International Journal of Religion 2024 Volume: 5| Number 10 | pp. 1515 – 1524 ISSN: 2633-352X (Print) | ISSN: 2633-3538 (Online) ijor.co.uk DOI: https://doi.org/10.61707/km58vd75 Farmers-Herders’ Crisis in Nigeria: An Empirical Review Kazeem Oyedele Lamidi1, Lusanda Beauty Juta2 and Bisiriyu Abiodun Taleat3 Abstract Farmers-herders’ crisis is one of the recurrent security challenges in Nigeria. However, studies have examined the nature of farmers-herders’ crisis at local level. Yet, there seems to be inadequate information on macroscopic causes and inherent factors responsible for farmers-herders’ crisis in Nigeria. Hence, this study attempts to fill the missing gap by conducting an empirical review of studies on farmers-herders’ crisis in Nigeria with a view to providing the broad causes of farmers/herders’ crisis across regions in Nigeria. This study relies largely literature on farmers/herders’ crisis in Nigeria. Drawing its conclusion from careful empirical review analysis, the study concludes that the farmers-herders’ crisis is enflaming changes in people's character in a manner that is inimical to sustainable peace. Therefore, existing governmental and non-governmental efforts should be strengthened with a view to stemming the tide of the crisis and safeguarding people's peaceful disposition. Keywords: Farmers-herders’ crisis, Political Ecology, Class Struggles, and Security Challenges. INTRODUCTION The farmer-herder crisis in Nigeria has extended to many parts of the nation. Akinkuolie (2018) observed the widespread occurrence of the farmer-herders conflict in the North-Central area, namely in the Agatu villages of Benue state and the Riyom towns of Plateau state. Okoro (2018) demonstrated the catastrophe that occurred in Nimbo, located in the Uzo-Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu State in the South-East area. Ofuoku and Isife (2009) documented the farmers-herders' conflict in the Delta State in the South-South area. Blench (2010) documented a succession of conflicts between farmers and herders in the North-East area of Nigeria, namely in Adamawa and Taraba States. Popoola, Brimah, and Olawale (2020) provided a detailed report on the conflict between farmers and herders in the South-West areas of the country, including Ekiti and Ondo areas. In the North-West area, Muhammed, Ismaila, and Bibi (2015) documented a higher number of civilian deaths in conflicts between farmers and herders compared to other regions with a high prevalence of violence, communal hostilities, insurgencies, abduction, rape, vandalism, and terrorist acts. Kwagha (2018) said that the conflict between farmers and Fulani herders is a persistent security issue in Nigeria, resulting in the deaths of thousands of individuals in past years. There is an increasing scarcity of water and fertile land required for both cultivating agriculture and cattle herds (Baderinwa, 2019). Researchers in the field of peace and conflict studies have emphasized the two main causes of farmer-herder crises in Nigeria (Gefu & Kolawole 2002; Shettima & Tar 2008; Ofuoku & Isife 2009; Odoh & Chigozie 2012; Tukur, 2013; Oppong, 2014; Mwamfupe 2015; Doyin 2017; Goke, 2018; Lamidi, 2019; Lamidi, 2022). Farmers engage in the expropriation of land that has been specifically designated for grazing reserves and also encroach into established grazing routes. Conversely, herders often cause damage to crops, pollute water sources, and trespass on private land in their efforts to provide food for their cattle (Lamidi, Ojakorotu, Shiyanbade, 2023). Additional causes contributing to the aggravation of the farmers-herders' problem include the diminishing availability of cultivable land, droughts, the coming desertification of the Sahel and savannah regions, land degradation, and climate change. Furthermore, the exacerbating elements include 1 Department of Public Administration and Local Government, School of Government Studies, Faculty of HumanitiesNorth West University, Mahikeng, South Africa & Department of Local Government and Development Studies, Faculty of Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University. Ile-Ife, Nigeri. E-mail address: 53508777@mynwu.ac.za or akandekande@gmail.com 2 Department of Public Administration and Local Government, School of Government Studies, Faculty of Humanities, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa, E-mail address: Lusanda.Juta@nwu.ac.za or Lusandabjuta@gmail.com 3 Department of Public Administration and Local Government, School of Government Studies, Faculty of Humanities, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa. E-mail address: 55601170@mynwu.ac.za or abioduntaleat@gmail.com file:///C:/Users/Mano/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_paperswithpagenumbers.zip/ijor.co.uk https://doi.org/10.61707/km58vd75 Farmers-Herders’ Crisis in Nigeria: An Empirical Review ijor.co.uk 1516 prehistoric assertions, socio-cultural disparities, and religious variations across ethnic communities that mostly engage in farming or cattle grazing (Fiki & Lee, 2005; Akorede, 2018; Lamidi, 2021). The crises lead to indiscriminate and preventable loss of lives and assets. Previous research has extensively investigated the characteristics of the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria at a local level. These studies include the works of Ofuoku and Isife (2009), Kwagha (2018), Gürsoy (2019), Oghuvbu and Oghuvbu (2020), and the Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) (Lamidi and Olaleye, 2023). However, there has been a lack of significant study focus on comprehending the essence of the farmers-herders' dilemma at the regional and national levels, when crucial choices are made about policy, programs, and projects aimed at resolving conflicts between farmers and herders. Furthermore, the current research have a limited focus on the origins, impacts, and repercussions of the farmers-herders' problem in Nigeria. However, there is a lack of sufficient knowledge on the macroscopic causes and intrinsic variables that are accountable for the problem between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Therefore, this study aims to address the existing knowledge vacuum by performing an empirical analysis of research on the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. The objective is to identify the main underlying factors contributing to this problem in different areas of Nigeria. METHODOLOGY The article used an exploratory review methodology. This was implemented with the intention of elucidating the sequential stages of theoretical and empirical literature reviews, both at the national and regional levels in Nigeria. This research technique was deemed suitable for this work as it focused on academic perspectives, theoretical views, procedural aspects, and practical case results related to the farmer-herder dilemma and its underlying causes in Nigeria. An extensive analysis was conducted on the current research situations in order to formulate a concise and definitive hypothesis about the macroscopic reasons that go beyond the microscopic causes found at the local level. The study adhered to all ethical protocols for social sciences research, without including direct interaction with human or animal participants. The research included a methodical gathering of data by reviewing pertinent and applicable literature. THEORETICAL REVIEW This section aimed to propose a method or system for incorporating and utilizing the assumptions, hypotheses, and principles of a theory in order to describe and analyze the farmers-herders crisis in Nigeria. The goal was to gain a comprehensive understanding, provide explanations, conduct analysis, and make predictions about the phenomena related to this subject. For the purpose of this paper, three relevant theories to farmers-herders crisis were reviewed, such as: political ecology, theory of class struggle and theory of migration. Political Ecology Political ecology is the field of study that examines the interplay between political, economic, social factors, and environmental challenges and processes. The objective is to analyze the relationship between social sciences and political economics in order to create an interdisciplinary synthesis (Okoli, 2008; Okoli, 2014). During the 1970s and 1980s, the field of development geography and cultural ecology influenced the emergence of political ecology as a diverse theoretical framework (Bryant, 1998:80). Political ecology, from its inception as a theoretical framework, has mostly concentrated on comprehending the mechanisms associated with material and discursive disputes about the environment in developing nations (Bryant, 1998:89). Political ecology primarily concerns itself with issues pertaining to the acquisition and governance of resources. (Okoli and Atelhe, 2014:77, citing Haman et al, 2004.) Political ecology, as described by Sutton (2004, referenced in Okoli and Atelhe, 2014:77), seeks to understand the intricate dynamics of everyday disputes, alliances, and compromises that eventually shape certain behaviors. It also examines how politics impacts or organizes the consumption of resources. Political ecology aims to analyze the political and ecological dimensions and consequences of human actions within the context of resource competition (Okoli, 2014). Political ecology contextualizes the predicament experienced by farmers and herders within the context of governmental collapse and the escalating confrontation between farmers and herders. In the current period of file:///C:/Users/Mano/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_paperswithpagenumbers.zip/ijor.co.uk Qaruty, Alkhazaleh, Obeidat, Hadi and Yamani INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RELIGION 1517 climate change-induced environmental scarcities, the Nigerian government's inadequate legislation to oversee land-use and resource exploitation has played a role in conflicts between farmers and herders. Recently, the conflicts have become more deadly, as the involved parties have turned to extreme methods of protecting themselves and staying alive, such as acquiring weapons and participating in militant activities (Abbass, 2014). Due to the perceived ineffectiveness of relevant government authorities in resolving the matter, the violent conflict tends to result in impunity. The escalating farmers-herdsmen conflict in Nigeria exemplifies this political inclination. Theory of Class Struggle This research used Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' theory of class antagonism to elucidate the situation being discussed. The fundamental principle of this theory posits that throughout recorded history, there has been an ongoing conflict between different