A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR DEALING WITH HIVIAIDS AT 
SCHOOLS 
I Sizeka Ramakau I JPD (Sebokeng College); FDE (UP); B.ED. (PU for CHE) I Dissertation submitted for the degree 
I MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS 
I EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AT THE SCHOOL OF I EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES 
at the 
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY 
(VAAL TRIANGLE FACULTY) 
I SUPERVISOR: DR NZUZO JOSEPH LLYOD MAZIBUKO CO -SUPERVISOR: DR M.1 XABA VANDERBIJLPARK 
Acknowledgements 
The following persons have been instrumental in making this study possible: 
God Almighty, who gave me the strength and sustenance to complete this 
study, and through His word has given me the desires of my heart (Psalm: 37 
verse 4). 
Dr N.J.L Mazibuko, my honoured supervisor who provided me with expertise, 
brotherly guidance, perseverance through my mistakes, encouragement, 
assistance, patience, cooperation and support throughout this project. I am 
greatly indebted to him for his painstaking advice and guidance. You took an 
extra mile for me. 
Dr M.1 Xaba, my co-supervisor, for his valuable inputs, assistance, his 
friendliness and care. 
Mrs Denise Kocks who helped me with the final editing of this work. 
Mrs M. Grosser for designing the questionnaire. 
Mrs A. Oosthuizen of the Department of Statistical Consultancy Services, 
North-West University (Vaal Triangle Campus) for professional assistance 
and guidance with the empirical study. 
The staff of the Ferdinand Postma Library of North-West University (Vaal 
Triangle Campus) for their excellent service, especially Ms San Geldenhuys. 
The North-West University for granting me a bursary to undertake this study. 
The Vanderbijlpark and Vereeniging districts for granting me permission to 
conduct research at primary and secondary schools in their districts, with 
excellent assistance from principals in distributing and collecting 
questionnaires. 
Educators of D7 and D8 districts who participated in the study by completing 
the questionnaire. 
Magasela staff, my colleagues, for their encouragement and support; Vinah 
and Madineo: You've been noted for caring in the hour of need. 
My husband, Sekhele, for his special support during difficult times: You were 
a real source of strength and an umbrella. 
My children. Lenyora, you were always there for me. You taught me to 
persevere; 
Neo, ltumeleng and Zenande for being my source of strength and motivation. 
Guys, I have learnt a lot from you. 
My special friends, Siphokazi Kwatubana and Zoleka Ndamase, for extra- 
ordinary support and for being such a motivation and anchor in my life. 
Sipho Mqwati, for your brotherly support. It was noted. 
UMBONGO 
Kubazali bam abangasekhoyo u Fuyinkomo no Notobile Dalasile. lsiseko 
semfundiso yenu sizele ezi ziqhamo. Umzamo omhle niwufezile bazali bam. 
Lalani ngoxolo. 
Kwabosapho: Bukelwa Mzalisi; Tuletu; Tembelani; Zwelethemba; Ndibuze; 
Mbuyisa; Nomoto kunye nawe Nonceba. Ndibonge kakhulu ngothakazelelo 
nenkxaso enindinike yona nindinqwenelela okuhle kuzo zonke iinzame 
zokufunda h a m .  Ke ndicela umngenandlwini kubantwana bethu. Sakhiwo; 
Khanyisa ukwanda kwaliwa ngumthakathi! Zenande, uncumo lwakho luyakuhlala 
lundomeleza maxa onke. 
NCINCILILI!!! 
iii 
Abstract 
This study investigated the nature of a management strategy for the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic at schools, the effects of HIVIAIDS on the school system, 
and, on the basis of both the literature review and the empirical research, 
suggested a management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools. The literature review reveals that HIVIAIDS has the potential to affect 
schools through impacting on learners, educators, curriculum content, the 
school organization, control and planning of teaching and learning, and 
human, material, and financial resources for education. It also emerges from 
the literature review that the HIVIAIDS pandemic does not only affect learners 
and educators, but also attacks teaching and learning systems, and 
eventually impacts on the education system of the country. Demand for 
education drops, many educators become ill and die, and ultimately the 
tragedy caused by the loss of friends, family and educators grows. 
The literature review therefore highlights the necessity for schools to develop 
a management strategy to deal with the HIVIAIDS pandemic concertedly. 
This may not be a recipe for success, but without it, a school is much more 
likely to fail to function effectively and at the same time to lose educator 
human resources. A sound management strategy can serve as a framework 
for decisions and for securing support and approval of funds to help and 
support learners and educators infected with and affected by the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic. It can also provide a basis for more detailed planning to deal with 
the potential areas of the HIVIAIDS impact on learners, educators and the 
school systems in general. 
A satisfactory management strategy is realistic and allows school principals 
and their heads of 'departments to think strategically and act operationally. 
The management strategy of a school is guided by the principles that learners 
and educators with HIVIAIDS should be involved in all prevention, 
intervention and care strategies at school. 
The empirical research reveals the respondents' perceptions of fundamental 
issues such as the main reason for the mortality and absenteeism rate among 
educators at their respective schools, as well as the experience of their duties. 
This study recommends, on the basis of both the literature review and the 
empirical research, a management strategy that provides a strategic and 
operational framework for the prevention of the HIVIAIDS pandemic, guiding all 
stakeholders of the school, in HIVIAIDS prevention and in caring for and 
supporting victims effectively. 
Hierdie studie het die aard van 'n bestuurstrategie vir die MlVNlGS - pandemie 
op skole nagevors, asook die uitwerking van MIVNIGS op die skoolsisteem en, 
op grond van die literatuuroorsig en die empiriese navorsing, 'n bestuurstrategie 
voorgestel vir die hantering van die MlVNlGS - pandemie op skole. 
Die literatuursoorsig onthul dat MIVNIGS die potensiaal het om skole aan te tas 
deur in te werk op leerders, opvoeders, kurrikulum-inhoud, die skoolorganisasie, 
kontrole en beplanning van onderrig en leer, en menslike, materiele en finansiele 
bronne vir opvoeding. Dit blyk ook uit die literatuursoorsig dat die MlVNlGS - 
pandemie nie slegs berders en opvoeders beinvloed nie, maar ook onderrig- en 
leer - sisteme, en uiteindelik inwerk op die opvoeding - sisteem van die land. 
Aanvraag na opvoeding daal, baie opvoeders word siek en sterf, en uiteindelik 
vermeerder die tragedie veroorsaak deur die verlies aan vriende, familie en 
opvoeders. 
Die literatuursoorsig beklemtoon dus die noodsaaklikheid vir skole om 'n 
bestuurstrategie te ontwikkel om die MlVNlGS - pandemie omvattend te 
hanteer. Dit is dalk nie 'n suksesresep nie, maar daarsonder sal 'n skool meer 
geneig wees om in gebreke te bly om effektief te funksioneer en terselfdertyd 
opvoedersbronne te verloor. 'n Gesonde bestuurstrategie kan dien as 'n 
raamwerk vir besluite en vir die wewing van ondersteuning en die toewysing van 
fondse om leerders en opvoeders wat geinfekteer is met en geaffekteer is deur 
die MlVNlGS - pandemie te help en te ondersteun. Dit kan ook 'n grondslag 
voorsien vir meer gedetailleerde beplanning om die potensiele impak-areas van 
MlVNlGS op leerders, opvoeders en die skoolsisteme oor die algemeen te 
hanteer. 
'n Bevredigende bestuurstrategie is realisties en stel skoolhoofde en hul 
departmentshoofde in staat om strategies te dink en operasioneel op te tree. Die 
bestuurstrategie van 'n skool word gelei deur die beginsels dat leeders en 
opvoeders met MlVNlGS betrokke behoort te wees in alle voorkonings-, 
bemiddelende en versorguigstrategiee op skool. 
Die empiriese navorsing onthul die respondente se persepsies van fundarnentele 
sake soos die hoofrede vir die sterfte - en afwesigheidskoers onder opvoeders 
op hul onderskeie skole, asook hul belewing van hul pligte. 
Hierdie studie beveel, op grond van die literatuuroorsig en die ernpiriese 
navorsing, 'n bestuurstrategie aan wat 'n strategiese en operasionele raarnwerk 
vir die voorkorning van MlVNlGS sal voorsien, om alle belanghebbendes van die 
skool te lei in MlVNlGS - voorkorning en in die effektiewe versorging en 
ondersteuning van slagoffers. 
vii 
Table of contents 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
DEDICATION 
ABSTRACT 
OPSOMMING 
Chapter 1 
1 ORIENTATION 
1.1 INTRODUCTION 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY 
1.4 METHODS OF RESEARCH 
1.4.1 Literature research 
1.4.2 Empirical research 
1.5 MEASURING INSTRUMENT 
1.6 TARGET POPULATION 
1.7 ACCESSIBLE POPULATION 
1.8 SAMPLE 
1.9 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES 
1.10 PROGRAMME OF STUDY 
1 .I 1 CONCLUSION 
Chapter 2 
2.1 A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR DEALING WITH 
HIVIAIDS AT SCHOOLS 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
i 
iii 
iv 
vi 
viii 
2.2 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 11 
2.2.1 HIV 12 
2.2.2 AIDS 12 
2.2.3 STRATEGY 14 
2.2.3.1Strategy as a statement of goals, purpose, and intent 16 
2.2.3.2 Strategy as a high level plan 16 
2.2.3.3 Strategy as the means of beating the competition 17 
2.2.3.4 Strategy as an element of management 17 
2.2.3.5 Strategy as positioning for the future 18 
2.2.3.6 Strategy as building capability 18 
2.2.3.7 Strategy as fit between capabilities and opportunities 18 
2.2.3.8 Strategy as the result of deep involvement with the school 18 
2.2.3.9 Strategy as a pattern of behaviour resulting from embedded culture 19 
2.2.3.10Strategy as an emerging pattern of successful behaviour 
2.2.4 Vision 
2.3 THE EXTENT OF HIV AND AlDS IN SOUTH AFRICA 
2.3.1 Estimated HIV prevalence in 1999-2003 among antenatal 
clinic attendees per province 
2.3.2 Estimated average percentage of HIV prevalence among 
antenatal clinic attendees per age group 
2.4 THE IMPACT OF HIV AND AlDS ON SCHOOL SYSTEMS 
2.5 MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 
2.5.1 Determining the school's purpose and vision 
2.5.2 Exploiting and maintaining core competencies 
2.5.3 Developing human capital 
2.5.4 Establishing strategic controls 
2.5.5 Skills-based education 
2.5.5.1Teaching life skills as a strategy to manage the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools 
2.5.5.2 Monitoring and evaluation of life skills education 
2.5.6 Emphasizing ethical controls 
2.6 THE ROLE OF A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN DEALING WITH 
HIVIAIDS 36 
2.6.1 Guiding the school's response to HIVIAIDS 38 
2.6.2 Establishment of the health advisory committee 40 
2.6.3 Designing and adopting HIVIAIDS policies 42 
Dissemination of information on HIVIAIDS 43 
2.6.5 Establishing support for infected and affected learners 44 
2.7 THE KEY COMPONENTS OF THE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 52 
FOR DEALING WITH HIVIAIDS 
2.7.1 Committed and informed leadership 52 
2.7.2 Collective dedication 53 
2.7.3 Policy and regulatory framework 54 
2.8 CONCLUSION 55 
Chapter 3 
3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
3.2 METHOD OF RESEARCH 
3.2.1 Literature study 
3.2.2 Empirical research 
3.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE POPULATION 
3.4 METHOD OF RANDOM SAMPLING 
3.5 RANDOM SAMPLE SIZE 
3.6 COVERING LETTER 
3.7 PROCEDURE 
3.8 THE COMPOSITION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE (CLOSED AND 
OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS) 
3.9 FEEDBACK OF THE RESEARCH POPULATION GROUP 
ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE 
3.9.1 Number of respondents per school category 
3.10 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES 
3.1 1 CONCLUSION 
Chapter 4 
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 
4.2 DATA ON DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 
4.3.1The t- test 
4.3.2The p-value 
4.3.3The d-value (effect size) 
4.8 CONCLUSION 
Chapter 5 
5 SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
5.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
5.2.1 Findings and conclusion from the literature study 
5.2.2 Statement of the problem 
5.2.3 Findings and conclusion from the empirical investigation 
5.2.4 Problems and possible shortcomings of the research 
5.2.5 Limitations of the study 
5.2.6 Missing data 
5.2.7 Measuring instrument 
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 
5.3.1 Confidentiality, respect, sensitivity and kindness in dealing with 
HIVIAIDS matters 
5.3.2 Promotion and encouragement of voluntary HIV- testing 
5.3.3 Non-segregation of learners and staff living with HIVIAIDS 
from learners and staff not living with HIVIAIDS 
5.3.4 Availability of pre- and post testing counseling for learners and staff 96 
5.3.5 Universal precautions 
5.3.6 Availability of condoms 
5.3.7 Management of STDs 
5.3.8 Non-consensual (coercive) sex among learners and staff 
5.3.9 Management of HIVIAIDS and opportunistic diseases 
5.3.10 Partnership 
5.3.1 1 Capacity building 
5.3.12 Promotion of the rights of learners and personnel to protection 
Contact tracing 
5.3.14 Placement on medical grounds 
5.3.15 Cooperation with other organizations 
5.4 Conclusion 
Bibliography 
Appendix 
xii 
List of tables 
Table 2.1 HIVIAIDS prevalence according to the age group 
Table 2.2 HIVIAIDS prevalence according to sex and race 
Table 2.3 HIV prevalence and numbers of people tested 
Table 2.4 HIV prevalence on South African population 
Table 3.1 Feedback of the population group 
Table 3.2 Type of schools 
Table 3.3 Number of educators 
Table 3.4 Location of participating schools 
Table 4.1 Distribution according to types of schools 
Table 4.2 Levels of schools in which participants teach 
Table 4.3 Distribution according to current post 
Table 4.4 Distribution according to teaching phases 
Table 4.5 Distribution according to Government's classification 
of schools 
Table 4.6 Reasons for mortality rate among educators 
Table 4.7 Feeling and attitudes among educators 
Table 4.8 Reasons for absenteeism 
Table 4.9The effects of HIVIAIDS on educators 
Table 4.10The effects of HIVIAIDS on learners 
Table 4.1 1The effects of HIVIAIDS on teaching and learning 
Table 4.12 Pre-requisites for effective teaching and learning 
xiii 
Chapter 1 
Orientation 
I .I Introduction 
Both national and international research reveals that in most parts of the world 
the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the acquired immune deficiency 
syndrome (AIDS) have become the most common diagnosis among learners 
and educators (Tucker, Wenzel, Elliot, Hambarsoomian & Golinelli, 2003:415; 
World Health Organization, 2003:7). Many schools in South Africa are likely to 
see a huge increase in the prevalence of infection and the manifestation of 
this pandemic among learners and educators over the next few years. This 
increase in prevalence is caused by a number of factors, infer aha, the 
learners' temptation to explore their sexual identities and often not only 
experiment with sex, but also with drugs, which leads them to fornication and 
promiscuous sexual behaviour. Learners' sexual behaviour tends to be 
impulsive and is greatly influenced by peer pressure. This leads to their being 
sexually active at a very tender age to ignorance and illiteracy concerning how 
HIV is contracted (Brewer, 2003:144; Wallman, 2000:189). 
