Jàmbá - Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 
ISSN: (Online) 1996-1421, (Print) 2072-845X
Page 1 of 11 Original Research
Policy coherence between food security, disaster risk 
reduction and climate change adaptation in South Africa: 
A summative content analysis approach
Authors: Climate change through extreme weather events threatens food security (FS) and the 
Annegrace Zembe1 eradication of poverty. Thus, improving FS will require adapting to the impacts of climate 
Livhuwani D. Nemakonde1 
Paul Chipangura2 change as well as reducing the risks of disasters. However, the nexus between FS, disaster risk 
reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA) is not always reflected in policies, 
Affiliations: resulting in fragmented implementation. The purpose of this article is to evaluate if there is 
1Unit for Environmental 
Sciences and Management coherence in the policies for FS, DRR and CCA in South Africa. A qualitative research design 
(African Centre for Disaster was applied, and data were collected through a summative content analysis on 34 policy and 
Studies), Faculty of Natural legislative documents and 24 key informant interviews (KII). The study found that there are 
and Agricultural Sciences, still incoherencies between the current main policy and legislative documents that address 
North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa CCA, DRR and FS. This study recommends a review of old policy and legislative frameworks 
promulgated in the 1990s to incorporate cross-cutting issues such as DRR, CCA and FS. This 
2Disaster Management, will enhance and strengthen synergies and interconnections between the three policy areas.
Institute of Development 
Studies, National University Keywords: climate change adaptation; disaster risk reduction; food security; policy coherence; 
of Science and Technology, legislations.
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
Corresponding author:
Annegrace Zembe, Introduction 
zembeannegrace@gmail.com
Globally, extreme climate and weather events resulting from climate change and variability are 
Dates: on the rise (EMDAT 2021) and are posing an extremely high and increasing disaster risk and food 
Received: 01 June 2020 security (FS) challenges (FAO 2021). In most developing countries (where economies are largely 
Accepted: 30 Nov. 2021 agro-based), the recurrence of hydro-meteorological hazards, such as droughts, floods and 
Published: 22 Feb. 2022
cyclones, presents FS concerns as they affect agricultural production (Madurapperuma et al. 
How to cite this article: 2020). Food Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2002) describes FS as:
Zembe, A., Nemakonde, L.D. & 
Chipangura, P., 2022, ‘Policy [A] situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to 
coherence between food sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and 
security, disaster risk reduction healthy life. (p. 49)
and climate change adaptation 
in South Africa: A summative To meet the growing demand for FS under increasingly difficult climatic conditions, efforts to 
content analysis approach’, 
Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster improve FS must consider the nexus between climate change adaptation (CCA), disaster risk 
Risk Studies 14(1), a1173. reduction (DRR) and FS (Habiba et al. 2016). In this light, there have been significant efforts 
https://doi.org/10.4102/ globally to strengthen coherence between DRR, CCA and FS frameworks to build societal 
jamba.v14i1.1173
resilience to climate change risks and food insecurity, for example, the 2030 Agenda for 
Copyright: Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 2) (United Nations [UN] 2015), the Sendai Framework 
© 2022. The Authors. for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 (paragraph 19 (h) and 30 (j)) (United Nations 
Licensee: AOSIS. This work 
is licensed under the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction [UNISDR] 2015) and the Paris Agreement on 
Creative Commons Climate Change (Article 7.1, 8.1 & 8.4) (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate 
Attribution License. Change [UNFCCC] 2015). 
Policy coherence can be described as an attribute of policy that systematically reduces conflicts 
and promotes synergies between and within different policy areas to achieve the outcomes 
associated with jointly agreed policy objectives (Nilsson et al. 2012:396). Building climate resilience 
in the food sector therefore requires bringing policy coherence to CCA and DRR and management. 
Read online: This helps in bridging the gaps between sectoral organisations for FS, DRR and CCA to share 
Scan this QR timely and relevant information concerning risks and their management (Habiba et al. 2016). In 
code with your 
smart phone or South Africa, research that supports policy coherence has focused on the alignment of policy 
mobile device objectives (Thow et al. 2018), the need for dialogue (Boatemma, Drimie & Pereira 2018) and 
to read online.
integrated institutional arrangements (Pereira & Drimie 2016) as main apparatus needed to foster 
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Page 2 of 11 Original Research
policy coherence. While there have been some efforts to foster 
policy coherence between DRR, CCA and FS, most 
frameworks, models and themes have fallen short of focusing 
on written content in policy and legislations to show the DRR
extent to which use of explicit words could create visible 
synergies that could easily be identified and used by 
practitioners from various disciplines. Availability and More frequent
access to food and intense
affected by More variable climac
Against this backdrop, this article seeks to evaluate if there is disasters and more extreme disastersclimate drives rising
coherence in the policies for FS, DRR and CCA in South food insecurity and
Africa. This will be done by exploring the use of content erodes farmers’Food resilience Climate
within CCA, DRR and FS policy and legislative documents security and livelihoods change
with the purpose of understanding the meaning and context Reduced agricultural
in which it is used to promote coherence. Understanding producvity and
written content (text) in policy coherence is crucial for making more frequentcrop losses
replicable and valid inferences from data to their context, 
with the purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a 
representation of facts and a practical guide to action (Elo & Development
Kyngas 2008). After this introduction, the article explores the shared planet
interlinkages between FS, DRR and CCA. This is then 
followed by an outline of the methodology used in the study. Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 2012, Reducing disaster risks to food 
The findings of the study are then presented and discussed security in southern africa: Towards integration and co-operation, REOSA Policy Brief, 4, FAO 
Regional Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office for Southern Africa (REOSA), 
before conclusions are drawn and recommendations made. Johannesburg.
DRR, disaster risk reduction.