social groups, as they vie for control over material resources, production costs, and the distribution of power, in their quest to establish dominance over one another (Nnoli, 2003). According to Karl Marx, the ruling class arises to protect and uphold a certain method of producing goods, as well as to manage and control conflicts between different social classes and within the ruling class itself, with the aim of preserving stability. In several local communities in Nigeria, the violence and insecurity development may be attributed to the ongoing fight between farmers and herders for land control. Essentially, the conflict between farmers and herders revolves on the issue of land control. The farmer/herders' problem in Nigeria is a recent phenomenon that necessitates the establishment of methods to sustain the existing structural imbalance, which has played a role in the present state of insecurity. Currently, the presence of the Fulani group, who hold the belief that their purpose in life is to continuously herd without any limitations, is one of the contributing elements to the conflict. Similarly, the indigenous population, who are the original landowners and mostly engage in farming, express their discontent with the Fulanis, resulting in intense conflict and bloodshed. This text elucidates the ideological underpinnings of the ongoing conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Theory of Migration The migrant control paradigm, based on Everett Lee's Theory of Migration, elucidates the correlation between migration and human conflict in Nigeria. The migrant control framework revolves on Ravenstein's concept of the 'push and pull factors' that drive migration. Migration does not have a single universally applicable explanation. However, the push and pull forces model has given rise to other hypotheses that seek to elucidate the reasons behind people's decision to move. This idea posits that migration was driven by a process characterized by both push and pull factors. Unfavorable circumstances in one area compel individuals to leave, whereas favorable circumstances in another region attract individuals. The farmers/herders' problem may be comprehended by examining it through the lens of this theoretical perspective: the push and pull mechanism is primarily influenced by land and climatic conditions. The herders are being displaced as a result of the unfavorable land conditions and climate change, while the farmers are being attracted by the favorable circumstances of both land and climate change. When herders are displaced, the objective is to relocate them to areas that are advantageous in terms of both variables, implying a shift towards agricultural habitats. This text elucidates the socio-economic factors contributing to the conflict faced by farmers and herders in Nigeria. Tonah (2000) said that the level of migration is directly related to the level of challenge in overcoming the push and pull factors in similar circumstances. This validates the repetitive and challenging character that is often encountered as a consequence of the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Several scholars have identified the push dynamics of migration, which encompass political factors “like conflict, political instability, war, and persecution” (Gray, 2000); economic factors such as “unemployment, low wages, and increasing living costs” (McCabe, 2004; Knudsen, Strand & Paasche, 2013; Afifi, 2011); and environmental factors “like climate change, natural disasters, famine, drought, and depleting natural resources” (Castles & Millers, 2009). The factors that drive migration include political, economic, and environmental influences such as increased earnings, better employment prospects, political stability, ideal weather conditions, and resource availability. The migrant control framework is a theoretical framework that aims to clarify how governments behave in relation to the process of making migration a matter of security concern, as well as the interaction between migration and the challenges experienced by farmers and herders in Nigeria. Farmers-Herders’ Crisis in Nigeria: An Empirical Review ijor.co.uk 1518 EMPIRICAL REVIEW Various scholars from diverse academic fields, viewpoints, and areas of study have performed research on the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Previous research has examined the dynamics of the conflict between herders and farmers using x-ray analysis. This portion of the research examined the current body of literature on the conflict between herders and farmers and the handling of security issues in Nigeria. This empirical review only examined Nigeria. At National Level Oghuvbu & Oghuvbu (2020) investigated the troublesome elements of the Nigerian farmer-herders' conflict. It was noted that this specific conflict between farmers and herders mostly impacts Nigeria. Conflict arises from a combination of several factors, including limited resources in the face of growing demand, retaliatory violence, climate change, and land usage. In the context of Nigeria, it is evident that these conflicts have a divisive influence as they detrimentally affect the nation's solidarity and harmony. A vital step to foster unity among Nigerians is to restore the previous interactive connections between herders and farmers, emphasizing the shared traits that