Literature has also revealed that educators' absenteeism due to illnesses 
caused by HIVIAIDS has affected learning and teaching. When an educator 
falls ill, the class may be taken on by another educator, may be combined with 
another class or left untaught. But even when there is a sufficient supply of 
educators to replace losses, there can be a significant impact on the learners 
because some of the replacement educators are not the same as the ones 
who are ill or have died. They cannot teach or do the work as well as the ones 
infected by HIVIAIDS (Cross, 2001:133; Luzinda, Senabulya & Musiitwa, 
2000:140). 
As most researchers have pointed out, HIVIAIDS wreak havoc on the 
psychological health and mental functions of learners and educators such as 
memory, concentration, and creativity (Donahue, 2000:78; Goyer & Gow, 
2000: 102). Behavioural efficiency and effectiveness, interpersonal 
relationships and personal productivity are also limited (Green, 2003:152; 
Desmond, Michael & Gow, 2000:39). Because of the physical and 
psychological demands involved in coping with this dreadful disease, it is not 
surprising that physicians and psychologists have suggested that 
experiencing HIVIAIDS will have a negative effect on an infected learner and 
educator in hislher general functioning at school (Kelly, 2000:43; Ayele, 
Dorigo-Zetsma & Pollakis, 2003:373). Learners and educators infected and 
affected by HIVIAIDS cannot function effectively and this impacts on effective 
learning and teaching and as such, the whole learning and teaching system is 
disrupted, and eventually the whole school cannot function and develop 
efficiently. 
Some insight into what this apocalyptic scenario means for the functioning of 
the school system can be gleaned from an examination of the potential multiple 
effects of HIVIAIDS on education, such as: 
decline in school enrolment as a result of the death of learners; 
the quality of education suffering because of educator absenteeism and 
deaths; 
erratic performance of duties by educators; 
education budgets are depleted through double payment of educators, 
as sick educators have to be replaced while on fully paid sick leave; and 
the emotional and physical stress and pains that HIV infected and 
AlDS suffering learners and educators go through which impact on 
their effective learning and teaching abilities (Barnett & Whiteside, 
2002: 105). 
All these variables have a devastating impact on the general effective 
functioning of the school system. 
Research has revealed that learners and educators infected with HIV and 
suffering from AlDS face discrimination because of their HIV positive status. 
The foregoing paragraphs indicate a necessity for a management strategy in 
order to deal with the HIVIAIDS pandemic concertedly. This may not be a 
2 
recipe for success, but without it, a school is much more likely to fail to 
function effectively and at the same time to lose educator human resources. A 
sound management strategy can: 
serve as a framework for decisions and for securing support and 
approval of funds to help and support learners and educators infected 
with and affected by the HIVIAIDS pandemic; 
provide a basis for more detailed planning to deal with the potential 
areas of HIVIAIDS impact on learners, educators and the school 
systems in general; 
explain the HIVIAIDS vision and mission statement to learners, 
educators, parents and communities in order to inform, motivate and 
involve them in the struggle against this deadly pandemic; 
assist benchmarking and performing and monitoring of the school in 
dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic; and 
stimulate organizational change and become a building block in the 
next HIVIAIDS plan (Dean & Moalusi, 2002:22; Groenewald, 2000:46; 
Pretorius, 2002:6). 
A satisfactory management strategy is realistic and allows school 
principals and their heads of departments to think strategically and act 
operationally. The management strategy of the school is guided by the 
principles that: 
learners and educators with HIVIAIDS should be involved in all 
prevention, intervention and care strategies at school; 
learners and educators with HIVIAIDS, their partners, families and 
friends should not suffer because of discrimination; 
the vulnerable position of women at school should be addressed, to 
ensure that they do not suffer discrimination, nor remain unable to take 
effective measures to prevent infection; 
confidentiality and informed consent of learners and educators with 
regard to HIV testing and test results should be protected; 
education, counselling and health care should be sensitive to the 
culture, language and social circumstances of all learners and 
educators at all times; 
all intervention and care strategies should be subject to critical 
evaluation and assessment; 
the school should work with all sectors of government and other 
stakeholders in their communities in the fight against HIVIAIDS; 
an ecosystemic, constructivist and holistic approach to education and 
care should be developed and sustained; 
capacity building should be emphasized to accelerate HIVIAIDS 
prevention and control measures; and 
the prevention and control of sexually transmitted diseases' (STDs) are 
central elements in the response to HIVIAIDS (Alemayehu, 2003:23; 
Department of Social Development, 2000:147; Bentwich, Weisman, 
Borkow, Beyers & Beyers, 2002:485). 
Unlike an operational strategy (which is of a shorter term, tactical, focused, 
implementable and measurable), a management strategy is visionary, 
conceptual and directional (Amogne & Abubaker, 2002:397; Grobler, 
2003:22). An example of the management strategy for combating HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools includes strategic issues such as where, when, duration, 
budget, who performs certain duties, and how the goals are to be achieved. 
An operational strategy includes operational issues such as tasks, deadlines, 
funding, and so and has to do with the final preparations of implementations 
(Dudgeon, Phillips, Bopp & Hand, 2004:81; Cordes, Moll, Kuecherer & 
Marcus, 2004:582). The primary goals for the management strategy are to 
reduce the number of new HIV infections (especially among learners and 
educators), and reduce the impact of HIVIAIDS on individuals, families and 
communities (Howse, 2000:678; Smart, 2000:13). 
Yigemeru, Girmachew and Wudie (2002:172) have highlighted the following 
general strategies, which are crucial in developing an effective management 
strategy: 
an effective and culturally appropriate information, education and 
communications (IEC) strategy; 
increased access and acceptability to Voluntary HIV Counselling and 
Testing; 
improved STD management, treatment of opportunistic infections and 
increased condom use to reduce STD and HIV transmission; and 
improved care and treatment of HIV positive persons and persons living 
with AIDS, to promote a better quality of life and limit the need for hospital 
care. 
Sutton (2001:75) and Hancock (2001:275) postulate that the management 
strategy should be structured according to prevention; treatment, care and 
support; human and legal rights; and monitoring, research and surveillance. In 
addition, learners are broadly targeted as a priority population group, 
especially for prevention efforts. 
1.2 Statement of the problem 
A school with a high number of learners, educators and non-teaching staff 
members infected and affected by HIV and AlDS cannot function efficiently 
and effectively since learners infected and affected with HIV and AlDS cannot 
cope with learning and cannot perform their learning tasks to the fullest of 
their abilities while infected and affected educators cannot teach effectively 
because they are often ill and absent from school, and this has an effect on 
the efficient and effective management of the school. 
Little empirical research has been undertaken on the need for an educational 
management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic at schools. It 
is, therefore, of the essence to conduct such a research in South Africa, which 
is said to be among the top nations, which are being ravaged by the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic (Colvin, 2000:335; Stillwaggon, 2000:3). Statistics estimate that 
there are 250 new infections in South Africa every day, which includes 
learners and educators (World Health Organization, 2003:178). Research 
estimates that the infection rate among educators is 12% of the general 
population (Department of Health, 2003:159). Projections suggest that 
around one in seven educators was infected with HIV by the end of last year 
and there is also an increasing occurrence of illness and deaths among 
younger staff (Kidane, Banteyena & Nyblade, 2003:38) with educator losses 
averaging 1, 5% biennially. Many schools report a high rate of absenteeism of 
educators due to illness as a major and increasing problem (Badcock-Waiters, 
2000:137; Coombe, 2000:36). 
This research therefore endeavours to investigate the extent of the effects of 
HIVIAIDS at schools and, on the basis of literature review findings and 
empirical research, to make suggestions for a management strategy, which 
schools could adopt in order to deal with the HIVIAIDS pandemic. It answers 
the following questions: 
0 What is the nature of the management strategy for the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools? 
What is the effect of the HIVIAIDS pandemic on the school system? 
What management strategy can be effective in dealing with the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic at schools? 
1.3 Aims of the study 
The aims of this research are to: 
determine the nature of the management strategy for the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools; 
determine the effects of the HIVIAIDS on the school system; and 
suggest a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools. 
1.4 Methods of research 
Literature review and empirical research methods were used in this 
investigation. 
1.4.1 Literature Review 
Primary sources that were consulted include current international and national 
journals, papers presented at professional meetings, dissertations by 
graduate students' reports written by school and university researchers, and 
both South African Acts 27 and 84 of 1996, which provide information on how 
far research on HIVIAIDS at schools and their effects on teaching, learning 
and management of schools have progressed. South African Acts were 
consulted for governmental and departmental policy theoretical frameworks. 
Books on HIVIAIDS serve as secondary sources. 
1.4.2 Empirical Research 
In addition to the literature study, data were collected by means of 
questionnaires. These data were analysed and interpreted. 
The research was conducted as follows: 
Permission was requested from the authorities of districts 7 and 8 in 
Vereeniging and Vanderbijlpark respectively to conduct this research in a 
sample of both primary and secondary schools under their jurisdiction. The 
researcher personally visited these schools to deliver and collect the 
questionnaires. 
1.4.2.1 Measuring instrument 
An unstandardized questionnaire which was designed by the North-West 
University's School of Educational Sciences (Vaal Triangle Campus) was 
used to determine: 
the nature of the management strategy for the HIVIAIDS pandemic in 
schools; 
the effects of the HIVIAIDS on the school system; and 
suggest a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools. 
