PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RAPE AND COPING 
STRATEGIES OF RAPE VICTIMS IN THE GAUTENG PROVINCE 
By 
NKOMO T.N. 
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree 
Master of Social Science (Clinical Psychology) 
In the 
Department of Psychology 
(Faculty of Human and Social Sciences) 
at the 
North West University (Mafikeng Campus) 
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060044716$ 
North-West University 
Maf1keng Campus Library 
Supervisor: Dr. C Oduaran 
Mafikeng 
November 2012 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Acknowledgements ............ ..... ...... ................. .... ........ .... ............... ... .... iv 
Declaration ...... ....... ................... ...... .... ...... .......................... ..... ............. v 
Abstract. ................................................................................................ vi 
Chapter 1 
ORIENTATION and BACKROUND ..................................................... 01 
1. Introduction ................ ............... .. ......................... .... .. .......... 01 
1.1 Statement of the Problem ............................................. ................ 02 
1.2 Aims and Objectives of the study ............................................ 04 
1.3 Hypotheses ............................... .................... .. ... ..................... 04 
1.4 Significance of the study ........................................................ 05 
1.5 Scope of the study ...................... .... .............................. ............. .... 05 
1.6 Limitations .......... ............. .. ............. ........ ............... ... ....... ........ ....... 05 
Chapter 2 
2. THEORETICAL FORMULATIONS ................................................... 06 
2.1 The Theories of Coping .................................................................. 06 
2.2 The Theories of Rape ....................... .................................... .......... 08 
2.3 Secondary Victimisation .................................................... ..... 1 0 
2.4 Theoretical perspectives on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ....... 1 0 
2.5 Factors that may lead to rape ......................................................... 14 
2.6 Definition of concepts ............................................................ 14 
Chapter 3 
3. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................... ............. 17 
3.1 Prevalence studies ......................................................................... 17 
3.2 The Effects of Rape .......................... ................................ ...... ........ 19 
II 
3.3 Coping Strategies Used by Victims .. .. ... .. ............... ........................ 21 
3.4 Defence Mechanisms used by Victims ........................ ................... 23 
3.5 What makes Other Victims more vulnerable to PTSD? .................. 23 
Chapter 4 
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .. ........ .... ................ . ...... ............. . 25 
4.1 Research Design ..... .. .. .. ..... ............ ................... ....... ..... ..... ..... ... .... 25 
4.2 Sampling Technique ..... . .. .. ... ... ... .. ... .. .. ....................... .. ......... 25 
4.3 lnstrumentation ... .............. ................. ... ........ .. .. ...... ...... ........... .... .... 26 
4.4 Data Collection ........ .. ... ... .. ............... ...... ...................................... ... 27 
4.5 Data Analysis and procedure .................. ............. ...... .. ........... .. ...... 27 
4.6 Ethical considerations ............... ...................................................... 32 
Chapter 5 
5. Results, Discussion, Conclusion and Suggestion for further research 
5.1 Results ........................................... . ..................................... 33 
5.2 Discussion ........ .............. ......... ..... ... ...... .. .. .......................... ............. 50 
5.3 Conclusion .... .................... . .. . ... ... ...... .................... . .............. 54 
5.4 Suggestion for further research .. ... ......... ........ .................... .......... ..... 54 
References ................................ .............................................. .. .............. 55 
Appendices ................... ..... .... ..... .... .... ............. .. ...... ........ ..................... .. 61 
Ill 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following people: 
The Lord Almighty for His guidance and unconditional love throughout my studies. To my first 
supervisor, Prof. Tholene Sodi for his guidance and my current supervisor, Dr. Choja Oduaran 
for her assistance. To my husband Simon, for hj s love and support and to my son Sizwe for his 
understanding and support. To my mother, Rosy Lebitso for being a shoulder to cry on when 
times were really tough and to my father, Tsietsi Lebitso for always believing in me, and to my 
siblings Dineo, Rebone and Thabang for their Jove and support. 
iv 
OECLARA TION 
I declare that: 
"PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RAPE AND COPING STRATEGIES 
OF RAPE VICTIMS IN THE GAUTENG PROVINCE", 
is my own work and that all the resources used or quoted have been duly acknowledged by 
means of complete references. and that I have not previously submitted the thesis for a degree at 
another university. 
Tiisetso Nkomo 
Masters student 
v 
ABSTRACT 
This study investigated the psychological effects and coping strategies of women who were 
raped in the Gauteng province. The study aimed to dete1mine the effects that rape has on the 
victims and to determine the coping strategies that the victims employ to deal with their ordeal. 
Using a quantitative methodology the study was conducted among I 00 female rape victims that 
were sampled from selected rape crisis centres in the Gauteng province. The researcher used the 
Trauma Symptom CheckJ ist (TSC-40), as well as the Coping Strategies Inventory Short Form 
(CS I-SF) which are both standardised and validated instruments. The responses of the 
participants were analysed to determine which of them were more traumatised than others. To 
come to the conclusion of who was more traumatised than the other, a comparison of the rating 
of the Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC) was done and consideration of all questions was taken. 
It was then dete1mined how the more traumatised and the less traumatised used the coping 
strategies to deal with the negative emotions due to rape. This was done by analysing the coping 
strategies of each participant according to how they responded on each question on the Coping 
Strategies Inventory (SF). 
Using means, standard deviations and regression analysis, the results revealed that a high number 
of rape victims had higher levels of trauma. This was indicated by their high scores on the 
dissociation, anxiety, depression, sexual abuse trauma index, sleep disturbance and sexual 
problems subscales of the TSC. Higher percentages of those, rarely engaged in prob lem focused 
coping and resorted to emotion focused coping instead. Those who had less trauma were found 
to be engaging more in problem focused coping. 
The victims that had less trauma were found to be communicating effectively with other people 
and were engaging in positive thinking. Those who had high levels of trauma were found to be 
not interacting effectively with people in their immediate environment which may have 
influenced their emotion focused coping strategies. The results also revealed that emotional 
reactions and coping strategies are not affected by age and marital status of rape victims. 
VI 
CHAPTER I 
ORIENT ATION AND BACKROUND. 
1. JNTRODUCTION 
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that at least one in five women suffer rape 
or attempted rape during their lifetimes (WI IO"s study as c ited by Pickup, Williams & 
Sweetman, 200 I). The statistics on rape reported by the Crime Information Management 
Centre of the South African Police Service, indicate a gradual increase in reported rape cases 
fo r 1994 (42 429). 1995 (47 506) and 1996 (50 481 ). According to the SAPS' s Crime 
Information Management (2009) in 2007 there were 8,073 reported incidences of rape in the 
Gautcng province alone. Although there is a decrease of reported rape cases in this province 
from 2001 to 2007 the number of rape cases is still too high considering what each woman 
has to go through when or after the act has been perpetrated on her. 
In the SAPS' s crime statistics currently available there is a s light decrease in the reported 
rape cases in the Gauteng province for 2009/20 I 0 (SAPS, 201 0). The Annual Report of the 
SAPS for 200Y/20 I 0 ind icates a ratio decrease of -4,4%. from 144.8 sexual offences per 100 
000 of the RSA population in 2008/2009 to 138.5 sexual offences per I 00 000 in 2009/20 I 0. 
This represents a decrease of2 182 cases, from 70 514 to 68 332 (Rape Statistics, 20 II) . 
According to a study done by the Medical Research Council in 2009, one in four men in 
South Africa have admitted to rape and many confess to attacking more than one victim, and 
three out of four rapists fi rst attacked while sti ll in their teens. The same study reported that 
on ly 7% of reported cases lead to a conviction. 
The Medical Research Counci l' s study which was conducted onl y in the Eastern Cape and 
Kwa-Zulu Natal provinces on a sample of 1738 men also found out that of those surveyed, 
28% said they had raped a woman or girl, 3% said they had raped a man or boy, almost half 
of those who admitted to have raped said they had done so more than once, and 73% said 
they have carried out the assault before age 20 (Medica l Research Council, 2009). 
According to the South African Police Service (SAPS) statis tics available for 2007, 5499 rape 
cases were reported in the Eastern Cape region alone while 6502 cases were reported in Kwa­
Zulu Natal (Mhlongo, 2009). 
It has long been suspected that women 's sexual fantasies include rape fan tasies, but after 
scien tific investigation the interpretation has changed (Sichtermann, 1994). 1 
Every woman is vulnerable to rape, and accordi ng to the statistics the incidents of rape 
remain very high. It is these reports about the high levels of rape that motivated the 
researcher to embark on the present study which will focus on female victims only. 
1.1 STATEMENT OF T HE PROBLEM 
A woman who survives a rape ordeal can experience consequences of trauma such as 
irritation, flash-backs, and loneliness and may also have a changed relationship with her body 
and with men (Medica Zcnica Women·s Therapy Centre's study cited in Pickup, Williams & 
Sweetman, 200 I). This can have long-tenn effects not only on the woman· s physical and 
psychological health, but also on their fertility and sexuality (Pickup et al., 200 I). 
According to the Medica Zenica 's psychologists, women survivors of rape arrived at the 
therapy centre ·feel ing shame. guilt. and frequently with a mental block against speaking 
about rape or an unreadiness to receive help. In these instances, most of the women 
experience stomach pains, loss of appetite. difficulty concentrating, and feeJings of 
indi fference. Some women also reported being aggressive to their ch ildren , feeling separated 
from their bodies o r constantly feeling an urge to bath themselves: (Medica Zenica's study 
cited in Pickup et aL 200 I. p.l 00). 
The Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture conducted a study on the effects 
of rape o n women of the Luwero Triangle in the sub-countries of Masulita and Wakiso in 
Uganda and found that five years after their ordeal , rape victims were still suffering 
considerably. The study found that a quarter of the women who were interviewed had no 
rel ationship at aJI with a man, due to the negative feel ings following the rape. For those who 
were in relationships, half of them had not to ld their husbands o r boyfriends about the rape, 
and two-thirds no longer enjuyeu sc::xual relationships (Giller & Kabaganda, cited in Pickup et 
al., 2001). 
In a study published by Burgess and Ho lmstrom (cited in Hazelwood & Burgess, 200 I) 146 
rape victims were interviewed at the emergency room in Boston Hospital. And when 
1 The idea o f rape was previously considered to sexually arouse women as well as men, however, rape fantasies 
are no longer considered to be evidence of wo1nen 's e lementary masochism but merely to be figurative 
transports which are part of normal sexuality. 
2 
contacted 4 to 6 years later they were found to be experiencing what is known as the rape 
trauma syndrome. This term is used to describe an acute phase and long-tem1 reorganisation 
process that occurs as a result of forcible rape. 
In the acute phase the vict im experiences the physical injuries of the sexual assault, emotional 
problems and stress and in the reorganisation phase the victim tries to resolve feel ings of guilt 
and fears that were generated by the trauma of the assault. and to rebuild a safe physical, 
emotional and social env ironment to function in (Bezuidenhout, 1998). 
Rape Trauma Syndrome is considered to be a form of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. 
However, Rape Trauma Syndrome does not affect all rape survivors but the probability of 
symptoms associated with it occurring is high (Pickup et al., 200 I) . 
Some victims of sexual assault experience a level of psychological di stress that affects their 
daily lives and women are more likely to experience distress than men and to experience 
higher levels of distress. Whether sexually motivated or not, assaults are clearly associated 
with a s ignificantl y greater likelihood of distress if they are not witnessed, are located in the 
home, or are perpetrated by a relative or partner (Feehan, Nada-Raja, Martin & Langley. 
2001). 
According to ovello & O'Sullivan 's s tudy (2008) conducted at the University of 
Johannesburg on the victim· s reactions to rape, it was found that rape can have an impact on 
the psychological and social functioning of the victim. These reactions include fear, anxiety. 
anger, aggression, hostility, guilt, shame, do ubt , self-blame, depression, disruptions in self­
esteem and grief The rape victim also has to face the social implications of her trauma. The 
victim may experience social withdrawal and sexual dysfunction. 
The crime of rape is still prevalently viewed in our society in terms of a collection of myths 
about rapists and rape victims. These include the notions that women enjoy " being taken'· by 
for~.:e; that women provoke men by teasing them and therefore these women get what they 
deserve; that most rapes are committed by strangers who attack lone women on isolated 
streets or in dark alleys; and that women falsely accuse men of rape out of shame or revenge. 
These myths have led to strict rules of evidence in rape cases that essentially placed the 
bu rden of proof on the victim (Renzetti & Curran, 1995). 
According to Renzetti & Curran (1995) there are soc ieties that are considered '·rape free'·, 
and the striking featu re of these societies is their relatively egalitarian gender relations. 
3 
Women in these societies are not sociall y and economically dependent on men; they control 
resources and act as autonomous decision makers. In these societies nurturance and non­
aggression are valued traits in individuals. and women are high ly regarded for their wisdom 
and not their sexuality. 
The researchers above fueused on the physiological impact, the psychological impact and the 
social impact but none of them have focused ent irely on the emotional reactions and coping 
strategies associated with rape which is what this study seeks to do. 
1.2 AIM S AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 
1.2.1 Aim of the study 
The study investigated the psychological effects and coping strategies of women who are 
victims of rape in the Gauteng Province. 