unite the nation rather than the factors that separate it. Brottem (2019) emphasized the increasing intricacy of conflicts between herders and farmers, particularly in Nigeria and other West African nations, which are characterized by specific geographic areas of intense activity. The increase in farmers/herders' crises in Nigeria may be attributed to important cause reasons such as population pressure, changes in land usage and resource availability, growing social inequality, and a reduction in community trust. The main causes are the combination of violent extremism with conflicts between herders and farmers, which adds complexity to the security situation. Gürsoy (2019) investigated the fundamental drivers and outcomes of the dispute between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Reports indicate that the confrontations between nomadic pastoralist and sedentary farmer communities in Nigeria have caused significant loss of life and economic harm. The increasing availability of weaponry and communication technologies has lately heightened the conflict between farmers and herders. Moreover, the fundamental reason for the war is mainly the scarcity of resources. However, the scarcity did not suddenly become apparent in the region. Additionally, it is the outcome of several other variables, like as climate change, ineffective governmental procedures, lingering impacts of colonialism, the oil boom in Nigeria, and the ongoing escalation of weapons among non-state organizations. The research determined that there is a clear correlation between the socio- economic impacts of the farmers-herders' issue and the extent of damage caused by the conflict. Nwakanma and Boroh (2019) conducted a study on the demographic factors influencing the conflict and crises between famers and herders in Nigeria. This research employs the demographic theory of conflict to clarify how population overshoot in Nigeria is the fundamental reason for the recurring conflicts between farmers and herders, and it also elucidates the common features of this conflict. The conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria is partially ascribed to the Nigerian government's inability to meet the needs and requests of its citizens. In line with this idea, our study suggests that Nigeria should give priority to the analysis of the costs and effects of population expansion, and adopt population policies that are grounded in human rights and promote sustainable development. Kwagha (2018) highlighted the dangers posed by the clash between farmers and herders to the democratic administration of Nigeria. The disputes between pastoralists and agriculturalists have been recognized as the most prevalent resource use challenges in Nigeria. The actions of the herders have worsened the difficulties of forming an efficient administration. The disputes between ranchers and farmers have shown a substantial propensity to exacerbate insecurity in rural areas, which are the primary focal points of these conflicts and have wide-ranging ramifications. This study examined the correlation between Fulani herders and farmers in Nigeria during the ongoing land crisis, and its effect on the participants' livelihood security in nearby villages. The research is based on the theoretical framework of structural functionalism. The research determined that it is crucial to identify the root causes, consequences, and proposed remedies for the conflict between ranchers and farmers. The research proposed ranching as the optimal approach for growing cattle. file:///C:/Users/Mano/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_paperswithpagenumbers.zip/ijor.co.uk Qaruty, Alkhazaleh, Obeidat, Hadi and Yamani INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RELIGION 1519 Baderinwa (2019) did an extensive examination of the available literature on the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. The literature review emphasizes the adverse effect of herders' livestock on farmers' crops as the primary catalyst for conflict between farmers and herders, as substantiated by empirical studies. Additional causes mentioned in the literature are livestock theft, ethnic and religious conflicts, socioeconomic deprivation, sexual misconduct towards women by herders, and the disregard of established local regulations by herders. The literature on the conflict's history may be categorized into two distinct groups. The first category focuses on the historical account of the Fulani people, who make up the bulk of Nigeria's herders. The second category delves into the history of Fulani migration. The literature also considers the involvement of both governmental and non-governmental entities, although in a simplistic way. The government has mostly focused on use military and paramilitary force to resolve the dispute, while non-state parties have opted for a mediation approach. Nevertheless, the literature has several significant gaps. Therefore, it is advised that more investigation into the historical background, duration, fluctuations in intensity, and underlying causes of these fluctuations is essential to fully understand the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of previous efforts and develop feasible strategies to mitigate the conflict. Okoro (2018) investigated the frequency of conflicts between herders and farmers and their impact