Exploring interlinkages between FIGURE 1: Disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation and food security nexus.
climate change adaptation, disaster 
risk reduction and food security the trigger for extreme events (Madurapperuma et al. 2020). These interlinkages have made the integration of the measures 
policy areas to reduce the risk of disasters (DRR) and adapt to the impacts 
Food security is expected (if not already doing so) to face of climate change (CCA) a priority.
increasing challenges from climatic risks that are exacerbated 
by climate change, especially in the developing world Climate change adaptation and DRR share a common 
(Balaghi et al. 2010). Meanwhile, the relationship between conceptual understanding of the components of risk and the 
climate change and disasters has become vividly clear. It is processes of building resilience (Turnbull et al. 2013). Both 
well documented that climate change is changing the have conceptual synergies of understanding, monitoring and 
frequency, intensity and duration of some disasters, reducing exposure to hazards, addressing vulnerability, 
particularly those of hydrometeorological origin. The IPCC raising societal capacities to mitigate and manage risks, and 
(2021) states that human-induced climate change is already enhancing coping and adaptive capacity to build community 
affecting many weather and climate extremes in every region resilience (Rani et al. 2020; Sushchenko & Schwarze 2020). 
across the globe. In summary, climate change is a key source Madurapperuma et al. (2020) point out that CCA, coupled 
of disaster risk (Cubie & Natoli 2022). with upscaled DRR, contributes to reducing the 
negative impacts of extreme events and other socio-
Given the interlinkages that exist between climate change and economic shocks. Because of the shared objectives, the 
disasters and the impacts they have on FS, it is imperative to literature (Kelman et al. 2017; Mitchell & Van Aalts 2008) 
identify and act on interlinkages that exist between FS, DRR has suggested the integration/alignment/mainstreaming or 
and CCA. However, the interlinkages between the three are bringing coherence to the policy areas. Whereas these words 
only emerging and continuously evolving, with the nexus have different meanings, they are used interchangeably to 
between them not yet clear nor well documented. As a result, denote the bringing together of the different areas.
the interlinkages are poorly reflected in policies, resulting in a 
lack of shared purpose and fragmented implementation The nexus between DRR and FS is centred on the premise 
(Habiba et al. 2016). This article heavily draws from the work of that disasters affect food availability and access (Masipa 
Habiba et al. (2016) and FAO (2012) who developed a 2017). Disastrous events such as floods, tropical cyclones and 
framework depicting the nexus between FS, DRR and CCA (see other extreme events cause damages and losses to the 
Figure 1). The framework explores the CC-DRR nexus, DRR-FS agriculture infrastructure, assets, crops, inputs and 
nexus, CC-FS nexus and CC-FS-DRR nexus in the centre of the productivity (Madurapperuma et al. 2020) which, in turn, 
circles. The literature on the complex interlinkages between CC impact food safety, quality, and food and nutrition security 
and disaster risk abounds (Becker et al. 2013; Nemakonde & (FAO 2013). Moreover, disasters breed poverty which, in 
Van Niekerk 2017; Nemakonde et al. 2021). Simply put, CC is turn, increases the prevalence of food insecurity and 
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Page 3 of 11 Original Research
malnutrition (Tirivangasi 2018). Conversely, DRR is a sectors and government supported research institutions) 
prerequisite and strongly interconnected with alleviating during the period September 2019 – December 2019. 
poverty and hunger (FAO 2013). The CC–FS nexus is centred 
on the role that climate change has on agricultural production Content analysis of policy document
and thus FS. According to FAO (2012), food production is 
declining and the number of impoverished farmers and their Content analysis describes a family of approaches for 
dependents is sinking into chronic food insecurity, which is systematic examination of text to identify themes, intents and 
increasing because of increasing risks of unpredictable patterns (Hall & Steiner 2020). In this study, both conventional 
rainfall and climate-related disasters. As FAO (2008) CA and summative CA were conducted. Conventional CA is 
indicates, climate change affects all four dimensions of FS. an inductive approach which focuses on text data, while 
Balaghi et al. (2010) share similar views and state that the summative CA involves counting and comparisons of 
four dimensions of FS are climate dependent. keywords or content, followed by the interpretation of the 
underlying context (Hsieh & Shannon 2005). Drawing from 
As reflected in the introduction of this article, the three policy Hall and Steiner (2020), the approach for CA in this study 
areas are connected through the variable and extreme climate involves four stages:
events that have direct and indirect effects on food insecurity • Searching for and gathering policy and legislative 
and eroded the farmers’ resilience and livelihoods. In the documents from government websites
middle where all three intersect, the overall impact on • Development of keywords and identification of 
agriculture-based livelihoods becomes clear and shows the preliminary themes through qualitative inductive 
need for an integrated and long-term building of resilience, reading of text
which could save millions of livelihoods (Habiba et al. 2016). • Using Atlas.ti to describe policy quantitative attribute 
FAO (2012) argues that the nexus between climate variability and trends using keywords
and change, climate-related disasters, FS and agriculture must • Evaluating the themes by qualitative deductive 
be understood and fed into policy development and alignment. comparison with KII findings.
It should, however, be noted that all three issues have Gathering of national policy and legislative documents
component drivers that do not intersect with one another: food 
Various policy and legislative documents that address CCA, 
insecurity (especially issues of access to food) is driven by 
DRR and FS were identified through searching on government 
numerous socio-economic factors and shocks to the food 
departmental websites. The inclusion criteria for selection 
system; CC has causes and impacts unrelated to DRR and FS; 
were that the following: (1) post-democratic legislation 
and DRR also includes non-climatic disasters, such as 
(legislations that dates back from 1994 and are currently used), 
earthquakes and tsunamis (Habiba et al. 2016). Furthermore, (2) legislations formulated and published by the South African 
FS, DRR and CCA are characterised by different sets of actors government, (3) legislations that directly address CCA, DRR 
at global, regional, national and subnational levels that operate and/or FS and (4) other relevant policy documents cited in the 
in silos and remain ignorant of the nature and importance of legislative documents under review. From the websites, under 
the nexus that exists (Habiba et al. 2016). Besides, the the legislation section, bills, acts, policies, white and green 
framework presented in this article has revealed strong papers, strategies, and action plans were retrieved and sorted 
interdependencies and nexus between FS, DRR and CCA and under three categories (CCA, DRR and FS). A total of 34 
therefore nations can ill afford to continue implementing them documents were identified (CCA-12; DRR-8; FS-14). 