1.2.2 Objectives of the study 
Specificall y, the objectives of this study were: 
a). To determine the emotional reactions associated with rape: 
b). To determine the impact of marital status on the emotional reactions and coping strategies 
of rape victims; and 
c). To determine the impact of age on the emotional reactions and coping strategies of rape 
victims. 
1.3 HYPOTH ESES 
This s tudy was guided by the following hypotheses: 
a). Rape victims who are less traumatised will cope better than those who are highly 
traumatised. 
b). Single women who are victims of rape w ill report less negative emotional reactions and 
will consequently cope better than those who are married. 
c). Rape victims who are younger wi ll report less negative emotional reactions and wi ll 
therefore cope better than those who are older. 
4 
1.4 SIGN IFICANCE OF THE STUDY 
It is hoped that this study would:-
a). Contribute towards a better understanding of rape by family members of sexual assault 
victims. It would enable family members to better understand the victim's reactions to rape 
with the hope that this would enable them to provide the necessary support ; 
b). Assist victims of rape to better understand their behavioural reactions following incidents 
of rape. This could help victims to understand their reactions as experiences that nonnally 
follow traumatic events such as rape; 
c). Contribute towards efforts aimed at identifYing and developing coping strategies that 
could be used by the victims of rape; and 
d). Deepen the understanding of rape by psychologists and other mental health professionals, 
including institutions like rape crisis centres. 
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUD Y 
The researcher conducted the study in the Sedibeng District Municipality and included the 
City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality. The researcher has selected only a few 
areas in the province for this study and 'thi s was due to the limited resources and time 
available to complete the study. The crisis centres visited in these areas were those deemed 
accessible to the researcher. 
1.6 LIMITATIONS 
The limitations of this study is that its findings are based only on a small range of women and 
some of the sample sizes were too small which can hamper the validity of the study. The 
study also focused only on adult women and failed to focus on whether rape has the same 
effects on minors. Many victims were reluctant to participate in the study even though their 
identity was to remain anonymous and most of them did not make any follow-ups on their 
counselling sessions which made it difficult for them to receive the necessary therapy which 
is meant to assist them to deal effectively with the negative emotional reactions due to rape. 
5 
CHAPTER 2 
2. THEORETICAL FORMULATIONS 
This chapter features the theoretical formulations that guided thi s study. It begins with the 
discussion of relevant and related theories and concludes with the definition of concepts. 
2. 1 THE THEORIES OF COPING 
Through the process of daily living. people learn to use many methods to cope wi th anxic::ty 
and reduce tension. Lifestyles are developed around patterns of response, which in tum are 
established to cope with stressful situations. These lifestyles are highl y individual and quite 
necessary to protect and maintain equilibrium (Aquilera, 1998). 
It has not been unusua l over the years to find the tenn coping used interchangeably with such 
similar concepts as adaptation, defence, mastery and adjustive reactions. Coping activities 
take a wide variety of fom1s, including all the diverse behaviours that people engage in to 
meet actual or anticipated challenges. In psychological stress theory, coping emphasises 
various strategies used, consciously or unconsciously, to deal with stress and tensions ari sing 
from perceived threats to psychological integrity. It is not synonymous with mastery over 
problematical li fe s ituations, rather. it is the process of attempting to solve them (Lazarus's 
study cited in Aquilera, 1998}. 
Coping is an adjustive reaction made in response to actual or imagined stress in order to 
mai ntain psychological integrity. Human beings are perceived as responding to stress by 
either attack, flight or compromise reactions. These reactions become complicated by various 
ego-defence mechan isms whenever the stress becomes ego involved (Coleman' s study cited 
in Aq uilera, 1998). Attack reactions usually attempt to remove or overcome the obstacles 
seen as causing tension in li fe situations. Flight , wi thdrawal or fear reactions may be as 
s imple as removing the threat from the environme nt or removing oneself from the threatening 
situation. They might also invo lve much more complex psychologica l manoeuvring, 
depending on the perceived extent of the threat and the possibilities to escape. When either 
attack or flight from the threaten ing situation is thought to be impossible compromise or 
substitution reactions occur (Aquilera, 1998}. 
6 
In si tuations of extended frustrations individuals find it increasingly possible to compromise 
for substitute goals. This often involves the use of defence mechanisms such as 
rationalisation (Masserman 's study cited in Aquilera, 1998). 
Tension-reducing mechanisms can be overt or covert and can be consciously or 
unconsciously activated. They have been generall y classified into such behavioural responses 
as aggression, regression, withdrawal and repression. The selection of a response is based on 
tension reducing actions that successfully relieved anxiety and reduced tension in similar 
s ituations in the past. The response may through repetition pass from conscious awareness 
during its teaming phase to a habitual level of reaction as a learned behaviour. In man y 
instances the individual may not be aware of how let alone why he reacts to stress in given 
s ituatio ns. Except for having vague feelings of di scomfort, the individual may not notice the 
ri se and consequent reduction in tensio n. Defence mechanisms are nonnally used 
constructively in the process of coping. This is particularly evident whenever there is danger 
of becoming psychologicall y overwhelmed. Almost all defence mechani sms are seen as 
important for survival. None is equated with a pathological condition unless it interferes with 
the process of coping. such as being used to deny. to falsify or to distort perceptions of reality 
(Aquilera, 1998). 
The strength of the individuars conviction m his own effectiveness in overcoming or 
mastering a problematic situation dete1mines whether coping behaviour is even attempted. 
People fear and avoid stressfu l, threatening s ituations that they believe exceed their ability to 
cope. They behave with assurance in those situations where they judge themselves able to 
manage and they expect eventual success. It is the perceived ability to master that can 
influence the choice o f coping behaviours as well as the persistence used once one is chosen 
(Bandura·s study cited in Aquilera. 1998). 
Self-statements affect a person's behaviour in much the same way as statements made by 
another person. The adaptive and the maladaptive behaviours are linked to the person's inner 
dialogue. People need to modify the instructions they give to themselves so that they can 
cope more effectivel y with the problems they encounter (Meichenbaum 's study cited in 
Corey, 2005). Although the psychosocial literature on coping with stress does no t deal with 
self-statements, it does however, suggest that how o ne responds to stress in large part is 
influenced by how one appraises the stressor, or to what he attributes the arousal she feels. 
and how she assesses the ability to cope. A person·s self-statements about the stress s ituation 
7 
and abi lity to handle it influence that person·s behaviour in the situation. Anxiety level is 
related to such sel f-appraisals in relatio~ to the situation. High anxiety is associated with a 
person's focusing on the self and her inadequacy and se lf-deprecating thoughts. Low anxiety 
is assoc iated with a person's focusing on the external situation, with a resulting higher leve l 
of coping. One fun ction of internal dialogue in changing affect, thought and behaviour is to 
influence the client' s attentional and appraisa l processes (Patterson. 1986). 
2.2 T HE THEORIES OF RAPE 
2.2. J Feminist theory 
According to the feminist theories rape is considered to be the result of long and deep-rooted 
social traditions in which males have dominated nearly all important political and economic 
acti vities (Ellis, 1989). 
Many feminist theories consider the exclusion of women from political decision-making 
processes to be one of the factors perpetuati ng rape and o ther form s of oppression against 
women. Such exclusion of women from the positions of political and economic power is 
premised on the false not ion that women are unequal participants in interpersonal interactions 
(Ell is, 1989). Consequently, many feminists view the act of rape as a direct function of the 
degree to which women are politically and economically powerless relati ve to men (Davis; 
Herschberger & Metzger ' s study cited in Ell is, 1989). Rape is also considered a perpetuation 
of a view by men or even some women themselves that women are a property over which 
men compete (Clark & Lewis: and Dworkin"s study cited in Ellis. 1989). The implication of 
the fem inist theory is that reduction in sex disparities when it comes to po litical and 
economic power w111 either reduce rape or will increase it by frustrating males into using rape 
to re-establish their supremacy (Baron & Straus; and Gibbon cited in Ellis, 1989). 
Feminists argue that rape cannot be understood in isolation from an analysis of the position of 
women and the notions of sexuality operating within a given culture. In western societies acts 
of rape and other forms of aggression against women are used as an implicit fo rm of social 
control on women (Garrett, 1992). 
8 
2.2.2 The social learning theory of rape 
The social learning theory suggests that . repeated exposure to almost any type of stimulus 
tends to promote positive feelings towards it (E llis, 1989). According to Bandura (cited in 
Ellis, 1989) aggression is learned through imitation (modelling), and thereafter sustained 
largely through various .fonns of intermittent reinforcement. He also argued that models for 
aggression mainly come from three sources: 
1. Primary associations with family members and peers; 
2. One·s culture and subculture; and 
3. The mass media. 
Social learning theory basically portrays rape as manifestations of aggressive behaviour 
toward women learned through four interrelated processes: 
• By imitating rape scenes and other acts of violence toward women, as one may see in 
real life or as depicted in the mass media; 
• By associating sexuality and violence, like in many pornographic and horror films 
where sex and violence are repeatedly depicted in the same context; 
• By perpetuating rape myths; and 
• By desensitising viewers to the pain, fear and humiliation of sexual aggression (Ellis, 
1989). 
2.2.3 The evolutionary theory of rape 
The evolutionary theory of rape considers sexual assault as resulting from natural selection 
for males who are eager to copulate with numerous sex partners and females who are strongly 
commi tted to retaining major control over who will mate with them. The pressure on males 
and females to select partners is considered to be largely emanating from the fact that males 
can produce offspring in potenti ally large number without gestating them, whereas females 
cannot produce large numbers of offspring and are expected to care for their offspring (Ellis, 
1989). 
Males will try to cDpulate with whoever they see as being a suitable partner and may even 
resort to aggressive methods of copulating if the female resists their attempts. 
Copulatory tactics used by males are considered b y evolutionary theorists to be more 
assertive than those used by females. Forced copulations therefore, reduce the ability for 
9 
females to confine coitus primarily to males who will help care for the offspring that they 
produce (Ellis, 1989). 
2.3 SECONDARY V ICTIMISATION 
According to Campbell & Raja ( 1999) victims of rape experience what is known as 
secondary victimisation or second rape. This is when the victims do not receive the assistance 
from legal, medical or mental health systems. It is also believed by some therapists that some 
community professionals engage in behaviours that are detrimental to rape survivors· 
psychological well being. 
In one incident in Limpopo the police were exposed for not pursuing rape cases because they 
were considered to make their statistics look bad. 
Another is that of a victim who was called a liar after reporting a rape incident and she was 
put into the same van as the alleged offender and later charged for rape herself (Times live, 
2009). 
According to Vetten ( 1997) rape survivors may be compressed into the crude category of 
either 'good· or 'bad· victim. This can have serious impLications for the treatment women 
receive from the police, courts and medical professionals. For the rapist this may result in his 
conviction when the woman is a ·good' victim and an acquittal when she is ' bad'. 
According to the above factors, it is obvious why many women do not report their ordeal to 
the police or to even speak openly about their experiences. 
2.4 Theoretical perspectives on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 
2.4.1 Cognitive appraisal models 
According to Janoff-Bulman cited in Peterson, Prout & Schwarz (1992) PTSD following 
victimization is largely a funct ion of the shattering of basic assumptions that the victims held 
about themselves and the world. She identified three assumptions that the victims had held 
about themselves and the world, which are: 1. The belief in personal invulnerability; 2. The 
perception of the world as meaningful and comprehensible; and 3. The view of ourselves in a 
positive light. 
10 
The assumption of invulnerability 
People assume that they cannot be victimized and people who have been victimized can no 
longer think, '"lt can't happen to me." There is a marked sense of vulnerabi lity and the fear 
that the same victimization can happen again. 
The effect of altering the assumption of invulnerability becomes acutely clear in the finding 
that rape victims who experienced serious physical injury or the cognitive appraisal of life 
threat were almost three times likely to have developed PTSD than those who did not 
(Kilpatrick et al cited in Peterson et al., 1992). 
The world as meaningful 
People generally regard the world as controllable, predictable and just. The victimization 
invalidates this assumption and forces individuals to search for new meanings and 
assumptions about the world and themselves to fit in with the new personal experience 
(Janotl-Bulman et al cited in Peterson et al., 1992). The result is that until equilibrium is re­
establ ished the world for the victim is not meaningful nor is it contro llable or predictable. The 
need for meaning may force the victim into regressive irrat ional modes of thinking in order to 
find an answer (Peterson et al. , 1992). 
The self as worthy 
People operate under the assumption that they are decent people who do not deserve to be 
victimized. Once they have been victimized there are numerous sources that undermine their 
sense of self worth, these include: 
• A sense of helplessness about the victimization; 
• Further helplessness and confusion about the uncontrollable thoughts and feelings in 
reactions to the event, and 
• Reasonable or unreasonable demands on the self to have been able to do more to 
prevent the event or to help (Peterson et al. , 1992). 
[n the case of severe trauma the victim may be unable to assimilate the experience into the 
old personal theory of reality. Some degree of intrusive thoughts and anxiety are seen as 
natural and healthy responses and occur unti l the maximum amount of information has been 
assimilated and appropriate accommodation has occurred (Peterson et al. , 1992). 
11 
2.4.1 A behavioural learning theory 
Classical conditioning and instrumental learning are used to explain the development of the 
basic pattern of PTSD. Concepts such as conditioning of cues, negative reinforcement and the 
incomplete exposure to memories help explain the complexity of the symptomatology. 