on the socioeconomic progress in Nigeria. It has been said that in several locations of Nigeria, the increasing competition for limited resources sometimes leads to violent conflicts between herders and farmers. With the acquisition of sophisticated weaponry, the herders have escalated the fight to a more deadly level, using it to kill and injure those they regard as enemies. The research is grounded on the principles of dialectical materialism and the idea of frustrated anger. The research employs a qualitative methodology to analyze the data, which is corroborated by secondary sources such as journals, books, newspapers, and online media. The data suggest that the clashes have resulted in fatalities, displacements, distrust, property damage, and so on. Additionally, it was shown that the conflict between herders and farmers resulted in issues such as food insecurity, lack of trust, and unemployment. At Regional Level Nwozor, Olarenwaju, Oshewolo, Oladoyin, Adedire, and Ofeidu (2020) elucidate the connections between the increase in vigilante security measures across different regions and the Nigerian government's insufficient capacity to effectively handle the growing violence related to conflicts between herders and farmers. Furthermore, it examined the overall consequences of vigilante security approaches in relation to Nigeria's security challenges. The research found that the inclination towards and use of vigilante security strategies indicate a failure on the part of authorized security organizations to fulfill their legally assigned responsibilities. The research suggested a strong dedication to the principles of fairness in line with legal regulations, together with proactive and inclusive law enforcement. Aniche and Ngwu (2019) emphasized the significance of social work practice in addressing conflicts between herders and farmers in North-East Nigeria. It has been elucidated that there have been regular clashes between the Fulani nomads and the farmers throughout various locations in the nation. Presently, the conflicts are escalating on a daily basis, and the assaults have now taken on a distinct kind. Herdsmen are allegedly using firearms. The violence between ranchers and farmers is widespread in several regions of Nigeria. These conflicts have led to substantial losses for governments, the state, communities, and families. The herdsmen-farmers violence in Nigeria has intensified and become a significant social problem that is causing worry. In the majority of these conflicts, fatalities are common, leading to internal displacement and exacerbating the existing vulnerability of the affected community via extensive property damage or loss. However, none of the government's solutions have effectively resolved the problem. Therefore, this research emphasized the importance of social work as a valuable profession for examining possible areas for intervention. CDD (2021) conducted an assessment in the North-West area to analyze the patterns, changes, and gender aspects of conflicts between farmers and herders. The research examined the current dynamics of disputes, including the various participants, their sources and catalysts, the gender dimensions of these conflicts, and the effectiveness of current conflict resolution methods. The research included focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) as qualitative data collection methods. Four states, namely Benue, Kaduna, Farmers-Herders’ Crisis in Nigeria: An Empirical Review ijor.co.uk 1520 Katsina, and Nasarawa, were selected as case studies to examine the adverse effects of the violence. The study locations consisted of “eight Local Government Areas: Guma and Logo in Benue State, Kajuru and Kaura in Kaduna State, Batsari and Jibia in Katsina State, and Awe and Doma in Nasarawa State”. A total of 48 focus group discussions (FGD) sessions and 46 key informant interviews (KII) were carried out with stakeholders. The important results were discussed using content analysis. The survey revealed a rising prevalence of farmer- herder disputes in the majority of states in the federation. In 2021, Inyang, Effiong, and Ekwutosi performed an assessment of the conflict between Fulani herders and farmers, as well as the challenges encountered in achieving food security in the North-central region of Nigeria. It has been confirmed that the agricultural sector plays a fundamental role in an economy, supplying essential nutrients for human survival and acting as a primary source of raw materials for industrial development. It has a crucial function in promoting economic growth and development. Today's most industrialized nations were once mostly agricultural societies, and agriculture continues to be their primary focus. The agriculture industry supports a significant section of the labor force and plays a significant role in the national gross domestic product (GDP). Currently, the increasing conflicts between farmers and herders pose a huge security threat in Nigeria. The issue has now extended to further areas in Nigeria, including the Middle Belt Region. This study examined the effects of disputes between farmers and herders on food production, food accessibility, food stability, and food use in the Middle Belt area. The findings were obtained from a study done in the Middle Belt region, including Benue, Taraba, Adamawa, Bauchi, Nasarawa, and