in isolation. According to Madurapperuma et al. (2020), 
addressing the challenge of food insecurity as a result of an 
increase in climate variability and extremes and disasters Content analysis of policy and legislative documents
requires coherent policies, strategies and programmes. Several steps were followed when analysing the contents of 
Whereas it might not be sufficient on its own (Cubie & Natoli the policy and legislative documents. Initially, a list of key 
2022), the promotion of coherence is a worthwhile endeavour. words was developed to allow standardised analysis. The 
keywords are derived from the focus and interest of study 
Methods and procedure and included CCA, DRR, FS, coherence, integration, climate resilience, disaster risk management, disaster risk, emergency 
In this study, a mixed methods research design was applied response, food access, food availability, food production, FS 
with data collected through a comprehensive literature review, and nutrition, sustainability, environment, environmentally 
content analysis (CA) of policy and legislative documents friendly, adaptation, and conservation.
relating to DRR, CCA and FS in South Africa and key informant 
interviews (KIIs). Content analysis was used to identify and The analysis began with searches for occurrences of the 
quantify content from 34 purposively selected policy and identified keywords, counting the number of times that each 
legislative documents to understand the contextual use in keyword is mentioned from the identified documents using 
relation to coherence (Hsieh & Shannon 2005). Furthermore, Atlas.ti. Atlas.ti was used because it can cope with multiple 
thematic analysis was used (Terry et al. 2017:17) to present and overlapping codes without losing the context, enabling 
and analyse data collected from CA and the 24 purposively the researcher to associate codes with chunks of text, patterns 
selected key informants from eight institutions (government to construct classification of codes that reflect the three 
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TABLE 1: List of climate change adaptation, disaster risk reduction and food Department of Agriculture Land Reform and Rural 
security documents in South Africa analysed.
Codes Document name Development (DALRRD), Department of Environment, 
D1 White Paper Marine Fisheries Policy for South Africa, 1997 Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF) (Climate Change Directorate), 
D2 National Climate Change Response White Paper, 2011 Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional 
D3 National Climate Change Response Green Paper 2010_ Department of Affairs (National Disaster Management Centre [NDMC]), 
Environmental Affairs briefing _ PMG Agricultural Research Council (ARC), Human Sciences 
D4 National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019 Research Council (HSRC), Water Research Commission 
D5 National Environment Management Act-107-of-1998 amended 2013 (WRC), South African Weather Services (SAWS), and Agri 
D6 National Climate Change Response Strategy South Africa, 2004 South Africa (AGRISA) participated in the study. 
D7 National Water Act 36, 1998
Respondents included three senior managers, that is, Chief 
D8 National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (107): Regulations: 
Environmental Management Framework, 2010 Directors, Directors and Deputy Directors from each of the 
D9 National Environment Management Act Air Quality Act of 39, 2004 eight institutions. 
D10 South African Weather Services Act 8, 2001
D11 Climate Change Bill, 2018 Data were collected through face-to-face interviews, 
D12 National Forest Act, 1998 telephonic interviews, virtual or online platforms and emails, 
D13 Disaster Management Monitoring and Evaluation Framework, 2014 allowing participants to choose a platform convenient to 
D14 National Disaster Risk Management Education and Training Framework, 2013 them. Interview sessions were recorded with consent granted 
D15 Disaster Management Amendment Act, 2015 by the interviewees. The collected data were transcribed 
D16 Disaster Management Urban Search and Rescue Framework, 2014
verbatim and were analysed and presented using thematic 
D17 Disaster risk Management White Paper, 1999
D18 Disaster Risk Management Green Paper, 1998 analysis. The analysis followed the six-phase process 
D19 Disaster Risk Management Policy Framework, 2005 established by Terry et al. (2017:23–24). The process began 
D20 Disaster Risk Management Act 57, 2002 with (1) familiarising with the data (browsing through data to 
D21 South Africa Agricultural Policy Action Plan, 2014 get the meaning). Phase 2 and 3 (generating and constructing 
D22 Gazette-Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy Framework, 2018 codes), respectively, were skipped as it was out of scope of the 
D23 Draft Conservation Agriculture Policy, 2017 study. Phase 4 and 5 (reviewing potential themes and defining 
D24 Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries draft sector IGDP, 2010 and naming themes) wherein themes that emerged from CA 
D25 Policy on Agriculture in Sustainable Development – 8th Draft were used to allow for proper comparison of the findings. The 
D26 Indigenous Knowledge Systems Strategy, 2008 themes that emerged from the study are reflected in Table 2.
D27 Rural Development Framework Policy, 2013
D28 Draft Climate Change Sector Plan for Agriculture, 2015
D29 Green Paper Land Reform, 2011 Findings and discussions
D30 National Policy for Food and Nutrition Security, 2014 This section presents and discusses the findings from 
D31 Integrated Food Security Strategy, 2002 Summative content analysis (SCA) and KIIs on policy 
D32 Mechanization Support Policy Framework, 2014 coherence between CCA, DRR and FS in South Africa. The 
D33 Fetsa Tlala – Integrative Food Production Initiative, 2013
presentation focuses on the use of content within CCA, DRR 
D34 Household Food and Nutrition Strategy for South Africa, 2013
and FS policy and legislations in order to understand the 
meaning and context in which it is used to promote coherence. 