Conditioning of cues 
A cue is a signal and determines when and where a person responds. Cues can be external 
events and can also be thoughts, particular people, specific times and so on. Cues can become 
organized into clusters, so that the specific combination of cues will detennine the response. 
For example, darkness alone may not cause a rape victim to become afraid. It may take a 
combination of being alone and hearing footsteps to trigger the fear response (Peterson et al., 
1992). 
Negative reinforcement 
The experiences of trauma and its sequelae are generally aversive. According to the principle 
of negative reinforcement (NR), behavior that leads to a reduction in an aversive is reinforced 
and is likely to be repeated. NR can account for many of the associated features ofPTSD. All 
of the avoidance behaviours and psychic numbing are mediated by NR. Behavioural 
disturbances such as anger and aggression, drug and alcohol abuse .. are conceptualised as 
behavioural patterns that are functionally reinforced by their capacity to reduce aversive 
feelings .. (Peterson et al., 1992). 
Incomplete exposure to memories 
According to Keane et al cited in Peterson et al., 1992 constant exposure to conditioned 
stimuli does not lead to the extinction of conditioned responses. The conditioned stimuli 
match only part of the traumatic memory constellation; only repeated exposure to stimuli 
matching the original stimuli in its entirety could lead to extinction of resu lting symptoms. 
Patients with PTSD actively avoid any possible complete exposure to stimul i resembling the 
original trauma, including the avoidance of thoughts associated with the trauma. This 
avoidance may also be reinforced by famil ial and cultural expectations fo r victim not to 
discuss the trauma (Peterson et al. , 1992). 
12 
2.4.3 An information-processing model 
Horowitz's model of PTSD builds upon "classical and contemporary theories of trauma. but 
places a major emphasis on infonnation processing and cognitive theories of emotion. Basic 
elements of the information-processing model includes: 
• "information'· (ideas, images, affect, etc.); 
• A '·completion tendency"·, in which important information is processed until reality 
and cogni ti ve models match (i.e., the information must tenninate or the cognitive 
model must be altered to incorporate the new information); 
• ·' information overload'': a situation in which new information cannot be processed; 
and 
• " incomplete information processing": a state in which new information has only been 
partially processed and where the information remains in an "active fonn of memory"' 
out of conscious awareness with concomitant influences on ego functioning 
(Horowitz' s study cited in Peterson et al., 1992). 
Catastrophic events involve massive amounts of internal and external information, most of 
which cannot be matched with a person· s cognitive schemata because it lies outside the realm 
of normal experience. This resu1ts in information overload; the person experiences ideas, 
affects and images which cannot be integrated with the self (Horowitz' s study cited in 
Peterson et al. , 1992). 
Since the person experiencing extreme traumatization cannot process the information, it is 
shunted out of awareness. It therefore remains in an unprocessed, active or raw form. Denial 
and numbing are employed as defensive mechanisms to keep the traumatic information 
unconscious. However, due to completion tendency the traumatic information does become 
conscious at times as part of the process of information processing. A person may therefore 
experience fl ashbacks, repetitive nightmares, unwanted thoughts and the like. Theoretically 
such intrusive psychic material continues to enter consciousness until the traumatic 
information is fully processed. When the ego experiences information overload during 
intrusive episodes, denial and numbing again come into play. Hence, there is an oscillation 
between intrusion and denial-numbing prior to fu ll integration of traumatic material (Peterson 
et al., 1992). 
13 
2.5 FACTORS THAT MAY LEAD TO RAPE 
Date and Acquaintance rape 
According to Norris. & Gubbins ' study as cited in James and Gilli land (2005) alcohol 
consumption has been linked to acquaintance rapes and date rapes as a risk factor; and that if 
both members of a dating couple had been consuming alcohol , the rape was not judged as 
severely as when only the woman had been drinking where the man was likely to be viewed 
as taking advantage of a vulnerable woman. 
Gang rape 
Gang rapists see rape as recreation, adventure and proving that they are "macho" and gang 
rape is seen as male bonding a\ its height (Sussman & Bordwell and Scully & Marella' s study 
cited in James and Gilli land (2005). 
2.6 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 
2.6.1 Rape 
Any person who unlawfully and intentionally commits an act of sexual penetration with 
another person without the latter's consenr is guilty of the offence of rape (Snyman, 2008). 
Rape from a woman' s perspective is the sexual invasion of the body by force, an incursion 
into the private, personal inner space without consent. It is an internal assault from one of 
several avenues and by one of several methods that constitute a deliberate violation of 
emotional, physical and rational inte!:,rrity and is a hostile, degrading act of violence 
(Brownmiller' s study cited by James & Gilliland, 2005). 
2.6.2 Sexual Assault 
Sexual assault refers to a wider range of forced or pressured sexual contact, specifically, child 
sexual assault, incest, acquaintance rape or marital rape (Hazelwood & Burgess, 200 I). 
2.6.3 Date Rape 
Date rape is the rape of a female by a male during a date (Bezuidenhout, 1998). Date rape 
occurs when the victim and the perpetrator are known to each other and are either dating or 
out on a date. 
14 
2.6.4 Gang Rape 
Gang rape occurs when a woman is raped . by two or more men (Bezuidenhout, 1998). During 
the rape the men take turns in raping the woman and the woman can only be released when 
the perpetrators have satisfied themselves with her. 
2.6.5 Marital Rape 
It occurs when a wife refuses to have sex w ith her husband and he forces himself on her 
(Bezuidenhout, 1998). Marital rape may not be considered as an offence especially in 
patriarchal societies where a wife is expected to submit to her husband all times. A woman is 
expected to do whatever her husband asks her to do and many women may not report the 
sexual assault to the police in fear of being ostracised even by their own families. 
2.6.6 Statutory Rape 
It is regarded as sexual intercourse with a child under the legal age of consenting 
(Bezuidenhout, 1998). Sexual intercourse wi th a minor is a criminal offence even if the minor 
has consented to it. 
2.6.7 Stranger rape 
Stranger rape is the rape of a victim by a person not known to the victim (Bezuidenhout. 
1998). This type of rape occurs when the perpetrator is someone that the victim sees for the 
first time during the sexual assault. 
2.6.8 Acquaintance rape 
Acquaintance rape is the rape of a victim by a person who is known to the victim 
(Bezuidenhout, I 998). This type of rape can be perpetrated by anyone whom the victim 
knows. It can be a neighbour, friend or colleague. 
2.6.9 Coping strategies 
The set of behaviours and attitudes that a person may use to mediate diffi cult internal and 
external demands (S iquera, Diab, Bodian & Rolnitzky' s study cited in Theron, 2002). 
15 
2.6.10 Emotional reactions 
A reaction to a particular intra-psychic feeling or feel ings, accompanied by physiological 
changes that may or may not be outwardly manifested but that motivate or precipitate some 
action or behavioural response (Farlex, 201 0). 
2.6.11 Defence mechanisms 
The psychological defences used to prevent sociall y unacceptable impulses fTom rising into 
consciousness (Nevid, Rathus & Green,2006). A defence mechanism is a strategy used to 
cover up or change unconscious desires and wishes that may be inappropriate or difficult to 
express (Tull , 20 12). Sociall y acceptable learned behaviours enable a person to interact with 
others in ways that elicit positive responses and assist the person in avoiding negative 
responses (Elliot, Racine & Busse's study as cited in Be llini , 2007). 
16 
CHAPTER3 
3. LITERATURE REVIEW 
In thi s section the researcher will discuss the prevalence of rape in South Afi·ica; the effects 
of rape; the coping strategies and the defence mechanisms used by victims; the factors that 
make other victims vulnerable to PTSD as well as the hypotheses that are guiding thi s study. 
3.1 PREVALENCE STUDIES 
According to Statistics South Afri ca (2008) the statisti cs of rape have gone up over the past 
five years (from 2002 to 2006); (see the Table I below), and this is on trend with the rest of 
the world. About 450 000 rape cases go unreported in the country every year. A study 
conducted by the National Institute of Crime Rehabilitation reported that only one in twenty 
rapes are reported, resu lting in over 494 000 rape incidences a year (Statistics South Africa, 
2008). This suggests that approximately one thousand and three hundred women can be 
expected to be raped a day in South Africa. Equally worrying are the findings of a study by 
which it was found that South Africa leads the world in rape cases. And a woman is raped 
every I 7 seconds in South Africa (Stati stics South Africa, 2008). 
Table l 
Rape Cases Reported in South Africa- from South Africa" Police Services 
Year 
2002 
2003 
2004 
2005 
2006 
(Source: Statistics South Africa, 2008) 
Reported cases 
54 293 
52 425 
52 733 
55 I 14 
54 926 
17 
The statistics above are an ind ication that rape in the country is extremely high. This suggests 
that many women or girls in this country can expect to be raped at some point in their lives. 
either by a stranger or by someone they know very well. The legal system in South Africa 
seems to be inefficient in deal ing with issues regarding vio lence against women and children 
because more and more rape incidences are still taking place. This cou ld be the major reason 
why thousands of victinis do not even report the sexual assault to the police in the fi rst place, 
they know that they may not be assisted in any way and may only be victimised again by the 
system itself. 
It was stated in the Annual Report of the SAPS for 2008/2009 that fully valid comparisons 
pertaining to the sexual offences wi ll only become possible after the period I October 2009 to 
31 March 2010. In the 2008/2009 Annual Report, a I 0, I% increase was indicated. This report 
for 2009/2010 indicates a ratio decrease of -4,4%, &om 144.8 sexual offences per I 00 000 of 
the RSA population in 2008/2009 to 138.5 sexual offences per I 00 000 in 2009/2010. This 
represents a decrease of 2 182 cases, &om 70 514 to 68 332 (Rape Statistics, 20 II). 
Comparisons between these figures of 70 514 and 68 332 cases and the figures of previous 
years are extremely di fficult and even impossible because sexual offences as presently 
detined differ substantially from those recorded in the past, prior to December 2007. These 
now include a widened definition of rape (encompassing the formerly exclusive concept of 
vaginal rape. as well as add ing oral and anal rape and thus also male rape; which previously 
fell under the category of indecent assault) (Rape Statistics, 201 1 ). 
If all sexual offences cases registered in 2009/20 I 0 which would have qualified as rape and 
indecent assault cases before 16 December 2007 are identi fied and counted, the results adds 
up to 55 097 cases. If th is figure is compared to the last combined rape and indecent assault 
figures recorded fo r 2006/2007, which stood at 61 984 cases, a decrease of -I 1, I % is 
actua lly noted. This implies an average annual decrease of -3,7% &om 2006/2007 to 
2009/2010 (Rape Stat istics, 20 I I). 
18 
Table 2 below depicts the reported rape cases in the Gauteng province from 2003/2004 to 
2009/20 10. 
Years Reported cases 
2003/2004 16,137 
2004n005 16,054 
2005/2006 15,362 
2006/2007 14,820 
2007/2008 15,074 
2008/2009 18, 176 
2009/2010 15,645 
(SAPS, 20 I 0) 
From the above statistics currently available from the SAPS crime statistics, it is clear that the 
incidents of rape are very high in the Gauteng province although there seems to be a s light 
decrease on the reported cases. It is obvious that a lot still needs to be done to put an end to 
this epidemic that women in this country are faced with on a dail y basis. 
3.2 THE EFFECTS OF RAPE 
The victim experiences many negative psychological reactions due to rape and amongst them 
is self-blame. There are two main types of self-b lame: behavioural self blame and 
characterological self-b lame. The victims who experience behavioural self-blame feel that 
they should have done something different and as a result feel at fault. Victims who 
experience characterological self-blame feel that there is something inherently wrong with 
them, which had caused them to deserve to be assa ulted (Wikipedia, 20 11 ). 
They also experience shame, which is connected to psychological problems such as eating 
disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, depression and other mental disorders. The counselling 
responses that were found to be helpful in reducing self-blame were supportive responses, 
psycho-educational responses such as learning about Rape Trauma Syndrome and those 
responses addressing the issue of blame. Cognit ive therapy has also been found to be a 
helpful type of therapy fo r self-blame (Wikipedia, 20 II). 
Victims of rape are more likely to attempt or commit suicide. T he experience of being raped 
can lead to suicidal behaviour as early as adolescence. In Ethiopia 6% of raped schoolgirls 
19 
reported to have attempted suicide and also felt embarrassed to talk about their ordeal 
(Wikipedia, 2011 ). 
The victims of rape usually suffer intense emotional reactions after the rape. These can be 
described as the personal crises wherein the victim reli ves the fear, agony or anxiety mixed 
with emotional numbness. These reactions occur days or weeks after the rape and decrease 
after two to six months for most rape victims. However, the disturbing emotions combined 
with low self-respect and sexual dysfunction may last for a year or more for some (Rautio, 
2008). 
According to a study conducted by Burgess and Holmstrom cited in Slaikeu ( 1990) a 
Si!:,rnificant percentage of the victims of rape attempt suicide or abuse drugs and/or alcohol. 
The women also experienced sex related anxieties, difficulties experiencing any sexual 
feelings o r being orgasmic during sex and had flashbacks during intercourse. The victims also 
had a preoccupation with negative opin ions of significant others and experienced increased 
sadness. 