other adjacent regions. The qualitative research methods used were direct observation and in-depth interviews with local people. The region's food insecurity is ascribed to the recurrent conflicts between farmers and herders. The wars have caused rural farmers to experience dread, which has impeded their ability to work on their land and therefore decreased the region's potential to produce a sufficient quantity of food. Popoola, Brimah, and Olawale (2020) investigated the occurrences of confrontations between farmers and herders, focusing on the situation in South Western Nigeria. The research examined the factors that contribute to conflicts between farmers and herders in South Western Nigeria and how these conflicts impact entrepreneurship and security. This was done by using both structural functionalist and conflict theories. The research aimed to enlighten readers on the intricacies of the wars in the Nigerian states of Ondo and Oyo. A total of 195 individuals were surveyed to get their ideas and insights. The data were interpreted using descriptive analysis. Consequently, a random sample was carried out via the distribution of questionnaires. In addition, supplementary data from books, research papers, media, and government publications in Nigeria were used. The investigation revealed several factors that lead to conflicts between farmers and herders, namely the scarcity of resources in the midst of growing demand, recurrent assaults, insufficient grazing land, and even climate change. These causative variables have a substantial influence on individuals' economic activities and entrepreneurial behavior. The study also uncovered that disputes between farmers and herders had a disruptive effect on the Nigerian state, irrespective of the geographical area. The study suggests two recommendations: firstly, the incorporation of peace studies as a mandatory subject in our educational system, spanning from primary school to university level; and secondly, the revival of the previous mutually beneficial relationship between farmers and herdsmen in Nigeria should be actively pursued by all sectors of society. A research was done in 2009 by Ofuoku and Isife in Delta state, located in the South-South area of Nigeria. It sought to investigate the prevalent conflict between farmers and nomadic herders that occurs in many regions of the country. This research unveiled the underlying factors contributing to these conflicts and provided recommendations on how to prevent and address them in future instances. Using simple random and positive selection methods, a total of 80 farmers and 20 nomadic cattle herders were picked from a sample of eight randomly selected villages. The data was collected via a series of methodical interviews. The dispute arose because to several factors, including crop destruction, cow defecation in highways, intensive land use, disregard for local traditional authority, sexual harassment of women, harassment of nomadic youth by host communities, uncontrolled bush burning, cattle theft, and the roaming of animals. This research uncovered that conflicts have socio-economic consequences, leading to a decline in agricultural production, reduced income for farmers and nomads, relocation of farmers, loss of life, damage of property, and loss of stored commodities. It was suggested that the creation of local development plans would help mitigate these problems. file:///C:/Users/Mano/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_paperswithpagenumbers.zip/ijor.co.uk Qaruty, Alkhazaleh, Obeidat, Hadi and Yamani INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RELIGION 1521 Francis, Bawa & Haruna (2019) conducted an analysis of the effects of the conflict between farmers and Fulani ranchers on socio-economic activities in the North-central area. The primary objectives of this research were to ascertain the variables that precipitated confrontations between farmers and Fulani herders, and to examine the social and economic consequences of these conflicts in the Agatu Local Government Area in Benue State. The study's theoretical underpinning was based on Thomas Malthus' (1803) Malthusian Theory on Population. Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Furthermore, we used structured questionnaires to collect primary data, while secondary data from sources such as journal papers, news stories, textbooks, and publications from international crisis organizations were utilized as supplementary resources. According to the study, crop destruction was identified as a key factor in the conflict between farmers and Fulani herdsmen. The conflict had significant socioeconomic consequences, including loss of life and property, decreased productivity and income, and deterioration in the relationship between farmers and nomads. The research concluded that until the root causes of the conflict are addressed, socio-economic activities would continue to be adversely affected. To restore peace, order, and trust in society, the research suggests that stakeholders should demonstrate strong leadership and political determination by facilitating negotiations between the conflicting parties and appropriately rewarding or punishing them as needed. CONCLUSION This paper has addressed the vacuum in literature by conducting a comprehensive evaluation of studies on conflicts between farmers and