This questionnaire was used because a standardized questionnaire relevant 
to the study in question could not be found. Only internationally developed 
questionnaires were available and were not appropriate for the problem 
statement of this research. 
1.4.2.2 Target population 
All members of school management teams (principals, deputy principals and 
heads of department) and educators (educators on post level one) of public 
schools in the townships and farm schools of the Gauteng Province were 
initially considered to be the target population. 
1.4.2.3 Accessible population 
Because of the large number of public schools in the Gauteng Province which 
would have taken long to visit and incurred huge financial implications, it was 
decided to limit the target population to the township and farm schools in the 
Vaal Triangle area of the Gauteng Province. 
1.4.2.4 Sample 
A randomly selected sample (N= 400) of managers and educators of schools 
at 30 schools in the Vaal Triangle was drawn. These managers and educators 
were supplied with the questionnaires on a management strategy for dealing 
with the HIVIAIDS pandemic at schools. 
1.4.2.5 Statistical techniques 
The data obtained from the target population were analysed, using the SPSS 
programme of the Statistical Consultation Services of North-West University. 
1.5 Programme of study 
Chapter 1 is primarily an orientation chapter, preparing the reader for the 
subsequent chapters. 
8 
In Chapter 2 a management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic 
at schools is discussed. 
In Chapter 3 the empirical design is motivated. The purpose of the research, 
the method of research, the choice of the target group, and the development 
of the questionnaire are discussed. 
In Chapter 4 the research results are statistically analysed and interpreted. 
The concluding Chapter 5 provides a summary of findings from the literature 
study as well as from the empirical design. Recommendations for further 
research and for practical implementation are also presented. 
1.6 Conclusion 
In Chapter 1 the orientation of the research, in the form of the statement of the 
problem, the aims of the research, the methods of research, and the 
programme of research were discussed. 
In Chapter 2 the management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic at schools is discussed by means of a literature survey. 
Chapter 2 
A management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools 
2.1 Introduction 
School management teams are often so pre-occupied with teaching and 
learning issues that they lose sight of their strategic role in dealing with the 
threats and challenges posed by the HIVIAIDS pandemic at their schools. 
This leaves learners (the age group which is particularly exposed to 
experimenting with sex) and staff vulnerable to HIV infection and consequent 
discrimination. 
It is this reason that has lead researchers such as Barnett, Whiteside and 
Desmond (2000:189), Dennis (2000:34) and Arndt and Lewis (2000:77) to 
advocate that schools need to put in place management strategies that will, 
among other things, promote awareness about HIVIAIDS in order to prevent 
infection, address discrimination, encourage voluntary counselling and testing, 
and integrate HIVIAIDS issues into the curriculum. Such health-promoting 
management and leadership endeavours need to ensure that school policies 
protect both learners and staff. 
This chapter provides a literature review of the impact of the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic on school systems, the management strategy, and the 
management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS. Before the management 
strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS is discussed, pertinent concepts which are 
used in this chapter are first exposed. 
2.2 Definition of concepts 
The following concepts, which are applied throughout this research, are 
defined in order to provide both the scientific use of the concepts and the 
context in which they are applied in this research: 
2.2.1 HIV 
The acronym HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. This virus is 
human because it causes diseases only in people; immunodeficient because 
the immune system, which normally protects the body against viruses and 
diseases, becomes weak; and viral because, like all viruses, HIV is a small 
organism that affects living things and uses them to multiply itself 
(Kumaranayake & Watts, 2000:91). 
This definition means that once the human immunodeficiency virus gets into a 
person's body, it slowly breaks down the immune system (McNeil & Donald, 
2002:13; Delnessa & Nduba, 2003:60). 
HIV is, therefore, a very small and microscopic germ or organism (virus) with 
which people become infected. It cannot be seen with the naked eye, but only 
under a microscope. HIV survives and multiplies only in body fluids such as 
sperm, vaginal fluids, blood and breast milk (Fitaw & Worku, 2003:382; 
Goliber, 2000:71; Kamuzora, 2000:9). People become infected only through 
contact with infected body fluids. HIV attacks the immune system, which is the 
body's natural ability to fight illness and its defence against infection, and 
reduces the body's resistance to all kinds of illness, including flu, diarrhea, 
pneumonia, tuberculosis and certain cancers. HIV can make the body so 
weak that it cannot fight sickness anymore, and cannot heal itself. In the 
process this deadly human immunodeficiency virus slowly gets stronger and 
stronger. When the human immunodeficiency virus has weakened the 
person's immune system, helshe starts to get sick more often (Kaplan, Hu, 
Holmes, Jafee, Masur & Decock, 2000:6). In the human blood stream, the 
human immunodeficiency virus is attracted to white blood cells, known as T4 
helper lymphocytes, which are among the most important in the working of the 
body's immune system because of their effect in causing various different 
cells to become active in fighting infections, including the cells that produce 
anti-bodies (Wolday, Flener & Zeru, 2003:151; Walker & Gilbert, 2002:75). 
From the foregoing paragraphs, it is apparent that HIV causes damage in the 
following ways: it enters T4 helper cells and uses the cells' own reproductive 
11 
material to reproduce itself. Eventually numerous copies of the virus break out 
of the cells, killing them. Then they find other T4 cells to invade, and the 
process starts again (Hughes-Gibbs, 2000:21; Anderson, Ebrahim & Sansom, 
2004:165). It then causes uninfected T4 helper cells to clump around infected 
T4 cells, thus immobilizing them. Tiger types of cells dependent on T4 helper 
cells cease to function properly as the T4 helper cells become depleted. 
Some cells, other than T4 helper cells, may be directly attacked by the virus 
or by the damaged immune system itself (Wolday, Girma, Hailu, Sanders & 
Fontanet, 2003:45). 
This destruction of the immune system means that infectious organisms can 
invade the body largely unchallenged, and multiply to cause serious 
opportunistic diseases like weight loss, dry cough, recurring fever or profuse 
night sweats, profound and unexplained fatigue, swollen lymph glands in the 
armpits, groin, or neck; diarrhoea that lasts for more than a week; white spots 
or unusual blemishes on the tongue, in the mouth or in the throat; red, brown, 
pink, or purplish blotches on or under the skin or inside the mouth, nose, or 
eyelids; memory loss, depression and other neurological disorders; 
tuberculosis, pneumonia, gastro-enteritis, meningitis and cancer which affect 
both the physical and psychological wellness of people infected with 
HIVIAIDS (Eisenman, Cunningham, Zierler, Nakazono & Shapiro, 2003:125; 
Kibret, 2003:39). It is during this process that full-blown acquired immune - 
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) begins. 
2.2.2 AlDS 
AlDS is an acronym standing for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is 
assumed that this disease is acquired because it is not inherited. It is caused 
by a virus, which enters the body from the outside (MacPhail, Campbell, 
Williams & Van Dam, 2000:113; Bentwich, 2003:6; Hill & Fardiman, 2003:105; 
Crewe, 2000:12). Immunity refers to the body's natural inherent ability to 
defend itself against infection and disease. Deficiency refers to the fact that 
the body's immune system has been weakened so that it can no longer 
defend itself against passing infections. Syndrome is a medical term which 
refers to a set or collection of specific signs and symptoms that occur together 
and that are characteristic of a particular pathological condition. Aids is not a 
specific illness but a collection of many different conditions that manifest in the 
body (or specific parts of the body) because of the human immunodeficiency 
virus which has so weakened the body's immune system that it can no longer 
fight the pathogen (or disease - causing agent) that invades the body. It is a 
syndrome of opportunistic diseases, infections and certain cancers, all of 
which have the ability to kill the infected person in the final stages of the 
disease (Demissie, Getahun & Lindtjorn, 2003:455; Kwatubana, 2004:3). The 
AlDS virus infects the body by entering the blood stream. It then attacks the 
immune system and gradually destroys it. Infection with the virus develops in 
the following three stages of which AlDS is the last: 
o In Stage1 a person is infected, but feels healthy. At this point slhe has 
not yet developed AIDS. Slhe looks and feels well and usually does not 
know that the virus is in his body. However, from the moment of 
infection he can pass on the virus to others. During this stage the virus 
begins to attack the immune system by entering and destroying a 
specialized white blood cell called the T4 lymphocyte. 
o In stage 2 the person becomes sick. After about five years, the number 
of T4 cells has usually decreased dramatically and the immune system 
becomes so weak that the body can no longer effectively defend itself. 
Major symptoms and opportunistic diseases begin to appear as the 
immune system continues to deteriorate. At this point, the cell count 
becomes very low while the viral load becomes very high. The person 
feels tired and becomes sick more often than before. He may develop 
the following symptoms: constant unexplained fevers that last more 
than a month, night sweats, tiredness, skin infections such as rashes, 
boils and abscesses, diarrhea, significant and unexplained weight loss, 
thrush in the mouth, genital sores that do not heal, generalized 
lymphadenopathy, abdominal discomfort, headaches and persistent 
cough. During this stage, these illnesses can usually be effectively 
treated and controlled and a person can still lead a full and active life 
(Rosen, Simon, Thea & Vincent, 2000:300; Weinstock, Berman & 
Cates, 2004:6). 
o In Stage 3, it becomes serious and the person is ill. At this stage the T4 
cells have been destroyed and a person's immune system shows signs 
of serious damage. The body can no longer fight off infections and 
cancers. A person now experiences one or more of the following illness 
problems: pneumonia, tuberculosis, kaposi's sarcoma, prolonged 
diarrhea, excessive weight loss, infection of the brain; helshe becomes 
weaker and weaker and eventually dies (Wilkinson & Dore, 2000:276; 
Barnett & Whiteside, 2000:66). According to Govender, Mclntyre, 
Grimwood and Maartens (2000:352) symptoms of HIV infection in 
children are failure to cope with the demands of general life, weight 
loss, prolonged fever, recurrent oral thrash, chronic diarrhea and 
gastroenteritis, tuberculosis, recurrent bacterial infections (causing 
upper respiratory tract infections, otitis media or ear infections, 
pneumonia, urinary tract infections and meningitis), lymphoid intestinal 
pneumonitis (characterized by a continuous cough and mild wheezing), 
anaemia, pallor, nose bleeds, persistent generalized lymphadenopathy 
(swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, armpit and groin), delays in 
attaining developmental milestones or the loss of those already 
attained, and complicated chicken pox or measles. The time lapse 
between infection and the onset of full-blown AlDS is usually much 
shorter in children than it is in adults (Klepp, Fuglesang, Flisher, 
Leshabari, Lie & Mapanga, 2000:38). 
o In stage 4, full-blown AlDS and death result. Typically, a person not 
receiving treatment will die within a year and a half of reaching this 
stage (Human Rights Watch, 2001:489). 
2.2.3 Strategy 
Strategy is defined as a long-term plan, a vision for the future, a fundamental 
framework through which an organization can assert its continuity, while at the 
same time adapting to a changing environment; basic directional decisions, 
such as purposes and missions (Boal, 2000:515; Kirt & Waschkuhn, 
2001:101). 
A strategy consists of the important actions necessary to realize these 
directions and answers the following questions: 
What should the organization be doing? 
What are the ends (goals) the organization seeks to achieve and how 
should it achieve them (Sheared & Kakabadse, 2002:129; Robinson, 
1998: l52)? 
Campbell and Alexander (1998:42) argue that strategy is about being 
different. It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a 
unique mix of values. Steinthorsson and Soderholm (2002:69) also argue that 
strategy is about competitive position, about differentiating the school in the 
eyes of the parents, about adding value through a mix of activities different 
from those used by other school organizations. For Bratton and Gold 
(2003:55), a strategy is a combination of the ends (goals) for which the school 
is striving and the means (policies) by which it is seeking to get there. 
Strategy also refers to the means by which policy is effected, thus strategy 
becomes the art of distributing and applying means to fulfil the ends of policy 
(Dollar & Kraay, 2001:53; Nowlan, 2000:987). 
Elford, Bolding and Sherr (2004:151) argue that strategy emerges over time, 
as intentions collide with and accommodate a changing reality. Thus, one 
might start with a perspective and conclude that it calls for a certain position, 
which is to be achieved by way of a carefully crafted plan, with the eventual 
outcome and strategy reflected in a pattern evident in decisions and actions 
over time. This pattern in decisions and actions defines what Mintzberg 
(1998:421) called "realized or emergent strategy". 