A high percentage of victims of rape have a fear of men and display hostility towards men 
(Media & Thompson· s study cited in Slaikeu, 1990). Women who have been raped have 
trouble sleeping and cry frequent ly, they report eating problems, cystitis, headaches. 
irritability, mood changes, anxiety and depression. They may become withdrawn. sullen, and 
mistrustful and may at least partly blame themselves which can lead to feelings of gui lt and 
shame ( Koss et al. as cited in Nevid et al. , 1990). 
The experience of rape cha llenges and may even transform the victim ' s identity and the 
assumptions she makes about the world. The emotional impact is manifested largely as fear, 
anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunction and feelings of isolation (Karrnen, 1990). 
The experience of being treated as an object instead of a person can plunge the woman into a 
·•rape cris is syndrome.,. The acute initial stage of thi s syndrome lasts for about two to three 
weeks immediately fol lowing the ordeal and is marked by sleeplessness, nausea, tension 
headaches, fear, fury, embarrassment and self-recrimination. The second stage in which the 
victim ·s personal ity integrates. can last much longer and is characterised by recurring 
nightmares, defensi ve reactions, phobias, and strains in the victim"s sex li fe and in 
relationships with men in general (Burgess & Holmstrom's study cited in Karrnen, 1990). 
20 
The women who are raped can suffer from PTSD because they can re-experience their crises 
over and over again in day dreams, flashbacks or nightmares. Other symptoms of PTSD may 
include a desire to avoid things that remind one of the trauma, feeling different, a general lack 
of interest or enthusiasm, an inability to concentrate and increased irritability (Williams' 
study cited in Karmen, 1990). 
The woman who is raped may respond to the assault by exhibiting no emotions or appearing 
unaffected. She may suffer immediate psychological injury as well as long-term trauma. 
Victims may experience fantasies , day dreams or nightmares of having additional encounters 
with the assailant or may have mental images of scenes of revenge. The victim may be 
reluctant to discuss the assault with family members, friends and others because of the risk of 
rejection and embarrassment. The woman who is raped will never be the same even though 
over time, they develop ways to recover, cope and go on with their lives (James & Gilliland, 
2005). 
3.3 COPI NG STRATEGIES USED BY VICTIMS 
Women who are victims of rape employ certain coping strategies which can be both positive 
and negative to assist them to cope with their experience and to continue with their lives. 
Burgess & Holmstrom cited in Kleinke (1998) listed the following coping strategies that rape 
victims reported to employ: 
• Seek reasons fo r why the rape occurred; 
• Minimise the impact of the rape by telling themselves that it was not really so 
terrifying; 
• Suppress their reactions to the rape by refusing to th ink about it; 
• Keep busy and engage in activities: 
• Use self-relaxation and meditation to reduce stress; 
• Withdraw from other people; and 
• Use drugs and alcohol. 
In a study conducted by Meyer & Taylor cited in KJeinke (I 998) among the least effective 
coping strategies used by victims were withdrawing from others and staying isolated; 
suppressing one's feelings and minimizing the impact of the rape did not seem to hurt, but it 
also did not help. Among the most effective coping strategies were techniques that involved 
21 
some form of stress reduction, such as self-relaxation, physical activity and rational thinking; 
and also using support systems that suit one· s needs. 
The victims that suffered most from depression, anxiety and sexual dysfunction were those 
who had negative thinking and blamed themselves for their ordeal. At least halfofthe women 
rape victims blame themselves for their ordeal and take personal responsib ility for the fact 
that they had been raped . Much of this self-blame is said to result from the fact that people 
like to believe that they li ve in a fair and just world and to believe in this kind of world, it is 
necessary to convince yourself that you must somehow deserve your plight (Kleinke, 1998). 
The victims who feel responsible for rapes may dwell on the circumstances of the rape and 
what they might have done differently. By focusing on these issues, it may be difficult for 
victims to resolve their feelings about what they have experienced and move on to other 
concerns (Abbey" study cited in Frieze & Bookwala, I 996). 
According to Janoff-Bulman·s study cited in Frieze & Bookwala (1996) behavioural sel f­
blame, especially in the absence of characterological self-blame, may be adaptive for the 
victim's coping and recovery. She found that victims who made characterological attributions 
saw their victimisation as more deserved , whereas those who attributed their rapes to 
behavioural factors were more confident about avoiding future rapes. 
However, more recent research has failed to repl icate the association between behavioural 
self-b lame by victims and adaptive outcomes. In one study both behavioural and 
characterological sel f-blame has been associated with more depression after victimization 
(Frazier's study cited in Frieze & Bookwala, 1996). 
Self-help: Victims may respond to the challenges of regammg control by immersing 
themselves vigorously into life·s activities. The victim may relocate to a new place. change a 
career or install a new home security system in order to implement changes in her life. These 
acti vities may convey to victims quite concretely that once again they have control over the 
acti vities and events of their lives (Janoff-Bu lman· s study cited in Frieze & Bookwala, 1996). 
A voidance of social contact and staying home rather than going out whenever possible have 
also been reported strategies used by rape victims (Scheppele & Bart cited in Frieze & 
Bookwala, 1996). 
Family and friends: Positive social support after victimisation is very important to the 
traumati sed victim (Cobb; Silver & Wortman's s tud y cited in Frieze & Bookwala, 1996). 
22 
Family members and friends assist the victim first by being available to talk with the person 
after the event, they allow the victim to express emotions. Having companions and being able 
to disclose one·s feelings about the event have been found to be highly important for 
successful coping (Greenberg & Stone: Pennebaker & Bealle ·s study cited in Frieze & 
Bookwala, 1996). 
Formal help givers: Victims of crime can get help from formal helpers who provide 
psychotherapy and the criminal justice system. If the offender is caught and punished for the 
crime. this can reduce the victim's sense of injustice and can re-establish the victim's sense of 
control and feelings of safety (Frieze & Bookwala, 1996). 
3.4 DEFENCE MECHANJSIMS USED BY VICTIMS 
Defence mechanisms such as denial, dissociation and suppression are common among rape 
victims. Suppression is used to block out the strong emotions and therefore escaping the 
painful feelings for a short time, which can be psychologically exhausting. Denying or 
putting the worst parts of the assault out of the memory allow the victim to avoid the 
immediate distress (Rautio, 2008). Even though traditionally denial has been considered to be 
a maladaptive coping strategy because it interferes with the accurate interpretation of reality, 
some researchers propose that denial can be adaptive in protecting the vict im from being too 
overwhelmed by the event (Horowitz; Janoff-Bulman & Timko's study cited in Frieze & 
Bookwala, 1996). 
Dissociation is a defence mechanism which may be employed during painful psychological 
or physical abuse impossible to escape, and as a survival strategy it provides a feeling of 
leaving one·s body making the trauma harder to remember especially the detail s. Defence 
mechanisms such as these may affect the victim ·s ability and moti vation to talk about the 
abuse suffered (Rautio, 2008). 
3.5 WHAT MAKES SOME VICTIMS MORE VULNERABLE TO PTSD? 
Personality has been considered to be a factor that contributes to the development of PTSD 
following a violent attack. One personality that might be related to the risk of violent attack 
and/or increasing the development of PTSD once the woman has been sexually assaulted is 
the trait of sensation seeking. It should however be clear that the perpetrators always bear the 
moral responsibility for violent attacks to avoid blaming the victims for the attacks (Kilpatrik, 
Resnick, Saunders & Best, 1998). 
23 
According to Zuckerman ·s study (as cited in Kilpatrik et al. , 1998) sensation seeking is a 
personality trait defined by the need for varied , novel and complex sensations and 
experiences and the willingness to take risks fo r such experiences. High sensation seekers are 
more vulnerable to assault because they are more likely than low sensation seekers to engage 
in high risk behaviours; they appraise most situations as less risky than low sensation seekers; 
and they are more adventuresome in phobic si tuations that make low sensation seekers 
anxious, feaiful and avoidant. These behaviours might result in potential attackers having 
greater access to high sensation seeking women than low sensation seeking. women. 
ln a stud y that was conducted by Kilpatrik et at., ( 1998), the victims that had no prior history 
of assault had a signifi cantly lower rate of PTSD than those who had a history of one or more 
prior assaults. And regardless of the prior history of assault, the PTSD rate within the group 
that had experi enced a new assault was higher than the group that had not experi enced a new 
assault. Age was also significantly associated with current PTSD as those with current PTSD 
were significantl y younger than those without current PTSD. Those victims who were 
students or unemployed also had a higher rate of PTSD. 
24 
CHAPTER4 
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 
This was a quantitative ~tudy that sought to collect and analyse data rrom many respondents 
who have been victims of rape. A quantitative research is a means for testing objective 
theories by examining the relationship among variables. These va1iables, in turn, can be 
measured, typically on instruments, so that the numbered data can be analyzed using 
statistica l procedures (Creswell , 2009). A survey research was used for this study whereby 
respondents in the rape crisis centres were given questionnaires to fi ll in . A survey research is 
the admi nistration of questionnaires in a face-to- face interview, over the phone, through the 
mail or other self-adm inistered fonnats. to a sample of respondents selected from some 
population (Babbie & Mouto n, 200 I). The advantage of questionnaire survey is that it is 
considered to be a useful way to obtain information about sensiti ve topics (Chadwick, Bahr & 
Albrecht, 1984). 
4.1.1 The Dependent and Independent variables 
The dependent variables in this study are the measured behaviour of the subjects assumed to 
be caused by an independent variable. The vari ab le that is considered to be the ··cause·· is the 
independent variable and the variable considered to be the .. effect .. is the dependent variable 
(Cozby. 1993). In this study the independent variable is the rape experience, and the coping 
strategies and the emotional reactions of rape victims are the dependent vari ables. 
4.2 SAM PLING TECHNIQUE 
The crisis centres which were covered included the organisations such as the Alpha Trauma 
Centre and Life line centres in Gauteng province because these are the well known and more 
accessible to the:: gt:nt!ral public. Respondents for this study were obtained through non­
probability sampling and convenience sampling techniques. Convenience sampling involves 
selecting respondents primaril y on the basis of their availability and willingness to respond 
(Shaughnessy, Zechmeister & Zechmeister, 2009). Convenience sampling technique was 
used because the population o f this study was difficult to obtain; the issue that was dealt with 
was highl y sensitive. The advantage of the no n-probabi lity sampling is that it is less 
25 
complicated to set up and is generally acceptable since there is no intention or need to make a 
statistical generalisation to any population beyond the sample to be surveyed (Robson, 1993). 
The respondents in this s tudy comprised I 00 women as the study was focusing on female 
rape victims only. The victims had experienced their ordeal at least three months prior to 
participating in the study. To get this sample from the population the researcher asked only 
women who were willing to participate in the study to fill in the questionnaires until the 
required number of participants was reached. The data collected revealed the women who 
were more traumatised and badly affected emotionally than others and then the coping 
strategies ofboth groups were determined. The respondents were made up of women found at 
rape cri sis centres covered. The women were in the age range of 18 and above because the 
researcher avoided using minors as they would have required permission to participate in the 
study from their parents, which would have been ti me consuming. 
4.3 I NSTRUMENTATION 
The research instruments that were used to conduct this study are the adapted version of the 
Briere & Runtz' s ( 1996) Trauma Symptom Checkli st (TSC-40) and the Coping Strategies 
Inventory Short Form (CSI-SF) (see Appendix D). The TSC-40 is a 40-item self- report 
instrument consisting of six subscales: Anxiety, Depression, Dissociation, Sexual Abuse 
Trauma Index (SA Tl), Sexual Problems, and Sleep Disturbance. as well as a total score. 
The CSI-SF is a 16 item questionnaire and was structured to reflect the original scale, with 
four 4-item subscales: (a) Problem- Focused Engagement, (b) Problem-Focused 
Disengagement, (c) Emotion-Focused Engagement, and (d) Emotion-Focused 
Disengagement Emotion-focused coping emphasizes the regulation of one's affective 
response, whereas Problem-focused coping emphasizes management of the stress-producing 
situation. The engagement refers to approach-related actions that result in confronting the 
stressors and the disengagement refers to avoiding to confront the stressors. Emotion-focused 
coping emphasises the regulation of one 's affective response, whereas Problem-focused 
coping emphasises management of the stress producing situation (Addison, Campbell­
Jenkins, Sarpong, Kibler, Signh, Dubbert, Wilson, Payne, & Taylor, 2007). 
26 
4.3.1 Reliability of a measuring instrument 
A reliable measuring instrument is one which consistently produce the same reading for the 
same amount (Coolican, 1999). The subjects were given the same questionnaires to ensure 
the reliabil ity of the stud y. The researcher checked the questionnaires before col lecting the 
data to ensure that they indeed measured what they were intended to. 
4.3.2 Validity of a measuring instrument 
A measuring instrument is considered to be lacking in validity if it does not measure what it 
is originally intended (Coolican, 1999). The studies that have used the TSC-40 (Whiffen , 
Benazon & Bradshaw; Zlotnick, Shea, Begin , Pearl stein, S impson & Costello cited in Briere 
& Runtz, 1996), indicate that it is a relatively reliable measure and has predictive validity 
with reference to a wide variety of traumatic experiences. The studies that have used the CSI­
SF (Addison et al. , 2007) indicate that it is an adequate measure of coping. 