herders. The purpose of this was to provide an overview of the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria, both at the regional and national levels. The study has used the ideas of political ecology, class struggle, and migration to examine the problem between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Political ecology highlights the inadequacy of governance in relation to urban planning, land management, and population regulation as fundamental causes of the dilemma faced by farmers and herders in Nigeria (Kwagha, 2018). It was also inferred from the class struggle that as long as there is an ongoing fight for control over land and material resources, the crises between farmers and herders would continue to exist (Lamidi, 2019). It is the responsibility of the government, as the ruling class, to oversee and regulate the two primary methods of production, namely farming and herding. Additionally, the government must also resolve conflicts that arise within and between different social classes. The migration theory examines how changes in land and climate contribute to the dilemma faced by farmers and herders in Nigeria. This theory uses the push and pull mechanism to explain the reasons for this crisis (Abdullahi, 2019). This idea also confirms the enduring character of the farmers/herders' problem in Nigeria. The reason for this is that a scarcity of land and water in a certain area would require people to migrate to another area where there is an abundance of land and water. This paper identified three primary causative elements that contribute to the ongoing tension between farmers and herders in Nigeria. The recurrent issue of the failure of the state's governance system has been consistently demonstrated by empirical research conducted at both regional and national levels. The economics of land system and land activities play a significant role in causing conflicts between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Both farmers and herders are using land with high fertility and abundant vegetation to engage in their respective occupations of crop cultivation and cattle grazing. The latter will consistently locate foliage for consumption, in areas where agricultural plants may thrive. During this occurrence, agricultural devastation will occur as cows are being directed to graze. This is an oversimplified explanation for the situation between farmers and herders in Nigeria. Nevertheless, the crisis between farmers and herders does not necessarily arise from a single incident. The empirical research found that there are many underlying factors contributing to the phenomenon. At the national level, the increase in population, changes in land usage and access to resources, growing socioeconomic inequality, and a decrease in community trust are major reasons that cause an increase in the crises between farmers and herders in Nigeria. At the regional level, the issue among farmers and herders in Nigeria may be attributed to cultural, occupational, and religious differences. Finally, this article argues that the ongoing conflict between farmers and herders continues to pose a significant threat to the unity and economic progress of Nigeria. To address these difficulties, this article suggests that promoting community policing is necessary, by expanding on the existing vigilante systems that are being implemented in most jurisdictions. Community policing is very likely to facilitate the acquisition of information on the disputes between farmers and herders, therefore assisting the civil police in addressing any potential Farmers-Herders’ Crisis in Nigeria: An Empirical Review ijor.co.uk 1522 threats. The ongoing conflict between farmers and herders is causing significant changes in people's behavior that are detrimental to the establishment of lasting peace. Both governmental and non-governmental initiatives must be expedited to effectively protect people's tranquil state in the face of the crisis. The Nigerian government should vigorously embark on an extensive campaign to persuade all parties involved, such as farmers, herdsmen, and state and local governments, to embrace the concept of modern ranching as an alternative to the traditional practice of herder migration, which leads to conflicts and associated issues. Furthermore, the empirical research demonstrates that the proliferation of weaponry and ammunition contributes to a significant increase in the severity and lethality of the conflict between farmers and herders in Nigeria. To effectively tackle the problem of widespread weapon distribution in local areas, it is imperative to intensify efforts in mobilizing both financial and human resources for de-radicalization programs and sponsoring disarmament initiatives. REFERENCES Abbass, I. M. 2014. No Retreat No Surrender Conflict for Survival between Fulani Pastoralists and Farmers in Northern Nigeria. European Scientific Journal, 8 1, 331—346. Abdullahi, A. 2019. Rural Banditry,Regional Security and Integration in West Africa. Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 2 3: 644-654. Abubakar, M. B. 2012. Sociological assessment of nomadic pastoralist and sedentary farmers conflicts in Kastina State. An unpublished M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Soc. Dept., Ahmadu Bello Univ, Zaria. 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