distinct themes of the analysis (Lewis 2004; Smit 2002). Atlas. The section begins by presenting the interlinkages between 
ti auto-generated codes for each document using the code ‘D’ DRR, CCA and FS policy and legislations. The subsequent 
(see Table 1). Furthermore, from the documents loaded on sub-sections present findings on the extent to which DRR, 
Atlas.ti, codes were generated both inductively and CCA and FS content promote policy coherence and possible 
deductively, and were grouped into three code clusters challenges and opportunities for not/or using explicit 
(CCA, DRR and FS). The coding system used reflected the content to promote coherence. Attention is given to the extent 
code group, code name and the documents it was extracted in which use of explicit words creates visible synergies that 
from, for example, CCA (code group)-adaptation (code could easily be identified and used by practitioners from 
name)-FS (documents extracted from). This process was various disciplines. 
mainly done to quantify the occurrence of every code in each 
document. For the coherence variable, the code group was Interlinkages between disaster risk reduction, 
shown followed by code name (CCA-coherence). Lastly, the climate change adaptation and food security 
documents where the keywords are mentioned were policy and legislations in South Africa
thoroughly read and text analysed to verify the context in 
which the word is used.  As highlighted above, efforts to improve FS under increasingly 
changing climatic conditions require policies from different 
Key informant Interviews sectors that influence FS to be interlinked. In this section, findings on the interlinkages between DRR, CCA and 
In this study, purposive sampling was applied to select FS policy and legislations in South Africa are presented. 
respondents. Purposive sampling is a form of sampling that The findings are presented under three sub-sections, namely, 
selects participants because they are well informed on and (1) interlinkages between CCA and FS, (2) interlinkages 
understand the research problem (Creswell 2007). A total between CCA and DRR and (3) interlinkages between FS 
of 24 key informants from eight institutions including and DRR. The presentation mainly focuses on identifying 
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keywords that reflect interlinkages between the three policy between legislations and implementation of programmes 
areas and how KIIs converge or diverge to SCA findings. because CCA and DRR have complimenting policy goals that 
need to be addressed holistically (Lei 2014; Mercer 2010). 
Interlinkages between climate change adaptation and 
disaster risk reduction policy and legislations Interestingly, almost all the DRR/CCA codes had some 
Meeting the demand for FS in increasingly extreme climate connection to DRR issues as shown in Table 2 – DRR-disaster 
and weather events will undoubtedly require bringing policy risk-CCA (21 quotations), DRR-rehabilitation-CCA (16 
coherence between CCA and DRR. This is because CCA and quotations), DRR-disaster risk reduction-CCA (11 
DRR are connected through the overarching purpose of quotations), DRR-disaster risk management-CCA (four 
reducing losses because of climate-related hazards and quotations), DRR-emergency response-CCA (five 
building communities’ resilience against disasters. In this quotations). Disaster risk reduction/CCA codes particularly 
study, the interlinkages between CCA and DRR policy and D2/4 were used to enhance short-term CCA and planning 
legislations are summarised in Table 2. As shown in Table 3, strategies towards early warning systems and forecasting. 
only two CCA/DRR codes were found in DRR documents Notably, DRR-disaster risk management-CCA code was 
compared to five DRR/CCA codes found in CCA documents. used as a reference for developing disaster management 
No quotations were found under the codes ‘CCA-climate plans, while DRR-emergency response-CCA code was used 
resilience-DRR’ and ‘CCA-environmentally friendly-DRR’. as a need for managing inevitable climate change impacts to 
This implies that these codes are operating in silo, which may 
build environmental resilience. However, the fact that most 
complicate efforts to build resilience. Interlinkages were only 
DRR/CCA codes were found in 2 (D2/4) out of 12 documents 
found in codes ‘CCA-sustainability-DRR’ (four quotations) 
shows that other CCA documents are treating DRR issues in 
and ‘CCA-climate change adaptation-DRR’ (five quotations). 
The Disaster Management Amendment Act (D15) had a total of silo, which hinder policy coherence. Only documents (D5/6/7) 
five CCA quotations that referred to the need to engage DEFF formulated in the 1990s used the DRR-rehabilitation-CCA 
when responding to climate and disaster risks in South code and the context it was used did not reflect the need 
Africa. D13/14/18/19 had each one quotation that recognises for coherence.
climate change as a concept that exacerbates disaster risk if Interlinkages between climate change adaptation and 
not managed well. However, these codes did not convey the food security policy and legislations
content in clarity on which action to be taken to work in 
In terms of the interlinkages between CCA and FS policy and 
harmony. This lack of clarity may compromise communication 
legislations, findings from SCA (see Table 4) indicate that all 
FS/CCA codes analysed for this study and CCA issues are 
TABLE 2: Themes that emerged from the study. well interlinked to FS. The code ‘CCA-climate change-FS’ 
Themes Sub-themes had the highest number (476) of CCA quotations in FS policy 
Interlinkages between Interlinkages between CCA and DRR 
DRR, CCA and FS and legislation documents followed by the code ‘CCA-Interlinkages between CCA and FS
Interlinkages between FS and DRR TABLE 4: Interlinkages between climate change adaptation and food security 
The extent to which Content in CCA policies and legislation promoting coherence policy and legislations.