4.3.3 Pilot study 
According to Coolican ( 1999) piloting refers to trying out a prototype of a study or 
questionnaire on a small sample in order to di scover snags o r error:s in design or to develop a 
workable measuring instrument. 
The resea rcher did not conduct the pilot trial s because the measuring instruments used have 
been used by other researchers previously and were found to be both reliable and valid. 
4.4 DATA COLLECTION 
To collect the data, the victims were v isited at the selected rape crisis centres in Gauteng 
province. They were each given a questionnaire to fi ll in and their responses were recorded 
(see Appendix D for the Questionnaire). 
4.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND PROCEDURE 
Analysis refers to establishing what the fi ndings are and how they answer the research 
questions (Barker, Pistrang & Elliot, 1998). In the proposed study the data was analysed by 
using the Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18.0. The analysis was done 
using t-test, multiple regression and ANOV A: and the results were presented using frequency 
tables, histograms and graphs. These statistical measures were used to determine whether the 
categorica l variables obtained from the collected data differ from each other (Cozby, 1993). 
27 
Regression analysis 
Assumptions of regression analysis 
i. Variables are normally distributed 
Non-nom1ally distribut~d variables (highl y skewed or kurtotic variables, or variables with 
substantial outliers) can d istort relationships and significance tests. 
ii. Linear relationship between the independent va riable and dependent variable 
Linear Regression can only accurately estimate the relationship between dependent and 
independent variables if the relationship is .linear in nature. As there are many instances in the 
social sciences where non- linear re1ationships occur, it is essential to examine analyses for 
non-linearity. If the relationship between independent variables and the dependent variable is 
not linear, the results of the regression analysis will under-estimate the true relationship. 
i. Variables are measured without error 
Many variables we are interested in are difficult to measure, making measurement error. This 
unreliable measurement can cause the relationship to be under-estimated increasing the risk 
ofType II errors. 
ii. Homoscedasticity 
Homoscedasticity means that the variance of errors is the same across all levels of the 
independent variable. When the variance of errors differs at different values of the 
independent variable, heteroscedasticity is indicated, and this can lead to serious distortion of 
findings and seriously weaken the analysis - thus increasing the possibility of a Type I error. 
One major assumption underlying a t-test is that Z follows a standard normal distribution 
under the null hypothesis and in the t-test comparing the means of two independent samples, 
each of the two populations being compared should follow a normal distribution. 
Preferably, the two sample sizes should be equal; otherwise, the t stati stic to test whether the 
means are different can be calculated as follows: 
t= S I+ I 
12 . , , ''l 
28 
where 
X i is the sample mean for sample"i. 
S is the pooled standard deviation, and 
N is sample size· 
The regression equation 
Consider the model 
Y =a+flx+e 
where x is a non-random variable and e is a random error distributed with mean zero and 
variance (J 2 • 
Fitting a straight line to the scatter diagram leads to a regression line ji =a+ bx, where a IS 
an estimate of a in the model and b is an estimate of fJ , and ji is the estimate of y. 
iii. Analysis of variance (ANOV A) 
Assumptions 
1. Independence of cases - this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the 
statistical analysis. 
11. Nonnality - the distributions of the residuals are nonnal. 
111. Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called homoscedasticity - the variance 
of data in groups should be the same. Model-based approaches usually assume 
that the variance is constant. 
The null hypothesis j..L1 = f..L2 is tested using the two-sample t-test. If we have more than 2 
groups o r population means to compare, we use the analysis of variance technique. The data 
used in the analysis of variance are usually sample data from different populations. The 
observations are y ij . i = I , 2, 3 ... . k and j = I , 2, ... , where k represents the number of groups 
and n i the observations in each group. 
29 
ANOVA separates the variation in the sample data into two independent components: one of 
them reflecting variation between !:,'TOups and the other variation within groups. 
The wi thin groups component is 
I j 
And the betvveen group component is 
<L/ v;- .v .. )2 
i 
where y is the grand mean. 
The total variation is 
and we have the ident ity 
which can be read as: 
Total variation (total sum of squares) = Within sum of squares (SS) + Between groups SS 
abbreviated as 
TSS = SSE + SST. 
The technique partitions the total sum of squares (abbreviated SS) into components related to 
the effects used in the statistical model. For a simplified ANOV A with one type of treatment 
at different levels, 
S STatal = S SError + S Sneatments 
30 
ANO VA Table 
Source 
Treatments 
Error 
ss 
SST 
SSE 
DF 
k-1 
N-k 
MS 
SST I (k-1 ) 
SSE I (N-k) 
F 
MSTIMSE 
-- ---- -- --------------------------------------~-----------
Total (corrected) SS 
Where 
SS = Sum of squares 
OF= Degrees of freedom 
MS=Mean square 
F= F ratio 
N-1 
The ANOV A table is used to test hypotheses about means. For this study, the null hypothesis 
was: 
The alternative hypothesis was 
where 
J.-li = the population mean of group i 
K = Number of groups to be compared 
31 
The calculated F-ratio in the ANOV A table is compared with the critical F-ratio obtained 
from the F table. If the calculated F-ratio is greater, the hypothesis is rejected, otherwise it is 
not rejected. Alternatively, the probability value associated with the calculated F-ratio is 
compared with the level of significance. If it is lower, then the hypothesis is rejected, 
otherwise it is not. 
4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 
In conducting thi s study, the ethical princ iples of informed consent (see Appendix B), 
confidentiality and privacy were observed. The participant's identity remained anonymous to 
guarantee the wellbeing of the participants and only numbers were used to identify the 
participants. To obtain the data from the victims, the researcher asked for permission to 
conduct the study from the managers of the crisis centres. See Appendix A, Appendix Band 
Appendix C. The researcher provided the participants with full in formation about the 
research project and also emphasised the voluntary nature of the engagement. In line with the 
ethical research guidelines provided by Coolican (2005), the participants were assured of 
their right to withdraw fi-om the research project at a ny time they wished to do so. 
Furthermore. the researcher provided debriefing services to the participants who needed such 
support after revealing pain ful emotions during the interviews. The research has also been 
approved by the North West University Ethics Committee. 
32 
CHAPTERS 
RESULTS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER 
RESEARCH 
5.1 RESULTS 
Introduction 
The results presented in this chapter are structured according to the objectives and the 
hypotheses of the study. The objectives include, to determine the emotional reactions 
associated with rape, to detennine the impact of marital status on the emotional reactions and 
coping strategies of rape victims; and to determine the impact of age on the emotional 
reactions and coping strategies of rape victims. The results incorporated the demographic 
data of the participants, emotional reactions associated with rape and the coping strategies 
reported by the participants. 
5.1 .1 Demographic data of the participants 
A total of 100 psychometric instruments inclusive of demographic data, TSC-40 and CSI-SF 
scales were distributed to and returned by participants. The demographic data incorporated 
age, race group, occupation, home language and marital status of participants as indicated in 
the tables below. Participants were all women. 
Participants' age ranged from J 8 to 30 years, with the mean age being 22.27 (Standard 
Deviation (SD)=3.01). Most of the participants' race group were African (98%) and only 2% 
were coloured. Majority of participants (57%) were unemployed followed by students (33%), 
sales persons (4%), clerks (3%), self-employed ( I%), domestic worker {I%) and a waitress 
( I%). Different language groups were evident among participants and composed mostly of 
IsiZulu (22%) and Sesotho sa borwa (Southern Sotho) (29%). The results revealed that more 
participants were single (9 1 %) and only 9% were married. 
33 
Table 5.1 
Demographic data: Age 
8-20 
21-25 
26 and above 
Total 
Figure 5.1. Age 
Table 5.2 
Race group 
African 
Coloured 
Total 
Frequency 
35 
49 
16 
100 
60 .,.---
18-20 
Freq 
98 
2 
100 
21-25 26 and 
above 
Percent 
35.0 
49.0 
16.0 
100 
Percent 
98 
2 
100 
34 
Figure 5.2. Race 
Table 5.3 
Occupation 
Clerk 
domestic worker 
sales person 
self employed 
Student 
Unemployed 
Waitress 
Total 
60 ~--­
so 4---
40 
• African 
• Coloured 
Freq 
3 
4 
33 
57 
100 
---·-------- ----
30 +-----------
20 
10 +---
0 -~---- --
Figure 5.3. Occupation 
Percent 
3.0 
1.0 
4.0 
1.0 
33.0 
57.0 
1.0 
100 
35 
Table 5.4 
Marital statu.\· 
Freq Percent 
married 9 9.0 
single 91 91.0 
Total 100 100 
• married 
• single 
Figure 5.4. Marital status 
Table 5.5 
La11guage 
Freq Percent 
Afrikaans 2 2.0 
lsiswati 2 2.0 
Isixhosa 17 17.0 
lsizulu 29 29.0 
Sesotho as borwa 26 26.0 
Sepedi 10 10.0 
Setswana 14 14.0 
Total 100 100 
36 
35 
30 
25 
20 
15 
10 
5 
0 
Figure 5.5. Language 
5.1.2 The emotional reactions associated with rape 
Table 5.6 shows some descriptive statistics of all the variables that were used in thi s study. 
Table 5.6 
Mean values 
How old are you? 
Race group 
What is your nationality? 
What is your home language? 
What is your occupation? 
Marital status 
Headache 
insomnia 
Weight loss (without dieting) 
Stomach problems 
Sexual problems 
feeling isolated from others 
Flashbacks (sudden, vivid, distracting memories) 
Restless sleep 
Low sex drive 
Anxiety attack 
Sexual over-activity 
Loneliness 
Mean 
22.3 
1.0 
1.0 
6.5 
1.9 
2.2 
2.7 
I. 75 
1.4 
2.6 
2.4 
2.7 
2.6 
2.7 
2.3 
.6 
2.7 
Std. Dev 
3.0 
.3 
.0 
1.5 
.3 
.6 
.5 
1.0 
.8 
.6 
.7 
.5 
.6 
.6 
.85 
.9 
.5 
Min 
18 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
1.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
.0 
Max 
30 
3.0 
1.0 
9.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
3.0 
37 
Nightmares 2.4 .6 .0 3.0 
"spacing out" (going away in your mind) 1.4 l.O .0 3.0 
Sadness 2.6 .6 .0 3.0 
Dizziness l.l .9 .0 3.0 
Not feeling satisfied with your sex life 2.6 .6 .0 3.0 
Trouble controlling your temper 2.65 .6 .0 3.0 
Waking up early in the morning and can't get back to · 2.4 .6 .0 3.0 
sleep 
Uncontrollable crying 2.4 .6 l.O 3.0 
Fear of men 2.7 .5 2.0 3.0 
Not feeling rested in the morning 2.5 .6 .0 3.0 
Having sex that you didn't enjoy 2.8 .5 .0 3.0 
Trouble getting along with others 2.0 .8 .0 3.0 
Memory problems 2.2 .8 .0 3.0 
Desire to physically hurt yourself 1.8 1.2 .0 3.0 
Fear of women .2 .4 .0 2.0 
Waking up in the middle of the night 2.4 .7 .0 3.0 
Bad thoughts or feeling during sex 2.8 .6 .0 3.0 
Passing out .5 .7 .0 2.0 
Feeling that things are unreal .7 .9 .0 3.0 
Unnecessary or over-frequent washing 1.4 1.35 .0 3.0 
Feeling of inferiority 2.25 .8 .0 3.0 
Feeling tense aJl the time 2.0 .8 .0 3.0 
Being confused about your sexual fee lings 2.5 .7 .0 3.0 
Desire to physicaJly hurt others 1.3 1.2 .0 3.0 
Feelings of guilt 2.3 .8 .0 3.0 
Feelings that you are not always in your body 1.0 1.0 .0 3.0 
Having trouble breathing 1.2 1.0 .0 3.0 
Sexual feeling when you shouldn't have them 1.3 1.2 .0 3.0 
I make a plan of action and follow it 2.25 .9 1.0 5.0 
I look for the silver lining or try to look on the bright 2.3 .85 1.0 5.0 
side of things 
I try to spend time alone 3.8 .9 2.0 5.0 
I hope the problem will take care of itself 3.6 .8 l.O 5.0 
I try to let my emotions out 2.3 1.0 l.O 5.0 
I try to talk about it with a fri end or family 2.2 .8 l.O 4.0 
I try to put problem out of my mind 3.4 .7 2.0 5.0 
I tackle the problem head on 2.5 .8 1.0 5.0 
I step back from the s ituation and try to put things into 2.7 .7 2.0 4.0 
perspective 
38 
I tend to blame myself 3.4 .8 1.0 5.0 
I let my feelings out to reduce the stress 2.2 .9 1.0 5.0 
I hope for a miracle 3.3 .5 2.0 5.0 
I ask a close friend or relative that I respect for help and 2.4 .8 1.0 5.0 
advice 
I try not to think about the problem 3.5 .7 2.0 5.0 
I tend to crit icize myself 3.5 .8 2.0 5.0 
I keep my thought and feeling!- to myself 3.9 .9 1.0 5.0 
Table 5.7 shows the descripti ve stati stics of the key variables and constructs of the study. The 
va lues of their skewness and kurtosis were acceptable fo r the statistical explanatory analyses 
because they were less than 2 and 6 respectively. For this kind of values, their distribution 
approximates the normal dis tribution. 