Hey (2003:53) asserts that strategy is the pattern of decisions in a school that 
determines and reveals its objectives, purposes and goals; produces the 
principal policies and plans for achieving those goals; and defines the range 
of activities the school is to pursue, the kind of economic and human 
15 
organization it is or intends to be, and the nature of the economic and non- 
economic contribution it intends to make to its shareholders, that is: 
educators, learners and communities. In short, a strategy is a term that refers 
to a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experiences, goals, expertise, 
memories, perceptions, and expectations that provide general guidance for 
specific actions in pursuit of particular ends. Therefore, strategy is a course 
the school charts, the journey the school imagines and, at the same time, it is 
the course the school steers, and the trip the school actually makes. Even 
when schools are embarking on a voyage of discovery, with no particular 
destination in mind, the voyage has a purpose, an outcome, an end to be kept 
in view (Lorangr, 1998:18). Strategy, therefore, cannot exist without the goals 
that the school is striving for. 
Strategy has the following multiple aspects: 
2.2.3.1 Strategy as a form of statement of goals, purpose and intent 
Education, upliftment of self-respect and accommodation of moral value 
standards of learners and educators should be the purpose of the future. The 
underlying purpose being to create a healthy teaching and conducive learning 
environment where learners and educators are less threatened by the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic. The role of strategy is to determine, clarify and refine 
purpose. This may require creating new visions of the future to inspire the 
school to greater efforts or wider scope (Osborn, 2000:37). 
2.2.3.2 Strategy as a high level plan 
The HIVIAIDS pandemic can influence different contexts in ways that it has 
acquired which schools cannot always anticipate. Achieving the best strategy 
is important in doing a contextual analysis to understand the reality and define 
what the needs and priorities are. The strategy defines such means in broad 
and general terms. As detail is added and it answers the questions: who, 
when, where, how, and with what, the strategy develops into a plan or 
perhaps a set of plans with varying scope and focus. It is impossible to draw a 
hard distinction between a strategy and a plan. In general, strategies tend to 
16 
be at a higher level and to take an overall view; while plans tend to be more 
detailed, more quantified, and more specific about times and responsibilities. 
However, some details may be so essential to the strategy that they become 
'strategic' (Bottery, 2000:6). 
Therefore, as a high level plan, strategy entails 
2.2.3.3 Strategy as the means of beating the competition 
Many ideas about strategy derive from analogies of war and games. One aim 
of strategy is to win and this means beating the enemy or winning the 
competition in a game which may be won or lost (Smit & Cronje, 2001:68). As 
the HIVIAIDS virus attacks human beings, they, in turn, must fight to 
overpower this deadly disease and to win the battle against it. Schools' 
strategies are therefore required to keep ahead of the tough competition 
among business organizations to beat the pandemic. They may also have 
strategies (or stratagems) for out-manoeuvring particular competitors at 
particular times for particular kinds of positive results (Cluster, 2001:l; 
UNAIDS, 2000:79). 
2.2.3.4 Strategy as an element of management 
School managers are expected to know and understand that a strategy is part 
of management and setting strategy is one of the responsibilities of 
managers. For school managers to think and act strategically, they need to 
evaluate the effects of their actions on educators and the response of 
educators on their actions. No school manager can lead a school if helshe 
does not agree with its strategy. However, school managers should agree on 
a set strategy agreed upon by other stakeholders such as educators, parents 
and learners (in the case of secondary schools) about dealing with the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic in schools. Conversely, schools which have no proper 
management or are inadequately managed have difficulty defining clear 
strategies even if they continue to function in their day-to-day activities. When 
managers change, strategies tend to change. Conversely, if the strategy 
needs to change, it may be necessary to appoint a new manager. A change of 
17 
managers may be both a symbol that a change in strategy has occurred and 
an opportunity to appoint an individual with a management style appropriate 
to the new strategy. Other managers possess characteristics that are more 
appropriate for the long, slow building of a school over many years (Goldman, 
2002:431; Beer, 2000:18). 
2.2 3.5 Strategy as positioning for the future 
As the HIVIAIDS pandemic is being felt in our schools, it is necessary that a 
strategy be seen as preparation for the uncertainty of the future of learners, 
educators and schools. It is therefore necessary to position schools for the 
future so as to be prepared for this uncertainty. One way to achieve this is to 
make schools more adaptable (Aharoni, 2000:89). 
2.2 3.6 Strategy as building capability 
Some educators may show certain capabilities which may be seen as 
improving the chances of future success of schools in the fight against 
HIVIAIDS and a strategy may lay a firm foundation on which these capabilities 
are to be built. The capabilities of educators may be exceptional or even 
unique. The essence of any school is partly defined by the unique set of skills 
and knowledge of its educators and teams. Strategic building of capabilities 
can exploit this uniqueness. For example, this may involve maintaining a lead 
in specific technical skills or investing to sustain a general ability to react fast 
to unexpected circumstances (Danspeckgruber, 2002:190). 
2.2 3.7 Strategy as a fit between capabilities and opportunities 
One of the aims of a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS 
pandemic should be to create an impressive and inviting learning and 
teaching atmosphere without fear of discrimination for learners and educators 
already affected and infected. Another is opportunities for the development of 
learning programmes that will be of use when learners are unable to attend 
school because of the intense sickness. The success results from a good 
match between the capabilities of the school and the opportunities that should 
serve the needs of both infected and affected learners and educators. One 
aspect of strategy is to improve the fit between capabilities and the 
opportunities available and thereby to make learning more accommodative, 
conducive and fruitful (Kirt & Waschkuhn, 2001:101). 
2.2 3.8 Strategy as the result of deep involvement with the school 
This aspect contrasts with the idea of strategy as detached thinking about the 
school. Mintzberg (1998:423) coined the term "crafting strategy" and uses the 
analogy of a potter throwing a pot on a wheel. While the potter will have had 
an original intention for the design of the pot, the final shape of the pot 
depends also on the interaction of the potter's hands with the clay as it rotates 
on the wheel. Schools need to be particularly good at allowing their strategies 
to emerge from the deep involvement of school managers with the school 
rather than from doing abstract exercises in strategy formulation (Michaluk, 
2002: 301). 
2.2.3.9 Strategy as a pattern of behaviour resulting from embedded 
culture 
Every school has its own culture, determined by the community in which it is 
situated. This culture is easy to observe, but hard to change. The strategies 
that a school is able to adopt are partly determined by this culture. Those 
within the school see the outside world through their own conditioned 
perspective and this influences everything they do and permeates their 
strategy even though they may be unaware of this. In addition, since cultures 
are hard to imitate, culture may sometimes be a source of competitive 
advantage (Nwagwu, 1997:87). 
2.2 3.10 Strategy as an emerging pattern of successful behaviour 
Few strategies are implemented in their entirety in the form in which they were 
formulated. Similarly, the reasons for success when analysed retrospectively 
may be different from what was expected in advance. Part of strategy may 
therefore be in recognizing the patterns that seem to have led to success, 
19 
even if these patterns arose by chance rather than as a result of planned 
actions. 
These multiple aspects of strategy are separable, but not usually 
contradictory. 
2.2.4 Vision 
According to Jimenez and Sawada (1998:210), a vision relates to some 
futuristic ideal, to some notion of how things could/should be, and can reflect 
an aspired state of being for an individual, a school, or a society. It indicates 
what the school as an organization exists to achieve and what it is willing and 
not willing to do to achieve it and it provides a sense of direction and purpose 
which inspires people and puts meaning into their lives (Thomson & Strickland 
111, 1999:95). Secor (2003:13) states that a vision serves as a unifying focal 
point of effort and acts as a catalyst for team spirit. 
Cornelissen (1999:14) views determining a school's vision as a process of 
developing a long-term direction, which involves gathering a broad range of 
data and looking for patterns, relationships and linkages that help to explain 
things. The process produces or creates a vision and strategies that describe 
activities, technology and corporate culture futuristically and articulates a 
feasible way of achieving this future. Noble (1999:19) believes that this ability 
to influence educators to make decisions that enhance the school voluntarily 
is the most important part of a management strategy. 
2.3 The extent of HIVIAIDS in South Africa 
The Department of Health's study conducted among antenatal sexually active 
women (DOH, 2003:159), estimates that 4.7 million people were living with 
HIV in South Africa in 2003. Based on extrapolation of the results of this 2003 
survey, the Department of Health estimates that 5.6 million South Africans 
were HIV positive by the end of 2003. These high prevalence rates show what 
a significant problem HIVIAIDS is in South Africa, with enormous social, 
economic and development implications. The rates also indicate the future 
burden of HIV- associated diseases and the difficulties faced by the health 
system in coping with the provision of adequate care and support. The Nelson 
Mandela study of HIVIAIDS (2002:42) suggests that a survey which looks only 
at the prevalence of HIVIAIDS among sexually active women will have 
difficulty in drawing conclusions about their prevalence among other sections 
of the population. The Nelson Mandela survey is a 'household' study looking 
at a proportional cross-section of society. A total of 14450 people were 
selected, of whom 4001 were children, 3720 youths and 6729 adults. Of 
these, 93.6% responded, and 65.4% of those who responded agreed to give a 
specimen for a HIV test. 
The tables below show the estimated HIV prevalence per Province and per 
age Group. The HIV prevalence is the percentage of people tested in each 
group who were found to be infected with HIV. The tables only display the 
average percentage of the minimum and maximum rates for HIV prevalence. 
The confidence interval is outlined in the original study (UNAIDS, 2003:212). 
2.3.1 Estimated HIV prevalence 1999-2003 per province among antenatal 
clinic attendees 
In 2003, the province that recorded the highest HIV rate among antenatal 
attendees was KwaZulu-Natal, which had a rate of 37.5%, an increase of 4% 
since 2001. The next highest HIV levels were found in Mpumalanga (32.6), 
and Free State (30.1) 
2.3.2 Estimated average percentage of HIV prevalence 1999-2002 per age 
among antenatal clinic attendees 
Table 2.1 Halperin and Epstein (2004:364) 
2003 Prevalence q Age P U P  < 20 20-24 25-29 
30-34 
35-39 
40+ 
An estimated 34.5% of women aged 25 - 29 were infected with HIV, making 
this the age group with the highest prevalence rate. 29.5% of women aged 30 
- 34 were estimated to be infected and 29.1% of women aged 20 - 24 years 
were estimated to be infected. The rest of the age groups had lower 
prevalence rates. There were increases in the HIV prevalence in the 25 - 29 
and 30 - 34 years age groups, which were statistically significant, and the 
increase in the 40+ year's age group was statistically very significant. The 
prevalence rates in the <20 years age group suggests a continued 
stabilization, which is encouraging. 
The figures below show the HIV prevalence estimates produced by the 
Nelson Mandela study. 
2000 Prevalence 
% 
16.1 
29.1 
30.6 
23.3 
15.8 
11 
Table 2.2 World Health Organization (2004:224) 
2001 Prevalence 
Yo 
15.4 
28.4 
3 1.4 
25.6 
19.3 
9.8 
I I 
Total 1 8428 111.4 
2002 Prevalence 
% 
14.8 
29.1 
34.5 
29.5 
19.8 
17.2 
Sex and Race 
Male 
Female 
African 
White 
Coloured 
Indian 
Number surveyed 
3772 
4656 
5056 
701 
1775 
896 
HIV+ (%) 
9.5 
12.8 
12.9 
6.2 
6.1 
1.6 
The following table shows the HIV prevalence (%) and numbers of people 
tested, per province. 
Table 2.3 Department of Health (2003:159) 
I I 
Mpumalanga 1 550 1 14.1 
Gauteng 1 1272 1 14.7 
HIV+ (%) 
11.7 
Sex and Race Number surveyed 
East Cape 1 1221 1 6.6 
Kwazulu-Natal 1 1579 
Free State 
North West 
I I 
Western Cape 1 1267 1 10.7 
540 
626 
Limpopo 
Northern Cape 
I Total 1 8428 111.4 
14.9 
10.3 
The results in this study suggest that the Free State and Gauteng provinces 
have the highest levels of HIV infection. 
679 
694 
The next table shows the estimated HIV prevalence data per age group. The 
9.8 
8.4 
prevalence among girls and boys aged 2 -14 years was estimated to be 5.2% 
and 5.9% respectively. Due to the relatively small sample numbers, the 
statistic for girls should be interpreted with caution. The prevalence among 
male and female youths aged 15-24 years was estimated to be 6.1% and 
12.0% respectively. The prevalence among people aged 25 years and above 
was estimated to be 14.4% for males and 16.2% for females. 