policy and legislative 
content promote Content in DRR policies and legislations promoting coherence CCA and FS codes No. of times codes were Total no. of 
policy coherence Content in FS policy and legislation promoting coherence mentioned codes
Possible challenges Challenges and opportunities for coherence between FS and CCA-climate change adaptation-FS D21 – 1; D22 – 3; D23 – 1;  15
and opportunities for CCA policies D28 – 10
not/or using explicit CCA-adaptation FS D21 – 6; D22 – 49; D23 – 3;  258
content to promote Challenges and opportunities for coherence between FS and D24 – 12; D25 – 2; D26 – 4;  
coherence DRR policies D28 – 182
Challenges and opportunities for coherences between DRR 
and CCA policies CCA-climate change-FS D21- 17; D22 – 85; D23 – 6;  476D24 – 30; D25 – 9; D28 – 317; 
CCA, climate change adaptation; DRR, disaster risk reduction; FS, food security. D30 – 12
CCA-climate resilience-FS.  D 22 – 5; D22 – 1 6 
TABLE 3: Interlinkages between climate change adaptation and disaster risk CCA-conservation-FS D21 – 22; D22 – 15; D23 – 35;  
reduction policy and legislations. D24 – 22; D25 – 24; D26 – 9;  
D28 – 39; D32 – 2; D33 – 2
CCA and DRR odes No. of times codes were Total no. of 
mentioned codes CCA-environment-FS D23 – 18; D24 – 66; D25 – 50;  226
D26 – 13; D28 – 59; D29 – 2; 
CCA-climate resilience-DRR 0 0 D30 – 4; D31 – 6; D32 – 6;  
CCA-environmentally friendly-DRR 0 0 D33 – 2 
CCA-sustainability-DRR D13 – 1; D18 – 1; D14 – 1;  4 CCA-sustainability-FS D21 – 14; D22 – 8; D23 – 5;  
D19 – 1 D24 – 26; D25 – 9; D26 – 2;  D28 – 13; D32 – 2; D33 – 2
CCA-climate change adaptation-DRR D15 – 5 5 FS-food availability-CCA 0 0 
DRR-disaster resilience-CCA 0 0 FS-food access-CCA 0 0 
DRR-disaster risk reduction-CCA D2 – 4; D4 – 7 11 FS-agriculture-CCA D2 – 27; D3 – 7; D4 – 22; D5 – 1;  70
DRR-disaster risk-CCA D2 – 8; D4 – 12; D11 – 1 21 D6 – 12; D11 – 1
DRR-disaster risk management-CCA D2 – 2; D4 – 2 4 FS-food production-CCA D2 – 3; D3 – 1; D4 – 1 5
DRR-emergency response-CCA D2 – 1; D4 – 4 5 FS-food security and nutrition-CCA 0 0
DRR-rehabilitation-CCA D2 – 1; D5 – 7; D6 – 1; D7 – 6 16 FS-food security-CCA D2– 5; D3 – 2; D4 – 3; D6 – 3 14
Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African 
Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76. Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76.
CCA, climate change adaptation; DRR, disaster risk reduction. CCA, climate change adaptation; FS, food security.
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adaptation-FS’ with 258 quotations. These results are not TABLE 5: Interlinkages between food security and disaster risk reduction policy 
and legislations.
surprising given that the term ‘climate change’ is used to 
DRR and FS codes No. of times codes were Total no. of 
portray threats to the food sector and is a variable that should mentioned codes
be addressed to reduce its impact on FS. Most FS documents DRR-disaster resilience-FS D 28 – 2 2 
developed before the year 2000 preferred to use traditional DRR-disaster risk management-FS D 22 – 1; D28 – 2 3 
terms such as conservation, sustainability, and environment DRR-disaster risk reduction-FS 0 0 
when referring to climate change risks. After the year 2000, DRR-disaster risk-FS D 22 – 2; D28 – 3 5
DRR-rehabilitation-FS D22 – 2; D23 – 2; D24 – 3;  17
the FS documents started to recognise climate change as an D25 – 3; D28 – 6; D33 – 1
interlinked variable to FS. Codes such as ‘CCA-climate DRR-emergency response-FS D 22 – 2 2
change adaptation-FS’ and ‘CCA-adaptation-FS’ scored FS-food access-DRR 0 0 
many quotations in documents that specifically address FS-conservation-DRR D 14 -1; D18 – 7 8 
climate change in  DALRRD especially in D28. Mostly, these FS-food availability-DRR D18 – 1 1 
codes when mentioned referred to the need to work with FS-food production-DRR 0 0 
FS-food security and nutrition-DRR 0 0
DEFF to apply CCA measures such as climate smart 
FS-food security-DRR D14 – 3; D19 – 6; D18 – 38;  50
agriculture (CSA) to improve FS in South Africa. D20 – 2
Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African 
Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76.
While in all CCA/FS codes there was good link between DRR, disaster risk reduction; FS, food security.
FS and CCA, only three FS/CCA codes (FS-agriculture-
CCA (70 quotations), FS-food security-CCA (14 quotations) circumstances, according to Campbell et al. (2016) and Lipper 
and FS-food production-CCA-(5 quotations)) had some et al. (2014), brew a fertile ground for incoherencies, which 
mention of FS in CCA documents, as shown in Table 3. The could prohibit a food secure community. Of significance is 
CCA documents (D2/3/4/5/6) that mentioned FS issues D33, whereby, regardless of how sensitive food production is 
recognise the food sector as the most vulnerable sector to to disaster risks in South Africa, did not use DRR codes as 
climate risks. Therefore, D2/3/4 emphasised the need to terms of references to align with its activities. 
preserve small-scale farmers relying mostly on dry land 
for food production. The fact that ‘FS-food security and Findings from SCA, as shown in Table 4, indicate that DRR 
nutrition-CCA’ code did not appear anywhere in the CCA documents (FS-food security-DRR code in D14/18/19/20) 
documents showed a lack of focus on the nutrition part acknowledge the linkages between FS and DRR. For example, 
of food security in South Africa, which Ruel (2013) argued D18 shows that, during its formulation stage, officials from 
for further research. Fortunately, the occurrence of ‘FS-food DALRRD, DEFF and other role players were consulted, which 
security-CCA’ code in D2/3/4/6 showed an avenue to could be the reason why the content is inclusive and promotes 
promote coherence between FS and CCA legislations. The policy coherence. Correspondingly, D19/20 uses National 
context in which the code appeared reflected how CCA Disaster Management Advisory Forum (NDMAF) and 
documents acknowledge the impact of climate risks on FS Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management 
and advocate for the need to use CSA. (ICDM) to engage all stakeholders including DALRRD in 
management of floods and droughts to protect FS. The FS-food 
Interlinkages between food security and disaster risk availability-DRR code that featured in D18 also seeks to engage 
reduction policy and legislations DALRRD as a key player in early warning systems of staple 
The findings on interlinkages between FS and DRR policy foods. The remaining three codes (food access, production, FS 
and legislations are summarised in Table 5. As shown in and nutrition) did not feature anywhere in the DRR documents 
Table 4, no quotations were found in the ‘DRR-disaster risk because they address FS from a broader perspective rather 
reduction-FS’ code within the FS documents. This shows lack than its dimensions. FS-conservation-DRR code only appeared 
of coherence between DRR and FS legislations given the in D14/18 to encourage water conservation and drought 
importance of DRR measures in prevention, response and proofing as a DRR measure that helps to improve FS.