Table 5.7 
Descriptive S tatistics for the key vuriubles and COIIStructs 
Variable/construct N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. dev. Skewness Kurtosis 
Dissociation 96 2.00 17.00 9.2604 2.83677 .439 .320 
Anxiety 100 7.00 22.00 14.5500 3.40046 -. 125 -.596 
Depression 100 8.00 27.00 20.9100 4.08519 - 1.064 .649 
Sexual abuse trauma index 100 7.00 21 .00 16.1800 2.45928 -.944 1.442 
Sleep disturbance 100 8.00 18.00 15.0600 2.42803 - 1.005 .433 
sexual problems 99 2.00 24.00 18.0505 3.4267 1 - 1.898 6.002 
About 44% of participants scored above the total dissociation mean of 9.26 (SD=2.83) with 
the majority of participants (56%) having low symptoms of dissociation with the maximum 
score of 17. The majorit y of participants (53%) reported symptoms of anxiety as they had 
scored higher than the mean score of 14.55 (SD=3.40) on the total anxiety with the maximum 
score of22. Most participants (65%) scored higher than the mean of20.91 (SD=4.08) on total 
depression score w ith the maximum score of27. 
Approximately 5 1% of participants scored higher than the mean score of I 6.18 (SD=2.45) on 
total SA TI score with the maximum score of 2 1. On the total sleep disturbance score the 
majority of the participants (56%) scored above the mean 15.06 (SD=2.42) with the 
39 
maximum score of 18. About 51% of participants scored higher than the mean score of 18.05 
(SD=3.42) on total sexual problems with the maximum score of24. 
5.1.3 Coping Strategies among Raped Women 
The coping strategies inventory-short fonn is 'inclusive of four subscales, namely: problem­
focused engagement, problem-focused disengagement, emotion-focused engagement and 
emotion-focused disengagement. The results below for each subscale indicate the coping 
strategies among this sample of rape victims. 
(i) Problem-Focused Engagement 
Participants reported to rarely engage themselves to items ·'J try to let my emotions ouC 
(62%). " I try to talk about it with a friend or family" (72%), ''I let my feel ings o ut to reduce 
the stress" (69%) and ··1 ask a close friend or relative that I respect for and advice'' (76%). 
(ii) Problem-Focused Disengagement 
Most of the participants reported rarely in high percentage on items .. , make a plan of action 
and follow it .. (49%), ··J look for the silver lining or try to look on the brighter side of things·· 
(54%) and " I tack le the problem head o n'· (66%). Hence the item .. , step back from the 
situation and try to put things into perspective .. was reported rarely (43%) and sometimes 
(45%). 
(iii) Emotion-Focused Engagement 
About 57% of participants reported that they often hope the problem wi ll take care of itself, 
with on ly 6% reporting very often. Majority of participants reported to sometimes try to put 
problems out of their mind (50%) and hope for miracle (70%). Hence 47% of participants 
often try not to think of the problem. 
(iv) Emotion-Focused Disengagement 
The results revealed that participants often try to spend time alone (57%) and keep their 
thoughts to themselves (62%) hence 18% and 21% very often resorted to these items 
respectively. 
40 
5.1.4 The impact of age on the emotional reactions and coping strategies of rape victims. 
Emotional reaction was regressed against age. Table 5.8 shows the results. The results 
indicate that age does not affect emotional reactions of rape victims. The total score of TSC 
was used as the dependent variable. Adjusted R-square was -.0 I. 
Table 5.8 
Constant 
Age 
Table 5.9 
ANOVA 
Model 
Regression 
Residual 
Total 
Parameter 
Estimate 
89. 1 
-.3 
Sum of Of 
Squares 
94.8 
15405.6 89 
15500.58 90 
T S.e P-value 
8.5 10.5 .000 
-.7 .5 .461 
Mean F P-value 
Square 
94.8 .548 .461 
173 .1 
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOV A) also showed that the regression model was not 
significant. This implies that the null hypothesis that age does not affect emotional reactions of 
rape victims is not rejected at the 0.05 level of significance. 
In the fo llowing ONE-WAY ANOV A, age was used as a factor of Dissociation, Anxiety, 
Depression, Sexual abuse trauma index, Sleep disturbance, Sexual problems and TSC total 
score (TSCTOTALSCORE), to test its effect on these variables 
41 
Table 5. 10 
A OVA 
Sum of Syuarc' dr Mean Sguare p. ,aluc. 
Di~:oo:oc ill1ton llc1" ct·n Cir\lups 16.197 1 18.Q<I8 
Within Group> 728.291 93 7 81 I 
l<lla l 76-1411() <l5 2.11 1 
J\11\ IC:I) lkt\\ c:cn (jn)up~ Jl 278 156W I 1(>2 
Wnhin Gmups 11 11472 97 II 47<l 
10131 114~ 750 9'l 
l'lcpre,>IOII Oct" c:en ( inluft' 40.774 2 203~7 I 227 
Wuhin Groups 1611 416 Q7 16 611 
I <'Ia I 1652.190 'IQ 
~e,ua l abuse trauma inde' lkl" ccn Grnup< I I 0~5 2 5 541 <l 16 
Wnhin COmups 51:17.6(>5 97 6.058 
l ulal SCJS 760 99 
Sleep d i, IUrbanrc lkt" c.:en Group' .1 I JK 2 I 569 21>2 
With on Group> 5!10 502 97 5 985 
I mal 5816-10 Q<J 
,e•ual problem< Uci"CCII (iroup> 16.4'11 2 8 246 6<18 
Withm Groups 11.14 255 <)(> II Rl5 
Iota! 1150747 98 
I S< I 0 J AI SCORI lk1" cen (II'<'UJ'' 2~0.571 120 2~() t>'l~ 
Willun Group> 15259 84o 88 173.407 
Io ta! 15500.4 18 90 U62 
According to the results, the null hypothesis that age does not affect emotional reactions (that 
is, Dissociation, Anxiety, Depression, Sexual abuse trauma index, Slt:ep oislurbam;t;, St;xual 
problems) is not rejected at the 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, emotional reactions are 
not affected by age. 
In the following analysis, the hypothesis that rape victims who are younger wil l report less 
negati ve emotional reactions and will therefore cope better than those who are o lder was 
tested. 
In the following ONE-WAY A OY A. age was used as a factor of coping to test its effect on 
coping with rape. 
Table 5.11 
ANOVA 
I make a plan o f action and folio" 11 Uctween Group, 
\"ulun Group> 
I look for the ,ihcr lin ing or try 10 
look on the bright side of things 
l<>tal 
llctwecn Group> 
With on Groups 
I ota l 
Sum of Squares 
1.170 
77.)b0 
7 750 
1.876 
69.684 
71.560 
df Mean Square f Si~. 
685 .859 
97 7'1X 
9Q 
2 9 18 U05 
97 .71 K 
99 
42 
lOS 
26 1 
1Qg 
404 
770 
500 
~01 
.2ol 
.427 
.l76 
I try to sp~nd time a lone Between Groups .3 17 .158 .204 
Within Groups 75.073 97 774 
Total 75 . .190 w 
I hollC the pruhkm "ill lake care of Between Gr<1ups .157 .07'l . u~ 
itse lf Within (iroups 58,0:\.l 97 .598 
Tota l 58.190 99 
I II)' 10 lei my CillO! ions OUI Between Groups .717 .364 .37 1 
Within Groups 94.983 97 .979 
Tota l 95.710 I) I) 
I II) 10 ta lk about it with a friend or Between Groups .580 .290 .480 
family Within Groups 58.580 97 .604 
Total 59, 160 99 
I try 10 put problem out of my mind Between Groups 6.917 H58 7.096 
Within Groups 47.273 97 .487 
Total 54.190 9<) 
I tackle the problem head on Between Groups .472 2 .2.>6 .345 
Within Groups 06 .. '68 97 .684 
Tota l 66.840 99 
I step back from the s ituation and try Between Groups .359 2 IN .386 
to put things into perspective Within Groups 45.0.l l Q7 .464 
Total 45.3<>0 <!'! 
I tend 10 blame myse lf Between Groups .606 2 .. 103 .480 
Within Groups 61.184 97 63 1 
Tota l 617<)0 99 
I lei my feelings out to reduce the Between Groups .240 2 120 . ISS 
~tress Withirl Groups 73.470 97 .757 
Tota l 73.710 9<) 
I hope for a miracle Between Groups .499 2 .249 .960 
Within Groups 25.211 97 .'260 
rota I 25.710 99 
I ask a close friend M rclaii\'C 1h;11 I Between Groups .310 1 .155 .2411 
respect for help and advice Within Groups 62.7.10 97 .647 
Total 6:1040 99 
I try not 10 think about the problem Between Groups .564 ~ .282 .565 
Within Groups 48.436 'n 49<) 
Total 49.000 99 
I tend to criucizc mysdf Between Groups .777 .388 .606 
Within Groups 62.2 13 97 .64 1 
Total 62.990 99 
I keep my thoughts and feelings 10 Between Groups .474 2 .237 .. 119 
myself Within Groups 72.036 <l7 .74.' 
Total 72.510 9<J 
According to the results, the null hypothesis that age does not affect the coping of rape 
victims is not rej ected at the 0.05 level of significance, except for .. l try to put problem out of 
my mind .. variable (P value=.OOI), Therefore, in general, coping strategies of rape victims are 
not affected by age. 
43 
.815 
.877 
.1>91 
.610 
.001 
.70'1 
.681 
.620 
.854 
.387 
.787 
.570 
.548 
.n1 
5.1.5 The impact of marital status on the emotional reactions and coping strategies of 
rape victims 
In the following analysis, the hypothesis that single women who are victims of rape will 
report less negative emotional reactions and will consequently cope better than those who are 
married was tested. 
ONE-WAY ANOY A was used and marital status was used as a factor of coping to test its 
effect on coping with rape. 
Table 5.12 
A NOVA 
Sum ofSguarcs df Mean Sguarc F 
I make a plan of action and follow it Between Groups .92~ I .923 1.16} 
Within Groups 77.827 '18 .794 
Tota l 78.750 99 
I look for the silver lining or try 10 Between Groups .041 .041 .056 
look tm the bright side of things Within Groups 7 1.519 9~ .7.10 
Total 7 1.560 99 
I try 10 spend time alone Between Groups .010 I .010 .0 13 
Within Groups 75.380 9R .769 
To1a l 75.390 '19 
I hope the problem will take care of &:tween Group:< .210 .210 .354 
i1sdf Within Groups 57.980 9~ .592 
rota I 58.190 99 
I try to let my emotions out Between Groups ,023 I .023 .0~3 
Within Groups 95.687 98 .976 
Total 95.710 99 
I try to talk about it with a friend or Between Groups .000 I .000 .000 
f.~onily Within Grou ps 59.160 98 .604 
Total 59.160 99 
I try to put problem out of my mind Between Groups .1.443 I 3.44.1 6.648 
Within Groups 50.747 9R .518 
Total 54. 190 9'1 
I tackle the problem heatl on Between Groups .2.093 I 2.09.1 3 168 
Within Groups 64.747 98 .661 
Total 66.840 99 
I step back from the situation and tty Between Groups . 179 I . 179 .. 187 
to put things into perspective Within Groups 45.2 11 98 .46 1 
Total 45.390 99 
I tend tO blame myself Between Groups .757 I .757 1.216 
Within Groups 61.033 98 .623 
Total 61.790 9Q 
I lei my ft,clings out to reduce the Between Groups .001 I .001 001 
Slr~SS Within Groups 73.709 98 .752 
Total 73.7 10 99 
I hope for a miracle Between Groups .040 I .040 . 151 
Within Groups 25.670 98 .262 
Total 25.710 9() 
I ask a close friend or relative that I Between Groups .188 I .188 .293 
n:spec1 tor help and advice Within Groups 62.852 98 .641 
Total 63040 99 
Sil!. 
44 
.284 
,8 13 
.Q08 
.55.~ 
RN 
.99.1 
Oil 
.078 
.535 
.173 
.'l7R 
.698 
.590 
I try nm 10 th111~ ahnut till· problem lktwcen Groups .031 I 0.11 .06 1 .805 
Within Groups 48.969 9~ .500 
Tota l 4'1.000 99 
I tend to criticiu my>clf Between Grl•ups 1.574 I 1.574 2.51 1 116 
Within Group~ 61.416 9R .627 
Total 62.<>90 99 
I keep my thoughts and l<•c li ngs 11> Between Groups .048 I .04l5 .006 .798 
mysel f Within Groups 72.462 9R .739 
Total 72.510 Q9 
TSC'To-J AL SCOKL llct\\ cen Groups 28~ .930 I 283.930 1.60 1 .20 I 
Within Groups 15216.488 8'1 170.'172 
Total 15500.418 90 
OissO<'iat ion Between Groups 16.75 1 I 16.751 1. 106 .150 
Within Groups 747.739 '14 7.955 
Total 764.490 '15 
Anx;cty Between Groups 27.290 I 27.290 2.:<93 .125 
Withi n Groups 111 7.460 98 11.403 
Total I 144.750 99 
l:>.:press ion Between Group> 1.243 I 1.243 .074 .7R7 
Within Groups 1650.947 98 16.846 
Total 1652.190 9<l 
. exual abuse trauma index Be1ween Groups 5 .. <5 1 5 .. <51 884 .. <51) 
Within Groups 5'13.409 \18 6055 
Tota l 598.760 <}<) 
Sleep disturbance 13etween Groups 2.5 17 I 2.517 .424 .516 
Within Groups 58 1.123 98 5.9}0 
Tota l 583.640 99 
Sexual problems 13etween Groups .792 I .792 .067 .7'!7 
Within Groups 1149.956 97 11.855 
Total 1150.747 98 
According to the results, the null hypothesis that marital s tatus does not affect the coping of 
rape victims is not rejected at the 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, coping strategies of 
rape victims are generally not affected by marital status. However, marital status was found 
to affect the variable " I try to put problem out of my mind" at the 5% level of significance. 