Various reasons for the higher estimated prevalence of HIV among females 
have been suggested. One reason may be that the low social and economic 
status of women affects their ability to control their sexual lives. Another 
reason may be that women are biologically more susceptible to HIV infection 
than men. 
Table 2.4 Department of Health (2003:161) 
Overall, the study found HIV prevalence in the South African population to be 
11.4%. 
HIV+ (%) 
5.6 
Sex and Race 
Children (2-14 yrs) 
Youths (15-24 yrs) 
Adults (=> 25 yrs) 
Total 
The first study shows an estimated HIV prevalence rate of 27.9% at the end of 
2003 among sexually active women aged 15 - 49 years, while the second 
shows an estimated HIV prevalence rate of 11.4% across the general 
population. This is a country where one in four pregnant women is HIV+. In 
spite of the great difference between these two averages, what is clear is that 
there is an exceptionally high HIV prevalence in South Africa, and tremendous 
challenges remain in the fields of HIV education, prevention and care (World 
Wide AIDS Statistics, 2003:91 World Wide Aids Statistics, 2003: [web] 
http://www.aver.org/aidssouthafrica. htm). 
Number surveyed 
2348 
2.4 The impact of HlVlAlDS on school systems 
2099 
3981 
8428 
Various national and international researchers have also noted that HIVIAIDS 
has the potential to affect schools through impacting on learners, educators, 
curriculum content, the school organization, control and planning of teaching 
and learning, and human, material, and financial resources for education 
(Bell, Devarajan & Gersbach, 2003:2; Donahue, Kabbucho & Osinde, 
2000: 12). 
9.3 
15.5 
11.4 
The HIVIAIDS pandemic does not only affect learners and educators, but also 
attacks teaching and learning systems, and eventually impacts on the 
education system of the country. Demand for education drops, many 
educators become ill and die, and ultimately the hurt caused by the loss of 
friends, family and educators grows (Bond, Macquarrie, Hallom & Nyblade, 
2003:287; Goudge & Govender, 2000:109). 
Various researchers have noted that HIVIAIDS has a significant impact on the 
attendance of both learners and educators, and learner school enrolment and 
schools may have to respond to a greater demand for second-chance 
education by learners returning to school after absence from the system, or 
for more flexible learning opportunities for those who are ill (Haile, 2000:690; 
Baylies, 2002:351). On the other hand, these demands may be offset by 
fewer births and more deaths of under-fives, and the fact that families will 
have less disposable income for school fees, voluntary funds, transport costs 
and uniforms. 
AIDS Weekly (2000:12) reports that HIVIAIDS kills educators faster than they 
are trained. Kelly (2004:139), who was commissioned by the South African 
National Education Department to research teaching and learning needs, 
estimated that 30 000 new educators would be needed each year to 
compensate for the decline in teacher numbers because of HIVIAIDS in 
future. Kelly (2004:139) recommended that 2% to 3% of matriculants who 
choose teaching as a profession need to increase to 15% (Kelly, 2004:139). 
The work of educators who are HIV positive and have to be absent from 
school is, according to Foster (2000:4), disrupted by periods of illness. Most 
educators have to take on additional teaching and other work-related duties in 
order to cover for sick colleagues. The quality of teaching is compromised and 
stigmatization of infected educators is a deeply rooted response 
(http:llwww.info.gov.zalspeeches12004/04081113151002.htm). 
As a result, there is reduced teaching and learning time, and continuity and 
school budgets are affected through " double payment "of off-duty educators 
due to paid sick leave and their replacements, training of additional educators, 
reduced availability of school funds, as well as reduced public funds for the 
system with AIDS-related allocations to the health sector; educators, as well 
as learners, suffer emotional stress through being affected by the incidence of 
HIVIAIDS among relatives and colleagues; the standing of educators in the 
community is devalued through community views of educators' contributing to 
spreading the disease; school facilities are seen as a risk-environment for 
sexual relations between learners, and between learners and educators; 
management, administration and financial control of the school system are 
likely to deteriorate through loss of human resources; and HIVIAIDS-induced 
changes in the demography will lead to a reduced growth in the number of 
new learners (Bezabih, 2003:42; Mdladla, Marsland, Van Zyl & Drimie, 
2003:5; Desmond, 2000:92). 
Wang, Burstein and Cohen (2002:737) and Gupta (2001:ll) reveal that the 
pandemic is also widening the gap between boys and girls in the school 
system. When parents fall ill, the daughter is the first child to be taken out of 
school to look after sick parents and siblings. More girls than boys catch the 
virus too. Children are kept out of school if they are needed at home to care 
for sick family members or to work in the fields; and some children drop out of 
school if their families cannot afford school fees, due to reduced household 
income as a result of an HIVIAIDS death (Dorkenoo, 2001:2). 
Berhane (2003:l) and Kalipeni (2000:965) believe that HIVIAIDS is still in a 
relatively early stage of its history, and the possibility of HIV infection 
becoming more widespread is high. This statement has implications for school 
development, since both educators and learners are becoming victims of this 
fatal pandemic on a daily basis. Being victims of this dreadful disease can be 
attributed to: 
ignorance of how the virus is contracted; 
denial, in the sense that some learners and educators in the 
townships believe in myths that HIVIAIDS is a white man's disease so 
they cannot be infected; 
gender issues, as the preventative campaigns have been narrowly 
focused on the use of condoms and partner reduction, in so doing not 
acknowledging the economic and social realities facing women and 
girls; and 
the power dynamics that exist within relationships where men still 
subject women to mutually uncongenial sex (Diop, Trudelle, 
Champagne & Beaudry, 2000:80). 
As a solution to the foregoing exposition of the impacts of the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic on schools, Bollinger and Stover (1999:14) suggest that schools 
need to integrate sexual health and HIVIAIDS education into the curriculum at 
all educational levels, ensuring that every school: 
is adequately equipped with the relevant life skills, and that adequate 
learning takes place in the fourth 'R' of the other three 'Rs' (reading, 
writing, arithmetic) that is, "relationships" with oneself and with others; 
manifests an improved human rights profile, in terms of its own 
procedures and actions and in terms of the curriculum; 
extends its mission beyond the strictly academic to include more 
attention to counselling and care for learners, educators and parents; 
and 
promotes care and compassion for people with HIVIAIDS. 
Schools also need to adopt a strategic approach where the HIVIAIDS crisis is 
placed at the centre of a whole school development plan. The school 
management teams and school governing bodies should agree on proven 
methods of combating HIVIAIDS, preventative strategies should be 
implemented, community mobilization should be reinforced, as this can 
address the economic, political, social and cultural factors that render learners 
and educators vulnerable (Bourne, 2000:3). In addition, access to 
comprehensive care and treatment should not be regarded as luxury, but as a 
necessity where schools work hand in hand with the neighbouring health 
centres, governmental and non-governmental organizations that are dealing 
with HIVIAIDS within the communities and also ensure the use of 
precautionary measures within the school such as giving all learners, 
educators, sport coaches and other staff appropriate information and training 
on HIV transmission and the application of universal precautions in preventing 
this pandemic from being transmitted through contact with blood other than 
during sexual contacts (Karim, 2000:288; Raviola, 2002:55). Learners, 
especially those in pre-primary and primary schools, must be trained never to 
touch blood or wounds of other children. Age appropriate education about 
HIVIAIDS, including knowledge, skills and attitudes, must be included in the 
curriculum (Kitheka, 2000:24; Department of Education, 2003:17). 
The school management teams together with the school governing bodies 
should also consider whether condoms need to be made accessible within the 
school; and they should also take appropriate measures to protect the school 
community against medically recognized significant health risks in the context 
of HIVIAIDS, such as highly communicable diseases, uncontrollable bleeding, 
and sexual or aggressive behaviour (Hecht, 2000:34; Department of Health, 
2000:415; Government Gazette No. 20372). 
Clinton (2003:lBOO) and Wallis (2004:lB) highlight that the school, as a major 
social institution, cannot afford to ignore the increasing complexity of the AIDS 
pandemic or underestimate its impact on teaching and learning which has 
manifested in the form of learners infected with HIVIAIDS: 
not wanting to attend school because of the stigma and scorn they 
experience at school; 
experiencing psychological trauma and shock after being diagnosed 
HIV positive, which make it difficult for them to concentrate on their 
school work, including participating effectively in class activities; 
experiencing a decline in their school performance because of their 
continuous absence from school due to illness, low-self esteem, 
depression and disability to participate fully in the social and academic 
life of the school; and 
experiencing the deterioration of their educators' attitudes towards 
their work where educators appear unconfident and unmotivated to 
their learning efforts (Colvin, Gouws, Kleinschmidt & Dlamini, 
2000:117). 
Kumar (2000:137) states that the loss of large numbers of educators in a 
developing country like South Africa is a serious blow to the nation's future 
28 
development of human resources. Unless the trend is reversed, a future 
generation of young South Africans faces the prospect of a lower quality 
education because of the quality and quantity of educators who are weakened 
and dying of HIVIAIDS, of affected learners who cannot attend school 
because they have to attend to their parents and siblings who are infected 
with AIDS, and of reduced job prospects because affected learners have not 
gained the necessary knowledge at school due to recurring absenteeism and 
chronical illness. 
Susser and Stein (2000:1042) and Kongsin and Watts (2000:36) posit that as 
the AIDS pandemic progresses, there will be fewer adults of normal parenting 
age to care for the children they leave behind. The burden of care falls 
increasingly on other children or on the growing proportion of elderly people. 
Schools also need to deal with the plight of learners affected by HIVIAIDS, 
such as orphans, who cannot afford to pay school fees and have no money 
for school uniforms and are largely impeded in doing their school work 
(Hooper- Box, 2002:89; Halperin, 2001:12). In this regard, Simms, Rowson 
and Peattie (2001:41) and Piwoz and Preble (2000:141) found in their 
research that the following variables affect the learner orphans in doing their 
schoolwork: 
poverty, that is, going to school on empty stomachs; 
no one to see to it that they wear school uniforms and are clean; 
no parental support in supervising their work at home; and 
intense anxiety. 
Because of the above variables, these learners: 
suffer from lack of concentration in class; 
perform poorly scholastically; 
do not participate in class discussions because of mental fatigue and 
stress debilitation; 
have a very low self-esteem; 
lack motivation and self-regulation; 
develop learning and behavioural difficulties; 
29 
0 have their quality of learning compromised; 
0 experience low morale ; 
drop out of school, or attend school infrequently, in order to nurse 
parents or to engage in income-generating or domestic activities, 
replacing deceased family members; and 
are unable to afford education. 
Therefore, to investigate the impact of HIVIAIDS in schools, it is imperative for 
schools to have a management strategy for dealing with this pandemic. 
2.5 Management strategy 
While management is the ability to influence a group towards the achievement 
of goals, Collins, Lowe and Arnett (2000:18) argue that a management 
strategy is the management's ability to anticipate, envisage, maintain 
flexibility, think strategically and work with others to initiate changes that will 
create a viable future for the school. 
Schwartzbeck's (2002:116) assertions on a management strategy explicitly 
include the concept of voluntary decision-making, and focus on the present as 
well as the future. David (1999:164) and Squelsh (2000:308) strongly believe 
that the most important part of a management strategy is influencing school 
management teams to make decisions that enhance the school voluntarily 
through the implementation of policies adopted by the school as foundations 
for learning and teaching. A management strategy is thus concerned with 
ensuring the future of the school through the development and management 
of educators, learners and parents, ensuring that collectively they are capable 
of participating in ways that help achieve the school's future and embrace the 
curriculum needs of the school. 
A management strategy is described by Olson (2000:53) as an extremely 
complex and multifunctional form of management, which requires the ability to 
accommodate and integrate both external and internal conditions, and to 
manage and engage in complex information processing by being in constant 
consultation with the district offices so as to be on par with developments in 
areas of learning and educator development so that educators can transfer 
the new knowledge through facilitation to the learners. The capacity to learn, 
the capacity to change and managerial wisdom are thus the essence of a 
management strategy. The following key effective elements of a management 
strategy have been identified (French & Bell, 1999:61; Gwatkin, 2000:47): 
2.5.1 Determining the school's purpose and vision 
A management strategy becomes, therefore, a process by which a school 
determines its long-run direction and performance by ensuring that careful 
formulation of the school's objectives and goals, effective and efficient 
implementation of the learning programmes, and continuous evaluation of 
strategy by means of individual or group assessment and performance of 
results take place (Gerber, Nel & Van Dyk, 1998:148). It integrates various 
school functions and processes (that are typically strategic in nature) into a 
cohesive, broader strategy. The boundaries between these various functions 
and processes are conceptual only, and it is through their interaction and 
interdependence that each is able to contribute to the school's improvements. 