recovery strategies in the food sector. The remaining DRR 
keywords (resilience, disaster risk management, disaster Regarding the KIIs findings, majority of respondents 
risk and emergency response) reflected how the food sector described CCA, DRR and FS as interlinked concepts with 
lacks coherence when dealing with climate and disaster risks. similar goals in building resilience and adaptive capacity 
This was shown in the context of lack of accessible and towards the FS. The following statement by a respondent 
reliable information for external engagements and few social from HSRC captures the sentiments shared by those who feel 
platforms to engage civil societies and other relevant that the three policy areas are interlinked:
stakeholders who advocate for alignment of FS and DRR ‘CCA, DRR & FS are undoubtedly interlinked and if legislations 
issues. Arguably, among widely used comprehensive and technocrats treat them as such, coherence would be 
documents such as D30 and D31, no DRR code was recorded. inevitable’. (Participant 1, Male, 9 September 2019)
This oversight specifically shows how limited the content in 
FS legislations is, in terms of lack of direct keywords that However, respondents from AGRISA, NDMC and Directorate 
help to engage practitioners, sectors and communities who of Climate Change Adaptation (DCCA) argued that the 
are the end users or implementers of such policies. Such content in some policy and legislations is still influencing a 
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Page 7 of 11 Original Research
separation between them, which is compromising the Among CCA documents analysed, D4 used CCA-integration 
achievement of each other’s interlinked goals. For example, code to specifically emphasise the need to integrate with DRR 
one respondent from DALRRD described FS as, ‘an outcome and FS legislations. While D1/2/3/5/6/9/11 highlighted 
of what institutions that address DRR and CCA did or did not the need for coherence between DRR and FS, they did not 
do’. A few respondents from NDMC and DCCA confirmed to specifically mention the exact institutions by name but rather 
share responsibility but said that FS policies should state the described them as government sectors or businesses or civil 
responsibilities with clarity to invoke their attention and societies. According to Radhaswamy and Zia (2011), words 
interests to partake in FS issues not the other way round. Moni or information that is not clearly phrased is likely to convey a 
et al. (2007) also emphasise the importance of presenting the message that is amiss. In this case, the end users, which are 
who, what, when, why and how aspects of content when DRR, and FS practitioners and communities, might not 
conveying information to external audiences. One respondent understand the brevity of CCA content and might decide not 
from HSRC said that, currently in areas where interlinkages to act coherently. In support, KII findings established that 
are witnessed, resources are shared and used efficiently, cross- lack of explicitness in content gives no clarity around 
cutting terms such as ‘resilience’ are being utilised; collective mandates, risking practitioners to duplicate work with 
methods, strategies and tools are used to reduce the impact of 
limited funds that could be better used. It was also noted 
climate and disaster risk on FS. Finally, the KII findings 
that, some documents specifically D1/2/5/31, when 
established that the majority of respondents recognise the 
referring to coherence, mostly referred to vertical coherence, 
interconnectedness of CCA, DRR and FS and in their responses 
agreed to work on building content that reflects that. which limited horizontal engagements. In addition, the CCA 
content shows no central platform where CCA-, DRR- and 
The extent to which disaster risk reduction, FS-related data are shared, which could be the reason 
climate change adaptation and food security legislations are still using different terms, methods and 
content promote policy coherence strategies as opposed to Gero, Méheux and Dominey-Howes 
(2011) bid for a one-stop-shop for cross-cutting information. 
Under this theme, three sub-themes were established to Thus, the study draws from D4, and argues that there is lack 
determine the extent in which content in CCA, DRR and FS of coherence or coordination between legislations and 
policy and legislations is promoting policy coherence. The institutions that are addressing CCA, DRR and FS policy 
sub-themes are: (1) content in CCA policy and legislations areas. This is so despite the existence of Intergovernmental 
promoting coherence; (2) content in DRR policy and Committee on Climate Change (IGCCC) and National 
legislations promoting coherence; and (3) content in FS policy 
Committee on Climate Change (NCCC) platforms identified 
and legislations promoting coherence. Codes used to analyse 
in CCA documents, which are avenues created to ensure 
the sub-themes included coherence, coordination, 
stakeholder participation and new partnerships with relevant 
cooperation, collaboration, integration and mainstreaming.
parties in an integrated manner.
Content in climate change adaptation policies and 
legislation promoting coherence Content in disaster risk reduction policies and legislations 
promoting coherence
Given that climate change is the trigger for extreme events 
that adversely affect FS, it is important to find out how the As noted above, disaster risk, climate change and FS are 
content in CCA policies and legislation promotes coherence closely connected. Various hazards especially those of hydro-
between CCA, DRR and FS. To determine the extent in which meteorological origisn, propelled by climatic change and 
CCA codes were used to promote coherence, various variability, pose an extremely high and increasing disaster 
keywords such as coherence, cooperation, and coordination risks to FS. This connection would require policy coherence 
were created. Table 6 summarises the findings on content in between FS, DRR and CCA in order to minimise the devastating 
CCA policy and legislations that promote coherence. Most impacts of disasters on FS. Table 7 summarises the findings on 
content in CCA policies and legislation promoting coherence content in DRR policies and legislation that promote coherence 
centred on CCA-coordination (41 quotations) while CCA- between DRR, CCA and FS. As shown in Table 6, most content 
integration and CCA-mainstreaming had 29 quotations each. in DRR that promote coherence centred mostly on coordination 
Only three quotations centred on CCA-coherence. (59 quotations) and integration (53 quotations). 