In the above ONE-WAY ANOV A, marital status was used as a factor of Dissociation, 
Anxiety, Depression, Sexual abuse trauma index, Sleep disturbance, Sexual problems and 
TSC total score (TSCTOT ALSCORE), to test its effect on these variables. 
According to the results, the hypothesis that single women who are victims of rape will report 
less negative emotional reactions and wi ll consequently cope better than those who are 
married should be rejected. We should accept the hypothesis that single women who are 
victims of rape will not report less negative emotional reactions and will consequently not 
cope better than those who are married. 
45 
T-Test 
Emotional reactions were compared between single and married women using the regression 
analysis above and the t-test. The table 5.1 2 below shows the t-test results. The results below 
also indicate that there is no significant difference in emotional reactions between single 
women and married w<?men. TSC total score (TSCTOTALSCORE) and all subscales (i.e., 
Dissociation, Anxiety, Depression, Sexual abuse trauma index, Sleep disturbance and Sexual 
problems) do not differ between single women and married women. This is indicated by the 
corresponding Sig. Values (the P-values) being higher than Alpha (i .e., b.05), the level of 
significance. Therefore, single women who are victims of rape will not report less negative 
emotional reactions and will not consequently cope better than those who are married. 
Table 5.13 
Group Statistics 
maritaiD N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 
TSCTOT A LSCOR E .00 8 75.7500 14.17997 5.01337 
1.00 83 81.9880 12.97699 1.42441 
Dissociation .00 8 7.8750 1.55265 .54894 
1.00 88 9.3864 2.89840 .30897 
Anx iety .00 9 12.8889 2.31541 .77180 
1.00 91 14.7143 3.45538 .36222 
Depression .00 9 20.5556 3.53946 1.17982 
1.00 91 20.945 1 4.15094 .43514 
Sexual abuse trauma index .00 9 15.4444 1.87824 .62608 
1.00 9 1 16.2527 2.50596 .26270 
Sleep disturbance .00 9 14.5556 2.45515 .8 1838 
1.00 9 1 15.1099 2.43334 .25508 
sexual problems .00 9 18.3333 3.354 10 1.11803 
1.00 90 18.0222 3 .451 03 .36377 
46 
Table 5.14 
lndependem Samples Test 
t-tcst for Equality of M cans 
df Sig. (2-tai led) 
TSCTOT ALSCOR E Equal variances assumed -1.289 89 .20 1 
Equal variances not assumed -I. 197 8. 171 .265 
Dissociation Equal variances assumed -1.451 94 .150 
Equal variances not assumed -2.399 12.040 .033 
Anxiety Equal variances assumed -1.547 l)g . 125 
Equal variances not assumed -2.141 11.861 .054 
Depression Equal variances assumed -.272 98 .787 
Equal variances not assumed -.3 10 10.307 .763 
Sexual abuse trauma index Equal variances assumed -.940 98 .350 
Equal variances not assumed -1.19 1 11.034 .259 
Sleep disturbance Equal variances assumed -.65 1 98 .516 
Equal variances not assumed -.647 9.622 .533 
Sexual problems Equal variances assumed .258 97 .797 
Equal variances not assumed .265 9.774 .797 
Some sample sizes are too small (8 or 9), which is a concern because this might cause the 
results to be invalid . Small sample sizes tend to inflate sample variances resulting in making 
the mean an unreliable estimate of the population measure of central tendency. This is one of 
the study limitations. 
47 
5. 1.6 Comparing coping strategies of less traumatised rape victims with those of highly 
victimised rape victims. 
According to the results of the TSC-40, 53% of the victims were highly traumatised with 
47% of them being less traumatised. In the following analysis, the hypothesis that rape 
victims who are less tra.umatised will cope better than those who are highly traumatised was 
tested. ONE-WAY ANOVA was performed in which case, coping strategies were compared 
between the less traumatized group and the highly traumatised group of rape victims. The 
different trauma variables and constructs that measure trauma were used as factors of coping. 
Table 5.15 
A NOVA 
Sum of Sguares df Mean Sguar~ F Si~. 
I make a plan of ac1ion and fo llow il Be1wecn Grou1>s 1.553 1.553 1,93(\ 
Wi1hin Groups 75.406 94 .802 
Total 76.958 95 
I look for 1he silver lining or try 10 Between Groups 1.532 1.532 2. 158 
look on the briglu side of lhings Within Groups 66.708 9 4 .710 
Tmal 68.240 '15 
l tl)' 10 spend lime alone Hetween Groups 1.728 1.728 2.452 
Wilhin ( iroups 60.23 1 9 4 ,705 
Total 67.958 95 
I hope 1he problem " ill 1ake c:He nf Between Group> 3 72 1 I J .72 1 6.826 
itsel f Wi1hin Groups 51. 2.~8 'l4 .545 
Total 54.958 05 
I lry 10 lei my CillO! ions OUI Hetwcen C.mups 1.842 1.842 2.203 
Within Groups 78.565 94 .8.>6 
Total 80.406 95 
liry 1<> 1alk aboul i1 wi1h a friend or Be1wccn Groups 1.935 1.935 3.635 
fa mil) With in Groups 50.054 94 .5.'2 
Total 5 1.990 95 
I try 10 pu1 problem nul ofnl\ mind Bc1wccn Groups .280 .280 .500 
Within Groups 52.678 94 .560 
Total 5!.Q58 95 
I tackle the problem head on Be1wcen Groups 96.~ I .96.' 1.547 
Within C. roups 58.526 94 6D 
Total 5Q.490 95 
I s1ep ba.:k from I he si1ua1ion and lry Be1wecn Groups .327 I .327 .720 
to pu1 things into pcrspcclivc Within Groups 42.66.\ 94 .454 
Total 42.990 95 
I lend 10 blame myself Be1wecn Groups .026 I .026 .043 
Wi1hin Groups 57.463 94 .611 
Tota l 57.490 95 
I let my f~lings ou11o reduce the Between Groups 1.156 I 1. 156 1.660 
stress Wi1hin Groups 65.469 94 .696 
Total 66.625 95 
I hope for a miracle Between Groups .289 I .289 1. 176 
Within Groups 23. 11 7 'l4 .246 
Total 23.406 ll5 
48 
. 167 
145 
. 1! 1 
.010 
141 
.060 
.481 
.217 
.39~ 
836 
.20 1 
28 1 
I a~k a c lose friend or rdatiw thai I lk"' een Groups .564 I .564 .9~4 
resp;:cl for hdp and advice Withi n Groups 56.769 94 .604 
Iota I 5V~-' 95 
I try 110 1 10 think about the problem l:ktwccn Groups .865 I .865 1.80.1 
Within Groups 45.124 94 .480 
Total 45.990 Q5 
I tend to cnttCIZC myself lktween Groups 6.68~ I 6.688 1UlS5 
Within Groups 55.219 94 .587 
Tota l 61.906 QS 
I keep my thoughts and Icc lings to lktween Group> 4.444 4.444 u.70o 
myself Within Groups 62.295 94 .60.1 
Tota l 06.740 <l5 
TSCTOTA LSC'OR E Between Groups 5070.660 I 5070.660 43.269 
Within ( iroups 1042Q.758 8'1 117.188 
Total 15500.41 8 90 
Dis~oc ia t ion Between Groups 467.372 I 46D72 i-17.864 
Within Group> 297.11 7 94 3 161 
Total 764.490 95 
Anxiety Bet" een Groups 371 ,728 I ~7 1. 728 -18003 
Within Cifllups 727.Q28 94 7.744 
Total 1099.656 95 
Depression Bct" een Group> I 05.596 105 596 6.'160 
Within Groups 1426.2.18 94 I 5 17.1 
Total 153 1.8.13 95 
Sexual abuse trau111a index Bcrwccn Groups 152.94:1 I 152.943 .1.'.321 
Within Groups 4.1 1.46.1 94 4,5QO 
Total 584.406 95 
Sleep disturbance Between Groups .16.~08 I ~(>.~108 6.5~0 
Within Groups 522.650 94 5.560 
Tota l 558.958 95 
scxua I problems Between Groups 66.20 1 I 66.101 5.8~X 
Within Groups 1052.746 9J IIJ20 
Tota l Il l .947 94 
According to the results, the hypothesis that rape victims who are less traumatised will cope 
better than those who are highly traumatised was rejected fo r some trauma variables but it 
was not rejected for others at the 0.05 level of signi ficance. The trauma variables that were 
found to affect coping strategies are: 
• Dissociation 
• Anxiety 
• Depression 
• Sexual abuse trauma index 
• Sleep disturbance, and 
• Sexual problems 
This means that: 
• Rape victims with less levels of di ssociation will cope better than those who have 
higher levels of dissociation. 
49 
.~~6 
18.1 
.001 
.Oll 
.000 
.000 
.000 
(1 10 
,()()() 
.0 1 ~ 
.Oil< 
• Rape victims with less anxiety levels will cope better than those with higher anxiety 
levels. 
• Rape victims who are less depressed will cope better than those who are more 
depressed. 
• Rape victims with less levels of sexual abuse trauma will cope better than those with 
higher levels of sexual abuse trauma. 
• Rape victims with less sleep disturbance will cope better than those with higher levels 
sleep disturbance. 
• Rape victims with less sexual problems will cope better than those with more sexual 
problems. 
5.2 DISCUSSION 
The questionnaires were administered to a hundred rape victims who were will ing to 
participate in the study and were all returned. These women were found at selected rape crisis 
centres in the Gauteng province. They fi lled in the questionnaires as requested by the 
researcher and each questionnaire was numbered to avoid revealing the victim·s identity. A 
hundred women participated in the study and even though the study was directed to women 
between the ages of 18 and above the respondents were only between 18 to 30 years old. This 
was the age range of women who were will ing to participate in the study. This was also the 
age range of women that were reported by the managers of the rape crisis centres to be 
frequenting the centres. The majority of the participants were African and 57% of them were 
unemployed. Only 9% of them were married with the rest being single. 
According to the interpretation of the data collected with the use of the TSC-40, 53% of the 
victims had a higher trauma and had significant negative emotional reactions with 47% of the 
victims reporting lower levels of trauma. The TSC-40 had six subscales and all of which 
yielded scores that were higher than the mean, which indicated the level of occurrence for 
each subscale. 
The majority of participants (75%) reported to experience flashbacks more often and 43% 
reported memory problems. Hence on the other side participants (54%) reported to have 
never experienced ·•feeling that tbjngs are unreal .. and 36% never experienced the item about 
feeling that they are not always in their body. Only a limited number of participants (3% & 
II %) reported that often they feel that things are unreal and feel that they are not always in 
50 
their body's respectively. About 44% of participants scored above the total dissociation mean 
of 9.26 (SD=2.38) with the majority of participants (56%) having low symptoms of 
dissociation. 
The results revealed that 56% and 33% of participants reported to have experienced headache 
sometimes and often respectively. Majority of participants (66%) reported to experience fear 
of men more often and none showed to fear women more often. Anxiety attacks were 
reported to be experienced by participants in both sometimes (35%) and often (49%). 
Participants reported to feel tense all the time at sometime (50%) and often (30%). Majority 
of participants (53%) reported symptoms of anxiety as they had scored higher than the mean 
score of 14.55 (SD=3 .40) on the total anxiety. 
Participants reported to often experience insomnia (73%), low sex drive (77%) and sadness 
(67%), hence they reported that they sometimes experience waking up early in the morning 
(50%) and uncontrollable crying (48%). The desire to physically hurt self was reported as 
never experienced by 25% of the participants. Most participants (65%) scored higher than the 
mean of20.91 (SD=4.08) on total depression score with the maximum score of27. 
Participants reported that they often experienced sexual problems (69%). flashbacks (75%), 
fear of men (66%) and mostly bad thoughts or feelings during sex (81 %). Approximately 
51% of participants scored higher than the mean score of 16.18 (SD=2.45) on total SA Tl 
score with the maximum score of21. 
Majority of participants reported to experience insomnia (73%), restless sleep (68%) and not 
feeling rested in the morning (55%) more often. About 50% of participants reported to wake 
up in the midd le of the night and to wake up early in the morning and couldn ' t get back to 
sleep at sometime. Hence when it comes to the total sleep disturbance score the majority of 
the participants (56%) scored above the mean 15.06 (SD=2.42). 