It links the various other functions and strategic processes together in a 
dynamic and interactive manner that is responsive to the school's changing 
environment (Hussey, 1999: 134). 
2.5.2 Exploiting and maintaining core competencies 
Core competencies are the resources and capabilities that give a school a 
competitive advantage over its rivals (Mosia, 2003:64). Typically, core 
competencies relate to the functional skills of the school, such as producing 
good results, managing its finances in an appropriate manner, marketing, 
research and development. They allow schools to produce and deliver 
products that have unique benefits and value for parents (Caset & Clem, 
2001:81). 
In exploiting and maintaining core competencies, the strategic managers 
identify, gather and distribute resources to influence the school's processes 
for the achievement of set goals. 
They compare alternative resource utilizations and allocations, and select that 
alternative which is most energy-effective towards accomplishing a product 
(Kent, Crotts & Azziz, 2001:221). Strategic managers align and distribute the 
available resources according to strategic school needs and in ways that will 
improve and profit the school's performance (Ireland & Hitt, 1999:43). They 
also promote the sharing of resources across committee units in the school to 
create a competitive advantage (Hagen, Hassen & Amin, 1998:39). 
In the 21' century, an ability to develop and exploit core competencies will be 
linked even more positively and significantly with the school's success. 
Escaith and lnoue (2001:3) are of the opinion that the most effective core 
competencies are based on intangible resources, which are less visible to 
other participants because they relate to employees' knowledge and skills, for 
example: marketing, promotion, research and development. 
The school's core competencies are only nurtured effectively through the 
sharing of knowledge or intellectual capital that is unique to a particular 
school. However, core competencies cannot be emphasized and exploited 
effectively in a school without appropriate human capital (Girmachew & 
Yigemeru, 2003:77). 
2.5.3 Developing human capital 
Human capital refers to the knowledge and skills of the school's entire 
workforce. People in the organization (school) are a critical resource on which 
many core competencies can be built and through which competitive 
advantages can be exploited successfully. In today's economy, people have 
become the factor that will make or a break school, and they need to feel that 
they can make a difference (Green, Caporaso & Risse, 2000:73). 
According to Ludlow (2000:27), educators cannot contribute to the aims and 
aspirations of a school if they do not know what to do, and they cannot help if 
they do not know how to do so. Strategic school managers therefore 
continuously develop the capacity of their employees by providing an 
environment conducive to learning. Strategic school managers motivate 
individuals to grow, expose them to learning opportunities, and provide 
needed support. They encourage employees to inquire about and analyze 
decisions, set personal goals that improve a school's performance, and 
develop new competencies and skills (Daresh, 2001:93). 
Strategic school managers involve educators in establishing key priorities; 
then they transfer the power and authority to learners to make a difference at 
the school. Thus educators are empowered not only to voice their opinion, but 
also to use their authority to make decisions that matter. They help educators 
to get a sense of confidence and autonomy in performing their tasks, as they 
encourage them to fulfil their potential (Doyle, 2002:27). 
Deal and Peterson (1999:119) are of the opinion that a good approach to 
developing human capital is through training and development programmes. 
They explain that these programmes can help build skills and facilitate 
communication among educators by providing a common language, building 
educator networks and constructing a common vision for the school. In 
addition to this, Rosen and Jonathan (2002:61) highlight the importance of 
integrating an educator well-being programme when developing human 
capital. They believe that developing human capital is the building up or 
nurturing of individual educators in order to bring out the best in them and to 
help them reach their highest potential, and this includes educator well- being. 
2.5.4 Establishing strategic controls 
Strategic controls are the formal information-based procedures that strategic 
leaders and managers use to frame, maintain and alter patterns of the 
school's activities. Bottery (2000:6) argues that controls influence and guide 
work in ways necessary to achieve performance objectives. The effective use 
of strategic controls by school managers is frequently integrated with 
33 
appropriate autonomy for the sub-units so that they can gain competitive 
advantage in their respective schools (Guaglinone, 1998:119; Sisli 2000:73). 
According to Collins, Lowe and Arnett (2000:18), strategic managers seek to 
develop and use a balanced set of strategic and financial controls. Strategic 
managers use strategic controls to focus on positive long-term results, while 
pursuing simultaneously the requirements to execute corporate actions in a 
financially prudent and appropriate manner. Campbell and Alexander 
(1998:42) emphasize that the school system must support the selected 
strategy and produce behaviour with the attributes of both flexibility to adapt to 
the external environment and congruence to carry out the school's strategy. 
2.5.5 Skills-based education 
2.5.5.1 Teaching life skills as a strategy to manage the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools 
In addition to giving accurate information and knowledge, and dispelling fears 
and misconceptions about HIVIAIDS, the school management teams should 
ensure the provision of HIVIAIDS education curricula which empower infected 
learners with problem-solving skills, decision-making skills, communication, 
refusal and negotiating skills, as well as skills that help them avoid alcohol 
and drugs (Assan & Wigglesworth, 2001 :93; Smith-Fawzi, 2003:62). 
Specific skills, such as conflict management and the ability to refuse sex 
successfully need greater attention and inclusion in the school curriculum. 
Developing self-sufficiency may help infected and affected learners and 
educators to become motivated and to act in responsible, accountable and 
healthier ways. Educational and behavioural research has shown that having 
learners participate in role-playing activities that demonstrate healthy ways of 
living can help them sustain this behaviour throughout their lives, and that 
often their behaviour is re-inforced by observing the positive and negative 
consequences of others' actions (Dorrington, 2000:121). Co-operative group 
work in class adds to the learners' understanding of the norms, beliefs, 
convictions, philosophy of life, life-world and values of others. Peers have the 
34 
power to influence and help maintain positive behaviour. When learners work 
with their peers in appropriate settings, they can often guide one another 
toward healthier, more positive behaviour, such as abstaining from or delaying 
sexual intercourse, using condoms, and saying no to alcohol and drugs 
(Flisher, 2000a: 109; Schuler, 2000:7). 
The effectiveness of skills-based education for HIVIAIDS prevention is tied to 
the following three factors: 
addressing the developmental (physical, emotional and cognitive) 
stages that learners pass through and the skills they need as they 
move toward adulthood; 
participatory and interactive academic methods; and 
use of culturally relevant and gender-sensitive learning activities within 
a safe and open environment (Chabala, 2000:171; Shutte, 2000:30). 
For changes in behaviour to occur, learners first need to have sufficient 
knowledge and develop attitudes derived from that knowledge, so that they 
can move in a direction that leads them to positive and healthy decisions 
throughout their lives (Fourie & Schonteich, 2001 :29; World Bank, 2000:63). 
At school, school management teams should promote skills-based education 
targeting: 
Life skills (negotiation, assertiveness, refusal, communication); 
Cognitive skills (problem- solving, critical thinking, decision- making); 
Coping skills (stress management, increasing internal locus of control); 
and 
Practical skills (using a condom), 
2.5.5.2 Monitoring and evaluation of life skills education 
Questions dealing with the evaluation of school-based HIVIAIDS prevention 
programmes have only recently been taken into serious consideration. In past 
years, these questions were either not asked or were considered less 
35 
important in the mission to tackle a dramatic world pandemic (Beresford, 
2002:2; Williams, Gilgen, Campbell, Taljaard & Macphail, 2000:203). Today 
we understand better the need to include monitoring and evaluation as an 
integral part of the planning of any educational HIVIAIDS intervention. The 
management teams providing education about HIVIAIDS prevention at 
schools should perform monitoring and evaluating tasks that will enable them 
to measure the success of HIVIAIDS instruction in the classroom. School 
management teams can also monitor progress either in individual classes or 
in the entire school. This information is valuable in determining the 
effectiveness of the current curriculum and in planning for better methods of 
action for the future (Alabana & Guinness, 2000:2). 
Summary or outcome evaluation is difficult in any programme aimed at 
behavioural changes. It takes many years to determine the success of health 
education programmes; furthermore, it is almost impossible to control the 
variables in the situation that may make it difficult to evaluate the level of 
success. Current research, however, indicates that not only are evaluation 
and monitoring achievable goals, but they should also be a regular part of the 
development of any intervention aimed at protecting learners from contracting 
HIV (Kelly & Parker, 2000:89; Danesi,2003:27). 
Management teams can estimate their success rate with HIVIAIDS education 
in the classroom by developing and administering pre-tests and post-tests that 
compare the behaviour, skills, attitudes and knowledge of the same learner 
before and after the programme (James, 2001:88; Hailom, Kidanu & Nyblade, 
2003:31). Documenting the changes that occurred in these areas within the 
classes that received instruction on HIVIAIDS prevention can help to 
determine which programmes are more effective and should be used in 
future. This kind of appraisal helps to ensure that educators and schools know 
that the curricula they offer to learners are delivered in the most effective, 
appropriate, up-to-date and politically correct manner possible, while, at the 
same time, respecting community values in the educational contents. This 
appraisal process could check the following points about a given curriculum 
(Parker & Mundawarara, 2000:114). 
The effectiveness of the curriculum in addressing the specific needs of 
the learners; 
The comprehensiveness and quality of the curriculum's components 
(instructional principles, functional knowledge, societal attitudes, 
involvement of parents and guardians, skills and duration); 
The degree of reliability between the curriculum and its application in 
the classroom; and 
The impact of the curriculum on learner's knowledge, attitudes and 
behaviour. 
2.5.6 Emphasizing ethical practices 
According to Glenn (2001 :81) effective strategic managers emphasize ethical 
practices within their schools and seek to infuse them through the corporate 
culture. Corporate culture refers to the core values shared by all or most of 
educators. It consists of a complex set of ideologies, symbols and values that 
influence the way the school conducts its activities. It defines a normative 
order that selves as a source of consistent behaviour within the school 
(Charles, 1999:156). 
These ethical practices serve as moral filter through which potential courses 
of action are evaluated. Strategic managers thus use trust, honesty and 
integrity as the foundations for their decisions, mobilizing educators through 
adherence to shared values. They are clear about their operating values and 
communicate these values to others for shared understanding (Russell, 
2000:77; Le Roux, 2000:51). 
It is clear from the above literature findings that a management strategy is 
strategic behaviour which involves cognitive, emotional and territorial interplay 
of school management teams within their departments when the agenda 
relates to strategic issues. 
2.6 The role of a management strategy in  dealing with HIVIAIDS 
It is proper and acceptable that a school must have its own management 
strategy, which is an overall plan for accomplishing the schools' mission in a 
changing environment where HIVIAIDS has mercilessly taken its toll on 
learners, educators and parents. The strategy addresses the school's 
statutory mission and historical role, which is to carry out the expectations of 
its key stakeholders, namely, learners, educators and parents. 
Management strategies articulate the key issues that must be successfully 
addressed by the school as an agency and identify the priorities and required 
resources for proposed actions (Flisher, 2000c: 124; Poku, 2002:112). 
In the environment that is threatened by the prevalence of the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic, a management strategy is designed to guide the school's response 
as a whole to HIVIAIDS, thereby building a community that confronts 
HIVIAIDS with exceptional skill, teamwork and compassion. The management 
strategy forms the rules and guidelines by which the vision, mission, 
objectives, values, goals and programmes of the school with regard to 
HIVIAIDS are reflected. They can cover the school as a whole, including such 
matters as infusing the HIVIAIDS pandemic in the school curriculum, 
introducing health promotion programmes at the school, encouraging testing 
for HIVIAIDS, infusion of human rights values in the curriculum which 
guarantee the rights of learners and educators infected with HIVIAIDS or they 
can relate to primary matters in key functional areas (Booysen, 2000:104; 
Jennings, 2000:119). 
The school management strategies for safeguarding schools should be 
underpinned by cultural values and principles of the communities they serve 
and which are in line with the Constitution of South Africa (Drysdale, 
2000:213). 
2.6.1 Guiding the school's response on the HlVlAlDS pandemic 
The basic requirements for the school management teams in guiding the 
school's response on the HlVlAlDS pandemic include commitment among key 
people, and allocation of human and financial resources. 