TABLE 6: Content in climate change adaptation policies and legislation promoting TABLE 7: Content in disaster risk reduction policies and legislation promoting 
coherence. coherence.
CCA codes No. of times codes were mentioned Total no. of codes DRR codes No. of times codes were mentioned Total no. of codes
CCA-coherence D2 – 1; D4 – 2 3 DRR-coherence 0 0 
CCA-cooperation D1 – 12; D2 – 6; D4 – 3; D5 – 2; D6 – 5 28 DRR-collaboration D13 – 1; D14 – 8; D16 – 2; D18 – 3 14 
CCA-coordination D1 – 1; D2 – 15; D3 – 4; D4 – 4; D5 – 2; 41 DRR-cooperation D16 – 5; D18 – 16 21 
D6 – 10; D11 – 5 DRR-coordination D13 – 8; D14 –3; D16 – 26; D18 – 22 59 
CCA-integration D1 – 2; D2 – 5; D4 – 1; D5 – 3; D6 – 8; 29 DRR-integration D13 – 1; D14 – 18; D18 – 6;  53
D31 – 1 D19 – 16; D20 – 10
CCA-mainstreaming D 2– 1; D4 – 16; D5 – 2 29 DRR-mainstreaming D 14 – 6; D19 – 1 7 
Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African 
Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76. Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76.
CCA, climate change adaptation. DRR, disaster risk reduction.
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The frequency in the use of codes that refer to ‘coherence’ in mentality towards CCA and DRR. For example, the context in 
the DRR documents shows that there is an effort to promote which the coherence keyword was used in D21/23 /28/25/29 
policy coherence within the sector. However, among the six showed that there is lack of coherence between FS and DRR/
codes created to determine the extent to which DRR policy CCA. However, collaboration, coordination and cooperation 
and legislations are promoting coherence, the main keyword keywords were used as drivers to engage external agencies to 
‘coherence’ did not appear in any of the DRR documents. establish integrated approaches to climate change, indigenous 
This significant oversight either shows that the concept is knowledge systems and institutional support networks. 
still new or evolving as argued by Gero et al. (2011). Briefly, Twenty-four quotations from D21/22/24/25/26/28/29 
when D13/14/16/18 mentioned DRR-collaboration code, showed that weak institutional support networks that relate 
the emphasis was to collaborate with the Weather Bureau, to disaster management systems and lack of a structured 
Water Affairs, Department of Education and other relevant system that deals with FS disasters are always a hindrance to 
stakeholders to improve early warning systems. In like manner, effective coherence. While some documents used the 
the context in which DRR-cooperation code was used referred integration code to refer to integration with other government 
to the need for cooperation with relevant stakeholders but did sectors, D30/29/26/28/31/21/22 mainly emphasised for 
not explicitly mention institutions by name, which in a way internal integration within the food sector. These documents 
reduces the sense of obligation to DRR issues. In addition, the described the food sector as an entity that lacks integration 
way coordination and integration keywords were used in D6 because of weak governance structures and fragmented 
was to reveal the lack of coordination between DRR and CCA/ content that does not explicitly refer to other FS legislations. 
FS activities. In terms of D16, there is lack of coordination in Therefore, Boatemma et al. (2018) and Pereira and Drimie 
information dissemination, focal points to provide direction (2016) advocated for internal coherence between FS policies 
for implementation and lack of systematic set of guidelines first before external alignments with CCA and DRR policies.
and standards that should be adhered to between institutions. 
Finally, DRR-integration featured in a way that encourages However, findings from KIIs have shown two different 
rapid integration of information from different data sources positions in the way they view the extent to which content is 
and channels that reaches decision makers promptly. promoting coherence. Majority of respondents from 
Although, some DRR codes seek to promote coherence using DALRRD, DCCA and NDMC said that the content in their 
NDMAF and other platforms as cited in D19/20, the extent in legislations is promoting coherence to a greater extent because 
which the content is used requires revision in terms of altering they have created vast of policies that address CCA, DRR and 
‘quarterly’ to ‘regular’ meetings to strengthen the readiness of FS concepts. On the other hand, few respondents from WRC, 
external stakeholders whenever an emergency event arises. ARC, South African Weather Services (SAWS) and HSRC 
discussed how the creation of vast standalone documents has 
Content in food security policy and legislation promoting negatively replaced the use of relevant content that is needed 
coherence to drive coherence between sectors. One respondent from 
The nexus between FS and disasters as highlighted above AGRISA expressed this concern like this:
would require that FS policy and legislation recognise that it ‘The fact that we have policies that directly address CCA, DRR& 
should be connected to CCA and DRR policies and legislation FS doesn’t mean the legislations have the right content that 
in order to effectively deal with FS challenges. Table 8 presents promote coherence because … a policy, in itself is not discernible, 
the findings on content in FS policies and legislation that but the actual written words in the document’. (Participant 15, 
promote coherence between FS, DRR, and CCA. As shown in Male, 27 September 2019) 
Table 7, most content centred on mainstreaming (66 
quotations), coordination (61) quotations, and integration (45 Although some respondents from DALRRD, DCCA and 
quotations) while only five quotations centred on FS-coherence. NDMC gave guidelines and procedures that government 
sectors follow when formulating policy and legislations in 
The codes created to determine the extent to which FS policy South Africa, one respondent from HSRC argued that, with 
and legislations are promoting coherence reflected a silo absolute silence in other documents especially the leading 
ones, does not reflect the inclusivity and transparency 
TABLE 8: Content in food security policies and legislation promoting coherence. advocated by such guidelines. The same HSRC respondent 
FS codes No. of times codes were mentioned Total no. of 
codes finally gave a recommendation for the need to focus more on 
FS-coherence D22 – 1; D23 – 1; D25 – 1; D28 – 1; D29 – 1 5 the written content in policies rather than policies themselves.