Participants revealed that they often experienced sexual problems (69%), low sex drive 
(77%), not feeling satisfied with their sex life (66%), having sex that they didn ' t enjoy (87%), 
bad thoughts and feelings during sex (81 %) and being confused about their sexual feeling 
(60%). Results showed that there was a high number of participants (65%) who never 
experienced sexual over-activity and only about 7% of participants who experienced sexual 
over-activity. About 51% of participants scored higher than the mean score of 18.05 
(SD=3.42) on total sexual problems with the maximum score of 24. 
51 
The majority of the mean values for each variab le of the TSC-40 was greater than 2 which 
indicated that on average. the rape victims experienced negative emotional reactions often. 
The results above were an indication that there is a relationship between rape and the 
negative emotional reacti ons. 
The hypothesis that single women who are victims of rape will report less negative emotional 
reactions and will consequentl y cope better than those who are married was tested. The 
results indicated that coping strategies of rape victims are generally not affected by marital 
status. However. marital statu was found to affect on ly a few of the variables at the 5% level 
of signi ficance. The results also indicated that the emotional reactions of rape victims are not 
affected by marital status. The hypothesis that rape victims who are less traumatised will 
cope better than those who are highly traumatised was also tested and according to the results 
the rape victims who have Jess trauma wi ll indeed cope better than those who have high 
levels of trauma. 
The hypothesis that rape victims who are younger will report less negative emotional 
reactions and will therefore cope better than those who are o lder was tested and according to 
the results the emotional reactions of rape victims are not affected by age. The results also 
revealed that the coping strategies of rape victims are not affected by age. 
An average of about 70% of the participants reported to rarely engaging in Problem-focused 
engagement wi th about 53% of them also rarely engaging in Problem-focused 
disengagement. About 42% participants reported to often engaging in Emotion-focused 
engagement with about 5 1% reporting to be often engaging in Emotion-focused 
disengagement. And according to these resu lts the vict ims often used emotion focused coping 
and rarely engaged in problem-focused coping. This was also an indication that rape does 
induce a number of coping strategies. An average of about 52% of the victims who were less 
traumatised were found to be engaging often in problem-focused engagement. 
The majority of the women who participated in this study who were more traumatised had 
higher levels of depression and anxiety and had difficulties interacting effectively within their 
environment. Most of them had a fear of men and no longer enjoyed sexual intercourse. The 
literature found in Slaikeu (1990) and Pickup et al., (200 1) confirm simi lar results. These 
women also suffered from headaches, had trouble sleeping and had flashbacks or nightmares 
about their experience. T hey had suicidal ideations, cried constantly and had feelings of 
shame and guilt, and this is supported by the literature found in Nevid et al., ( 1990). 
52 
The victims who were more traumatised had trouble controll ing their temper; and also 
experienced dissociation, thi s is confirmed by Rautio (2008). They felt isolated from others 
and did not want to talk about their ordeal , which was supported by James & Gilli land 
(2005). 
They also had higher leyels o f PTSD which is an indication that they were experiencing rape 
trauma syndrome, and thi s is supported by the literature found in Karmen ( 1990). 
The more traumati sed victims were found to employ coping strategies such as blaming 
themselves for the rape, this is supported by Kleinke ( 1998) and Novello & O'Sullivan 
(2008); not talking about thi s experience with other people. isolating themselves from others 
and thi s is confirmed by Meyer & Taylor' s study cited in Kleinke ( 1998) . These victims 
were found to be in denial and this is supported by Horowitz; Janoff-Bulman & Timko's 
study ci ted in Frieze & Bookwala ( 1996). They also did not seek any assistance from others. 
Most of the women that were less traumatised were those that indicated that they used 
problem focused coping strategies such as communicating effectively with their friends and 
family members and seeking help and advice from them, this was supported by the literature 
to und in Frieze & Bookwala ( 1996). They were also more optimistic than their more 
traumatised counterparts and had the ability to express their emotions. 
This study has indeed proven that women who are victims of rape experience negative 
emotional reactions and that those who are more traumatised engage more in emotion 
focused coping than prob lem focused coping strategies. 
The researcher also continued using the sam e research instruments to collect the data for this 
study because they were fo und to be both valid and reliable. 
It must be pointed out that non-probability samples were inevitably used and some of the sub ­
sample s izes were too small - when the two samples being used to compare populations were 
not o f equal size. It wou ld have been a great struggle to obtain probabil ity samples and large 
sub-samples due to mainly practical problems and other problems such as limited time and 
budget. 
53 
5.3 CONCLUSION 
According to the interpretation of the collected data the researcher is able to conclude that the 
rape victims have negative emotional reactions and that those who are more traumatised 
resort to emotioin focused coping strategies. The victims that were more traumatised had 
higher symptoms of di ssociation, depression , a fear of men and no longer enjoyed sexual 
intercourse. They al so engaged in negati ve thinking and were pessimistic about the future. A 
h igh percentage of those who are less traumatised were found to be engaging more in 
problem focused coping strategies. 
The most significant factor between these two groups is that the latter communicated 
effectively with !People in their immediate environment and were OIPtimistic about the future. 
This could be an indication that rape victims who talk openly about their ordeal with those 
they trust or receive counselling have a better prognosis than those who do not. 
5.4 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 
Through the interpretation of the data collected the researcher has recognised that rape 
victims who were found to be more traumatised were less expressive than their counterparts. 
It is there fore, necommended that the rape victims must receive counsdling which will be 
aimed at assisting them to express their emotions and to deal effectively with their negative 
ymptoms and to lead effective lives. More research should also be conducted on what needs 
to be done to encourage rape victims to go for counsell ing and also to remove the 
stigmatisation of rape victi ms with in our societies. 
Fo r further study. it would be better if the samples used are probability samples and large 
sample s izes are used. 
54 
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60 
APPENDIX A: LETTER TO REQUEST FOR PERMISSION FROM THE RAPE 
CRISIS CENTRES TO CONDUCT THE STUDY 
• 
THE MANAGER 
RAPE CRISIS CENTRE 
GAUTENG 
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
YUNIBESITI YA BOKONE-BOPHIRIMA 
NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT 
MAFIKENG CAMPUS 
Department of Psychology 
Private Bag X2046 
Mmabatho 2735 
(018) 389-2160 
RE: PERMISSION TO USE YOUR CLIENTS AS PARTICIPANTS IN MY 
RESEARCH. 
My name is Tiisetso Nkomo, a Masters student in the Department of Psychology at 
the North-West University. I am conducting a study on: "Psychological effects of 
rape and coping strategies of rape victims in the Gauteng Province." The 
purpose of this study is specifically aimed at exploring the psychological impact that 
rape has on victims (see attached research proposal). 
I do hereby apply for permission to sample from your clients as subjects in my study. 
It is important to point out that the researcher undertakes to maintain confidentiality 
regarding the identity of the participants in this research project. The participants will 
be assured about the voluntary nature of this study and further that they are free to 
withdraw from the study at any time should they wish to do so. 
The questionnaire that will be given to the subjects will consists of three (3) sections: 
Section 1 deals with the personal information; Section 2 deals with the symptoms 
associated with traumatic experiences; and Section 3 looks at the coping strategies. 
I hope that my request will be honoured. 
Sincerely 
Mrs. T. N. Nkomo 
Masters Clinical Psychology Student 
Dr. C. Oduaran 
Supervisor 
61 
APPENDIX 8 : LETTER TO OBTAIN CONSENT FROM PARTICIPANTS 
Dear Participant 
INFORMED CONSENT 
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
YUNIBESITI YA BOKONE-BOPHIRIMA 
NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT Department of Psychology 
MAFIKENG CAMPUS Private Bag X2046 
Mmabatho 2735 
(018) 389-2160 
Thank you for demonstrating interest in this study that focuses on the impact of rape 
on victims in the Gauteng Province. The purpose of this study is to assess the 
effects that rape has on you . 
Your responses to this questionnaire wi ll remain strictly confidential. The researcher 
will not attempt to identify you with your responses to the questionnaire or to name 
you as a participant in the study. Please be advised that this survey is voluntary and 
that you have the right to terminate your participation in the study at any time. 
This questionnaire consists of three (3) sections: Section 1 deals with your personal 
information; Section 2 deals with your symptoms associated with traumatic 
experiences; and Section 3 looks at your coping strategies. 
Kindly answer all the questions and reflect your true reaction. Your participation in 
this research is very important. Thank you for your time 
Yours sincerely 
T. N.Nkomo 
Masters student 
Or. C. Oduaran 
Supervisor 
Date: 
--- --- - -
Date: ______ _ 
62 
APPENDIX C: CONSENT FORM TO BE SIGNED BY PARTICIPANTS 
CONSENT FORM 
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
YUNIBESITI YA BOKONE-BOPHIRIMA 
NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT 
MAFIKENG CAMPUS 
Department of Psychology 
Private Bag X2046 
Mmabatho 2735 
(018) 389-2160 
hereby agree to participate in 
this Masters Research project that focuses on the psychological impact of rape on 
victims. 
The purpose of the study has been fully explained to me. I further understand that I 
am participating freely and without being forced in any way to do so. I also 
understand that I can terminate my participation in this survey at any point should I 
not want to continue and that this decision will not in any way affect me negatively. 
I understand that this is a research project, whose purpose is not necessarily to 
benefit me personally. I understand that this consent form will not be linked to the 
questionnaire, and that my answers will remain confidential. 
Signature: _ _________ _ 
Date: ___ ____ __ _ 
Place: - - - - - ------------
63 
APPENDIX D SECTION 1 
BIOGRAPHICAL OAT A OF THE RESPONDENT 
This section refers to some basic biographical information about yourself. 
Please mark with " X" on the relevant options or fill in the blank space where 
applicable. 
1. How old are you? 
2. Race group 
African White 
2 
Coloured Indian Other (Specify) 
1 3 4 5 
3. What is your nationality? 
South African citizen 1 
Other (specify): 2 . . . .. ... ..... ... ... . . . . . . ... . . . .. ······· · ···· · ·· ....... ........... 
4. What is your home language? (Language spoken most often at home) 
Afrikaans 01 Setswana 09 
English 02 Tshivenda 10 
lsindebele 03 Xitsonga 11 
lsiswati 04 Other African language 12 
lsixhosa 05 Other European language 13 
lsizulu 06 Indian language 14 
Sesotho sa borwa 07 
Other (specify): .............. .......... 15 
Sepedi 08 
64 
5. What is your occupation? 
6. Marital status: 
Married Single 
SECTION 2 
The Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40) 
How often have you experienced each of the following in the last two 
months? 
0 = Never 3 = Often 
Never Rarely Sometimes Often 
1. Headaches 0 1 2 3 
2. Insomnia (trouble getting to 
sleep) 
3. Weight loss (without dieting) 
4. Stomach problems 
5. Sexual problems 
6. Feeling isolated from others 
7. "Flashbacks" (sudden, vivid, 
distracting memories) 
8. Restless sleep 
9. Low sex drive 
1 0. Anxiety attacks 
11. Sexual over-activity 
12. Loneliness 
13. Nightmares 
65 
14. "Spacing out" (going away in 
your mind) 
15. Sadness 
16. Dizziness 
17. Not feeling satisfied with 
your sex life 
18. Trouble controlling your temper 
19. Waking up early in the morning 
and can't get back to sleep 
20. Uncontrollable crying 
21 . Fear of men 
22 . Not feeling rested in the 
morning 
23. Having sex that you didn't enjoy 
24. Trouble getting along with 
others 
25. Memory problems 
26. Desire to physically hurt 
yourself 
27. Fear of women 
28. Waking up in the middle of the 
night 
29. Bad thoughts or feelings during 
sex 
30. Passing out 
' 
31 . Feeling that things are "unreal" 
32. Unnecessary or over-frequent 
washing 
33. Feelings of inferiority 
66 
34. Feeling tense all the time 
35. Being confused about your 
sexual feelings 
36. Desire to physically hurt others 
37. Feelings of guilt 
38. Feelings that you are not 
always in your body 
39. Having trouble breathing 
40. Sexual feelings when you 
shouldn't have them 
SECTION 3 
Coping Strategies Inventory Short Form (CSI-SF) 
Please Read these Instructions Carefully: People often react in different ways 
when they are faced with a difficult, challenging, or stressful issue in life. This 
questionnaire invites you to respond to how frequently you cope in the ways the 
statements suggest in terms of what you do or feel when you experience a stressful 
or challenging issue in your life. It is to be expected that the type of issue you face in 
a given situation may change the way you react so answer the following questions 
from the viewpoint of what you generally do or feel most of the time. Please respond 
to every item and report what is true or mostly true for you, not what you believe 
other people would do in a similar situation facing the same issue. Use the following 
scale and respond to each statement by placing a number in the blank space next to 
each item. 
67 
Never=1 Rarely=2 Sometimes=3 Often=4 Very Often=S 
1. I make a plan of action and follow it 
2. I look for the silver lining or try to look on the bright side of things 
3. I try to spend time alone 
4. I hope the problem will take care of itself 
5. I try to let my emotions out 
6. I try to talk about it with a friend or family 
7. I try to put the problem out of my mind 
8. I tackle the problem head on 
9. I step back from the situation and try to put things into perspective 
10. I tend to blame myself 
11. I let my feelings out to reduce the stress 
12. I hope for a miracle 
13. I ask a close friend or relative that I respect for help or advice 
14. I try not to think about the problem 
15. I tend to criticize myself 
16. I keep my thoughts and feelings to myself 
Thank you very much for participating in this study. 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
68