First, guiding is best approached as a learning process. It is not a one-off 
event, because, even if a school successfully establishes attention to 
HIVIAIDS, it would still need to engage in on-going activities such as training 
new staff. Moreover, schools need to be alert to changes in, for example, the 
availability and cost of antiretroviral treatments, patterns of HIV infection 
within the community, and trends in the impacts of AIDS on educators, 
learners and community members (Ainsworth & Teokul, 2000:55). 
Furthermore, the process involves experimentation, reflection and learning; 
schools will inevitably make mistakes, and must learn from them if practice is 
to improve. 
Second the process of guiding should involve educators as active 
participants. The initiatives, which aim to support staff, will be effective only if 
the staff, which is in effect 'project beneficiaries', have helped to shape their 
design and delivery. Consultation on controversial issues such as the 
absenteeism rate of the infected educators and learners, and sensitive issues 
such as confidentiality, is likely to be particularly important if workplace 
policies are to be accepted and used by educators. Staff also need to be 
actively engaged in activities relating to HIVIAIDS programmes, because 
success requires changes in the hearts and minds of educators; in particular, 
it is crucial to develop a shared understanding and vision among educators 
about what guiding means and what they are trying to achieve through it 
(Kongsin, Sirinirund, Jiamton, Boonthum & Watts, 2000:135). Guiding cannot 
happen by simply telling staff what it is and instructing them to do it. 
Third guiding must involve people who are affected by HIV and AIDS. Guiding 
is not an academic exercise, but one, which responds to the experiences of 
individuals, households, and communities affected by AIDS. If schools are to 
39 
understand the implications of HIV and AlDS for their work, then as part of the 
process their staff need to learn directly from women, men, and children 
affected by the pandemic (Meeson, 2000:24). 
If schools are to make their programme work more relevant to the changes 
brought about by HIV and AIDS, then they need to involve affected people in 
devising, implementing, and monitoring suitable adaptations to that work. 
Involving people who are openly HIV-positive is a tried and tested strategy for 
challenging social stigma, and may, among other benefits, help schools to 
promote the idea of positive living to their staff (Ducket, 2000:153). 
Fourth people who are guiding need to attend to gender-related issues 
throughout the process. Gender and AlDS are always connected, such that 
attention to gender issues is integral to all the elements of both internal and 
external guiding of HIVIAIDS (Pattersen, 2000: 14). 
Fifth schools need to learn from, and link with, others. It makes sense, for 
schools to share with other agencies their training curricula, research on HIV 
statistics or employment law, and lessons learned, in order to reduce 
duplication of effort and so make the process more effective (Bekele, 
2003:14). 
Learning can be accelerated if agencies share with each other their 
experiences of what seems to work and what does not. 
Connected to this is the possible need for specialist help: for example, 
assistance with training, professional advice about employment law, help in 
predicting future impacts, or advice about the feasibility of particular 
modifications to programme work (Ganesan, 2000:87). 
Sixth guiding is aimed at making changes as appropriate, both internally and 
externally. However, these changes should be practical and plausible 
modifications to existing approaches, perhaps involving new initiatives within 
a programme, rather than a complete revolution in the way in which the 
agency operates (Cohen, 2002:16). 
Lastly, it is critical to attend to practice and to monitor progress actively. 
Policies can set out excellent ideas, but they may then be ignored or 
misapplied. On-going monitoring of the application of the policies, and their 
effects, provides the opportunity to modify and improve both policies and 
practice. In the same way, planned activities and changes need to be 
monitored, assessed, and revised as necessary, as do methods to 
institutionalize attention to HIV and AIDS (Binswanger, 2000:2173). 
2.6.2The establishment of a Health Advisory Committee 
Organizations such as schools are expected to establish a Health Advisory 
Committee (HAC), which is a sub-committee of the school that deals in depth 
with HIVIAIDS and is founded on Act No. 27 of 1996, (South Africa, 1996a) 
becomes crucial. Section 13.1 (Act No. 27 of 1996) states that this committee 
is a committee of the school that advises on health issues. The structure and 
approach of the committee is a major asset in mitigating the impact of 
HIVIAIDS on educators, learners and on teaching and learning. Its 
membership includes members of the school management team, staff, 
parents, learners, health professionals such as psychologists, nurses, a 
doctor, business people, a religious leader, a traditional healer (where 
necessary) and a prominent member of the society (an organizational leader 
or a councillor). Someone with health knowledge chairs the committee. 
The objectives of the HAC are to raise awareness of the impact of HIVIAIDS 
on education (educators, learners and parents) promote health and safety at 
school, and help reduce the spread and transmission of HIV. 
The duties of the HAC as spelt out in the National Policy for HIVIAIDS (RSA, 
1996a) are to promote and develop an institutional plan from time to time, 
advise the school management on all health matters including HIVIAIDS and 
report back to the school management on the information given to learners 
and members of the community. 
The school management should delegate health-related tasks with their 
attendant responsibilities to the HAC. However, in the final instance it is the 
responsibility of the school management to create an enabling environment 
for both learners and educators to perform well at school, as stated in section 
20 (Act 27of1996). This means that if the HAC has responsibilities and 
authority, with which it is entrusted, the school management (which delegates) 
remains primarily responsible and accountable for all activities, as well as 
their execution. 
In terms of the South African Schools Act (RSA, 1996b) Section 20(1) (m), the 
management of a school has to discharge functions as determined by the 
Minister of Education or the Member of the Executive Committee. The 
functions of the management of a school could therefore include the adoption 
of an HIVIAIDS policy for a specific school, provided that the policy does not 
infringe upon the norms and minimum standards of the National Policy 
determined by the Minister of Education. 
From the above statement, it is clear that there is a need for the development 
of school level policies that will reflect the needs, ethos and values of the 
school and its community within the framework of the National Policy. School 
managers should develop these policies beforehand to adopt a "wait and see" 
approach (DOH, 2001:71). There are no foolproof ways for school managers 
to avoid controversy, but if it is anticipated and planned for, controversy can 
be managed. 
The school has the responsibility to be a centre of information and support on 
HIVIAIDS in the community it serves. Major role players from the broader 
community (for example, religious leaders, traditional leaders and local health 
workers) should be invited to participate in developing the school's policy 
(Marks & Louis, 1999:707). 
2.6.3 Designing and adopting HIVIAIDS policies 
The school policy should be reviewed as new scientific information on 
HIVIAIDS becomes available, including advice from the national or provincial 
health or education authorities. 
Infected and affected learners should be supported. This includes 
understanding their absenteeism, lack of concentration and confidentiality; the 
policy should challenge prejudice, stigma and related bullying across the 
school; provide positive learning opportunities that are relevant to all, 
including those at greater risk of infection or already living with the virus 
(either themselves or their families); and ensure links with community health 
and support services (Cohen, Farley, Taylor, Martin & Schuster, 2002:llO). 
An HIVIAIDS school level policy should be formulated and adopted to 
strengthen schools' prevention efforts and to provide guidance on school 
operations. The HIVIAIDS school policies should demonstrate commitment to 
the principles and practices of the school, and provide authoritative backbone 
to efforts preventing HIVIAIDS (National Development Plan, 1996:3). 
HIVIAIDS school level policies should cover admission of learners to school, 
school attendance, universal precautionary measures, and education on 
general health and safe lifestyles, of which sexuality education is to form part. 
The present National Policy on HIVIAIDS has been developed in a joint 
consultative process that includes the Department of Education, the 
Commission and the Project Committee. The Project Committee is of the view 
that Nkosi Johnson's experience (whereby the latter was barred from 
attending school after being diagnosed with HIV) suggests that a precisely 
directed and clearly targeted policy would create legal certainty and help 
prevent injustice to learners with HIV. It thus provisionally recommends the 
adoption of a national policy on HIVIAIDS in schools that will constitute a set 
of basic principles from which the management of schools may not deviate. 
Swarns (2000:98) reflects the critical and inevitable relationship between 
theory and practice, that is, policy design and implementation, and advises 
43 
that the school managers should not focus only on designing the policies 
while ignoring the implementation. Crocker and Harris (2002:47) suggest a 
combination of good ideas with good implementation decision and support 
systems. 
2.6.4 Dissemination of information on HlVlAlDS 
Because the managers of schools and educators are well educated, they can 
grasp the facts about HlVlAlDS and help spread correct information about the 
disease and its effects. Since almost every child in the country attends school, 
educators have a unique opportunity to influence children's ideas about sex 
and relationships, even before these start, a great opportunity to discuss the 
disease, and help the young to protect themselves from becoming infected, 
getting sick and dying. By so doing educators can play a central role in 
changing the course of the HIV pandemic. From the time they first start 
school, learners need to have information about HlVlAlDS presented to them 
in a way that is appropriate to their age, in the context of life skills education. 
Learning programmes are being developed for life skills education for all 
ages, and training is being provided to enable educators to do this (Borkow & 
Bentwich, 2000:1368). 
In a classroom situation educators have an obligation to: 
keep insisting that learners take the necessary precautions and know 
that any one of us may contract HIV; 
give learners proper information about sex, about the risks associated 
with sexual activity, how they can protect themselves, then they are 
more likely to decide for themselves to delay the start of sexual 
activity. If they have knowledge, and have discussed these questions 
openly and without fear, they are more likely to practice sex safely 
when they do begin a sexual relationship; 
teach learners to respect themselves, to respect their peers, to show 
special understanding for the rights of girls and women, and to join 
together in human solidarity to save themselves and each other; 
0 let learners hold group discussions about dangers of being sexually 
active at an early age when they do not yet have that assertiveness to 
say no to sex, how to provide support to other learners who are 
already infected and help to spread the message to others. 
Provide life skills education where learners are informed of what to do 
when they feel lonely, angry, frustrated, sad, and insecure (Tembo, 
2000:17; Eaton & Flisher, 2000:97). 
Dissemination of information to immediate communities need educators to be 
in frequent touch with parents, and can therefore spread the message about 
HIVIAIDS deeply into the community, take the initiative by working together to 
resist the pandemic and deal with its consequences effectively. They could 
also harness the energies of all sectors of the society to fight the epidemic 
and prevent it from destroying schools. Use of HIVIAIDS awareness 
campaigns, distribution of pamphlets, drama, talk shows and use of the media 
can do this. 
Educators can help create an environment in the workplace where people can 
speak openly about their HIV status, attack ignorance, without fear of 
prejudice or discrimination. They can find creative ways to support their ill 
colleagues and learners, and make the school a centre of hope and care in 
the community (Bonnel, 2000:91). They should equip everyone to play hislher 
part in the struggle against HIV and secure a shining future for this and the 
next generation and setting an example of responsible sexual behaviour that 
should prevent them from becoming infected and infecting others, by being 
careful and sensible of their actions and encourage learners to abstain from 
sex until the right time. In so doing, they will protect their families, colleagues, 
learners and themselves (Gouws & Williams, 2000:274). 
2.6.5 Establishing support for infected and affected learners 
For a school to be effective in the fight against HIVIAIDS it needs to take in 
the plight of infected and affected educators and learners' needs and 
aspirations into consideration. To implement its strategies efficiently the 
school has to support those already infected and affected by the pandemic. 
This can be done through support groups that: 
help each other to deal and survive with the truth, horror, pain and 
deep sorrow; 
consist of a community which shares their aspirations, sorrows and 
cares about their well-being together; 
where help in the form of finance, care giving and other means come 
from all directions; 
share among others their personal experiences, work related issues 
and their relationships with immediate family members, will also give 
another person hope; 
provide a supportive, trusting environment where members can explore 
interpersonal issues; 
introduce themes that include coping with HIV disease, health status, 
intimacy issues, death and dying, and the challenges of "coming out"; 
learn new skills and how to develop coping strategies and living a 
healthy life; and 
exchange information and experiences which will encourage and 
promote confidence and awareness (Meeson, 2000:21; De Waal & 
Whiteside, 2003: 109). 
Another process by which schools can establish support is through 
counselling. It is essential that educators provide psychosocial support for 
children who are in HIVIAIDS-related trauma. Failure to help them will 
provoke 'second generation' difficulties including alcohol and drug abuse, 
violent behaviour, suicidal tendencies, unwanted pregnancies and STDlHlV 
infections. Schools play a significant role in the socialisation process which 
may have fractured at home (Ainsworth, 2003:13). 
2.6.5.1 Peer educator and counselling program 
Globally peer education and counselling is one of the most widely used 
strategies to address the HIVIAIDS pandemic. 