FS-collaboration D21 – 5; D22 – 12; D23 – 3; D24 – 6; D26 – 4; 36
D28 – 5; D29 – 1 Possible challenges and opportunities for not/or 
FS-cooperation D21 – 1; D22 – 2; D25 – 1; D24 – 7; D26 – 5; 24
D28 – 3; D31 – 1 using explicit content to promote coherence
FS-coordination D21 – 6; D22 – 26; D24 – 8; D26 – 2; D28 – 4; 61
D29 – 1; D30 – 1; D31 – 3; D32 – 2; D34 – 8 Under this theme, three sub-themes were created to present 
FS-integration D21 – 9; D22 – 15; D23 – 2; D24 – 4; D25 – 4; 45 analysis of challenges and opportunities that could be 
D26 – 2; D28 – 5; D29 – 2; D30 – 1; D31 – 1 brought by not/or using explicit CCA, DRR and FS terms to 
FS-mainstreaming D 22 – 63; D25 – 63; D28 – 2 66 promote coherence. These include challenges and 
Source: Derived from Smit, B., 2002, ‘Atlas.ti for qualitative data analysis’, South African 
Journal of Psychology 20(3), 65–76. opportunities for coherence between FS and DRR policies; 
FS, food security. challenges and opportunities for coherences between DRR 
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Page 9 of 11 Original Research
and CCA policies; and challenges and opportunities for that, although that may be the case, the fact that it is mentioned 
coherence between CCA and FS policies. in a legislation shows a degree of accepting the connection 
between legislations and that alone can be used as an avenue 
Challenges and opportunities for coherence between food for policy coherence. Although respondents from HSRC, 
security and climate change adaptation policies SAWS and ARC described the use of explicit content as a way 
Challenges that have been drawn from D22/25/28 included needed to clarify roles and responsibilities between sectors, 
culture and language barriers whereby people or farmers could they also cited a possibility of organisational turf problems 
be sensitive to certain new words used to drive coherence, when it comes to sharing of resources. Finally, this argument 
which could cause resistance to CSA messages. In support, KIIs brought majority of respondents to recommend the need to 
findings showed that this could be influenced by people or incentivise institutions that are promoting coherence. 
farmers who are still accustomed to key terms that were used 
in the 1990s legislations such as conservation farming or 
rehabilitation practices. Again, the fact that these documents Conclusion
are still functional currently raises a lot of concerns in terms of Bringing coherence between DRR, CCA and FS policy areas 
need for imminent review to create avenues for coherence. is espoused as one of the strategies to sustain FS. Despite the 
interlinkages identified between these policy areas, many 
Challenges and opportunities for coherence between food policies have not yet picked up the button bringing synergy 
security and disaster risk reduction policies between related policies. Ultimately, addressing the risk and 
The challenge that emanated from this sub-theme was rooted impacts of disasters including climate risks on FS coherently 
from the way policy content is designed and the people or remains a challenge. The findings of this study have revealed 
institutions that sits at the table during the process. This came that there are incoherencies between the main policies and 
about after observation from DRR legislations that do not use legislation that address DRR, CCA and FS in South Africa 
the word ‘coherence’ in their content, which in a way despite some level of synergies in the contents of some 
complicates understanding of the need for coherence across policy documents despite some minor differences, there is 
the FS sector. In the same manner, both SCA and KII findings convergence between the findings of CA and the findings 
have shown the challenges of turf problems with DALRRD from KII.
and FS policies whereby they are establishing policies that 
address CCA and DRR independently instead of reviewing This article submits that bringing coherence in the three 
the content in their policies to integrate terminology that policy areas will require explicit and precise contents of the 
drives coherence with relevant stakeholders. Organisation policy documents to acknowledge the interlinkages that exist 
for Economic Cooperation and Development (2018) referred between the policy areas. This will require a review of the 
to such challenges to be caused by political context in which policy documents and amendments of the legislative 
these policies exist whereby politicians are more concerned documents. This is because legislation and policy frameworks 
with distribution of policy benefits during implementation play an important role in promoting actions to reduce the 
than on broad ends of policies as they are designed. Such a risks of disasters and adaptation to the impacts of climate 
scenario questioned the whole policy-making process in change. Ultimately, this will help bridge the gaps that exist 
South Africa regarding who have a say in the choice of policy between the institutions that are responsible for ensuring FS. 
content and recommended it for further research. In policy areas where the interlinkages between DRR-CCA, 
DRR-FS, and CCA-FS are visible and the policy content 
Challenges and opportunities for coherences between 
disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation is precise, KII findings showed that there is coordination, 
policies sharing of resources, clarity on mandates, roles and 
This sub-theme has shown areas of convergences between responsibilities, and collective use of methods, tools and 
SCA and KII findings whereby they indicated opportunities strategies. This assists in reducing duplication and efficient 
that were brought by using explicit terms in both legislations use of resources. This article further submits that bringing 
especially in D15. Majority of respondents from KIIs agreed coherence between the three policy areas will require officials 
that content matters because most humans respond and act with knowledge and understanding of the interlinkages to 
on things they see. This means that, if nothing is mentioned influence the policy processes during the review period. The 
or seen in the content, no one would know, let alone feel major limitation of the study is that interviews were 
obligated to act. One respondent from NDMC said that: conducted with officials from government departments and 
research institutions funded by government only, thus 
‘… [A]s DRR was evolving since 1994, there was no mention of 
CCA in any of our legislations … once it was added in DMAA of neglecting cross-cutting agencies such as civil societies, 
2015, it automatically created an opportunity for CCA legislations private sectors, business and industry. Another limitation is 
to cite the Act and align their activities with it’. (Participant 10, the focus on national level policy and legislative frameworks 
Female, 25 September 2019) only. It is also likely that these kinds of policy incoherence 
also manifest at the provincial and local level. Further areas 
While other respondents from DCCA expressed that it is not of research could focus on the efficacy of institutional 
a matter of mentioning of words or terms but the context in mechanisms needed to promote coherence between CCA, 
which it is mentioned, a few respondents from NDMC agreed DRR and FS policies in South Africa.
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