Example Traditional pencil drawings Traditional pencil and paper drawings have been shown to improve not only students’ spatial visualisation skills but also their accuracy, inventiveness and capacity for freehand sketching. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) CAD software has multiple uses such as drafting, designing, developing and manufacturing. Further, it provides an opportunity for students to recognise a relationship between a 3D