Peer education and counselling involves training and supporting members of 
a given group to effect change among members of the same group. They 
effect changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours at the 
individual level and group level (Brewer, 2003:144). 
In the light of this exposition, the management strategy must reflect the 
following elements: 
The vision 
The first step is to develop a realistic vision for the school, which categorically 
states what the school would like to see happening in its concerted efforts and 
endeavours in dealing with HIVIAIDS at school. This should be presented as 
a pen picture of the school in three or more years' time in terms of its likely 
physical appearance, size and activities. The vision statement of the school 
regarding HIVIAIDS should answer the question: "If people from Mars visited 
the school, what would they see or sense regarding health promotion at this 
school? " The school should consider the health of learners and educators; as 
well as the school's learning and teaching processes which are affected by 
HIVIAIDS (Geiser & Berman, 2000:42). 
The vision should state the school's obligation to provide a safe and healthy 
learning and teaching environment and to assure fair, non-discriminatory 
treatment of all learners and educators, irrespective of their health status. 
Therefore the vision statement of the school should be that individuals with 
HIVIAIDS will be treated with the same compassion and consideration given 
to any other person with a health problem. No learner or educator will be 
discriminated against at the school as a result of having or being at risk of 
acquiring HIVIAIDS (Henscher, 2000:51). 
0 Mission 
The mission indicates the purposes of the school in dealing with HIVIAIDS, for 
example, to design a toxic-free, healthy teaching and learning climate and 
environment; to develop healthy learners who are taught by healthy 
educators; to infuse human rights values, including those of learners and 
educators infected and affected by HIVIAIDS, in the school's curriculum; and 
to design awareness programmes on HIVIAIDS for learners, educators and 
parents (Shell, 2000:21). 
A statement along these lines indicates what the school's mission is 
concerning HIVIAIDS and other related diseases, such as creating an 
enabling and just environment for those infected and affected by HIVIAIDS by 
integrating an ethical, legal and human rights dimension into the national 
response to HIVIAIDS; facilitating education and conscientization of society; 
and advocating for reforms and policy formulation. In so doing, the school is 
striving to promote transparency, destigmatization and respect for humanity 
(Siegel & Schrimshaw, 2000:1543). 
As a public institution of learning and teaching, the school is destined to avail 
its services to every learner and offer employment to every educator who has 
the potential to contribute to the development of the school, irrespective of 
hislher health status, with the view to: ensuring continued respect for 
humanity; developing self-sufficiency, build self-esteem, sense of pride and 
dignity for himlherself and others; upholding a positive self-worth as enshrined 
in the Bill of Rights; empowering and instilling a sense of belonging in both 
affected and infected educators and learners; promoting total respect, unity 
and support for those already affected and infected; promoting and 
conducting communication programmes; upholding the morals and values of 
our learners through organized talk shows; working hand in glove with the 
nearby clinics to ensure that counselling sessions are held for those in need 
of them; and ensuring that community representatives are brought on board 
and given the right tools to service others (Bateman, 2001:13). 
Objectives 
Another key element is to state the school's objectives explicitly in terms of 
the results it needs and wants to achieve in the medium and long term with 
regard to HIVIAIDS. Presumably the objectives would indicate a necessity to 
slow down the rate of new infections, help infected learners and educators to 
cope, and support those among them who have been bereaved by HIVIAIDS. 
Objectives should also relate to the expectations and requirements of all 
major stakeholders for example, learners, parents and educators, including 
the non-teaching staff and they should reflect the underlying reasons for 
managing a healthy and toxic-free school environment and climate. These 
objectives could cover school enrolment, good results, antiretroviral medicine 
provision, budgets, and the involvement of health agencies (Day, Harris, 
Hadfield, Tolley & Beresford, 2000:204). 
These objectives embrace the school's capacity to develop and communicate 
messages for scaling-up the desired behaviour change and putting in place 
HIVIAIDS-sensitive procedures and practices with regard to admissions, 
recruitment of educators, health care for HIVIAIDS-affected learners and staff 
at the school, collaboration with the neighbouring community, sensitization of 
the school's community, voluntary counselling; promotion of safer sexual life, 
and developing a working relationship between the school and the 
neighbouring community, utilizing the existing frameworks of government and 
non-governmental organizations (Mc Evoy & Welker, 2000:39; Tawfik & 
Kinoti, 2001 :30). 
Short-term objectives should be to have: constant interaction between the 
school and parents (especially of infected and affected learners) about their 
children's progress and processes retarding it, a potential to work with the 
management of the school and to help both infected and affected learners 
achieve their dreams through active participation in all school activities 
(Denolf, 2000:51). 
Long-term objectives should be to encourage those who are affected and 
infected to stick to a healthy diet and take regular medication at the specified 
49 
times, to make available and maintain vegetable gardens for those who 
cannot afford to buy vegetables; and to form groups and possibly a radio 
station where they can air their views and help those who are still in denial. 
Thevalues 
The next element to address is values, which are the roots for the promotion 
of good morals and self-respect in human beings. Positively managing values 
can set an example in the daily operation of the school and its conduct or in 
relationships dealing with HIVIAIDS in society at large, learners, educators, 
parents, non-teaching staff, the local community and other stakeholders 
(Shisana & Simbayi, 2002:lOl). 
These values comprise no learner, educator or non-teaching staff member 
being discriminated against because of hislher HIV status, disclosure being 
treated with confidentiality and respect, a person's dignity being maintained 
despite age or status, a school endeavouring not to isolate anyone because of 
hislher HIV status, assisting, encouraging and giving advice when needed or 
asked for and offering services and undivided attention to those who are 
desperate and in need of comfort (Department of Education, 2000:179). 
The goals 
The primary goals of a school management strategy should be the reduction 
of new HIV infections among learners and educators and the reduction of the 
impact of HIVIAIDS on learners, educators and the schooling system (DOH, 
2001:91). Guided by the above goals the management of schools should first 
and foremost embark on strategic planning, create safe and healthy schools 
and develop HIVIAIDS policy. 
The goals, are specific interim or ultimate time - based measurements to be 
achieved by implementing strategies in pursuit of the school's objectives, for 
example, to have learners and educators who are aware and well-informed of 
the dangers of HIVIAIDS and who are aware of how to prevent this pandemic, 
and, also, have learners and educators infected with and affected by this 
pandemic who can effectively and productively cope with the physiological 
and social ravages of this disease in three years time. Goals should be 
quantifiable, consistent, realistic and achievable. They can relate to finances 
and efficiency (Blase & Blase, 2001:18; Braveman 2002:17). 
Goals are developed to create an environment in which children and adults 
with HIV or AIDS can live free from discrimination create adequate information 
centres where greater awareness and communication about HIVIAIDS will be 
addressed educate people, especially the young about the dangers of HIV 
transmission through unsafe sexual practices and about the need to take 
preventive measures make sure that sex education, which is absent in most 
schools is correctly implemented by educators through life skills interventions 
on the part of the government to address the pandemic and behavioural 
change on the part of the individual (Williams & Dye, 2003:102). 
Goals targeted for decreasing the pandemic from the United Nations General 
Assembly and Education for all are; expanding and improving comprehensive 
early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and 
disadvantaged children; ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, 
children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, 
have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good 
quality; ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are 
met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills 
programmes; achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy 
by education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children; 
and eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 
2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on 
ensuring girls' full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of 
good quality especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills, and 
improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all 
so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved 
(UNAIDS, 2000:79). 
Agreed upon targets include: reducing HIV infection among 15-24-year-olds 
by 25 per cent in the most affected countries by 2005 and, globally, by 2010; 
developing by 2003, and implementing by 2005, national strategies to provide 
a supportive environment for orphans and children infected and affected by 
HIVIAIDS; ensuring that by 2005 at least 90 per cent, and by 2010 at least 95 
percent of young men and women aged 15 to 24 have access to the 
information, education, including peer education and youth specific HIV 
education, and services necessary to develop the life skills required to reduce 
their vulnerability to HIV infection; and having in place strategies by 2003, to 
address vulnerability to HIV infection, including under-development, economic 
insecurity, poverty, lack of empowerment of women, lack of education, social 
exclusion, illiteracy, discrimination, lack of information and/or commodities for 
self-protection, and all types of sexual exploitation of women, girls and boys 
(AIDS Analysis Africa, 2001:4). 
The attainment of many of these goals is dependent upon the full participation 
of all school stakeholders such as learners, educators and parents in efforts to 
counter HIVIAIDS and its impact on the effective management of schools 
(UNAIDS, 2002:450). 
The programmes 
The final elements are the programmes, which will serve as bridges and set 
out the implementation plans for the key strategies of a positive fight against 
the HIVIAIDS pandemic at schools (Brent, 1998:81). These should cover 
resources, objectives, time-scales, deadlines, budgets and performance 
targets. 
Programmes should: 
o increase the incidence rate of people who are uninfected by 
promoting safe sex; 
o assume interventions to reduce mortality in respect of treatment of 
sexually transmitted diseases; 
o promote mother-to-child transmission prevention; 
52 
o encourage behavioural changes such as reduction in the number of 
partners and increase in condom usage; 
o develop a support programme for infected and affected educators 
and learners in their respective communities; 
0 sustain the involvement of People Living With Aids (PLWA) in order 
to strengthen the HIVIAIDS programmes; 
o establish community outreach programmes with national and 
provincial AIDS service organizations; and 
o link communities with relevant support systems and assist 
communities to develop coping measures that will help them 
maintain a stable community and workforce in the era of HIVIAIDS 
(Flisher, 2000b:97; Cullinan, 2002:3). 
2.7 The key components of the management strategy for dealing with 
HIVIAIDS 
Bader (2000:68) has postulated the following key components of the 
management strategy framework: 
2.7.1 Committed and informed leadenhip 
The school management team should be knowledgeable and committed, 
convinced that the HIVIAIDS situation is grave, and recognize that teaching 
and learning structures are being steadily undermined. In the context of 
HIVIAIDS, curriculum and educational transformation must extend further to 
the development of the knowledge, attitudes, values and life-skills needed for 
making and acting on the most appropriate and positive health-related 
decisions. This latter is critically important in equipping individuals for their 
personal combat against HIVIAIDS, but does not address other needs that 
arise in an AIDS-ravaged society. The school curriculum should encompass 
measures to reduce the individual risk of being infected with HIVIAIDS, as 
well as to reduce societal vulnerability to HIVIAIDS. Managerial commitment 
and leadership, participatory planning and intersectoral partnerships are 
essential to a successful response, all of which need to be founded in a rights- 
based approach (Chiganze, Decosas & Chikore, 2000:87). 
2.7.2 Collective dedication 
Broad-based multidisciplinary management partnerships are established with 
other government sectors, non-governmental organizations, faith groups, 
community groups and the private sector. In partnership with other bodies, 
schools have an important role to play in reducing the risks and vulnerability 
associated with the pandemic. Among the actions that should be prioritized 
are: 
efforts to ensure that educators are well prepared and supported in 
their teaching on HIVIAIDS, through pre-service and in-service 
education and training; 
preparation and distribution of scientifically accurate, good-quality 
teaching and learning materials on HIVIAIDS, communication and life 
skills; 
promotion of life skills and peer education for learners and young 
people, and among parents and educators themselves; 
0 elimination of stigma and discrimination, with a view to respecting 
human rights and encouraging greater openness concerning the 
pandemic; 
support for school health programmes that combine school health 
policies, a safe and secure school environment for both educators and 
learners, skills-based health education and school health services that 
explicitly address HIVIAIDS; and 
promotion of policies and practices that favour access, gender equity, 
school attendance and effective learning (Israel, 2003:102; Agyarko & 
Kowal, 2000:118). It is therefore imperative that the school 
management work in partnership with the whole school community, 
including educators, learners, parents, non-teaching staff and 
caregivers, to ensure a safe environment, a positive ethos, a 
stimulating curriculum, pastoral support and effective links to 
community health and support services (Otaala, 2000:63). 
2.7.3 Policy and regulatory framework 
A framework of common understanding about the nature of the pandemic and 
its potential impact on teaching and learning is developed, as are guidelines, 
regulations and codes of conduct which interpret policy for educators and 
school governing body members responsible for implementing it. The school 
management teams should endeavour to create safe and healthy schools. To 
create a safer environment for learners and educators, the school 
management team should set up a Health Advisory Committee, design 
programmes to combat the disease, develop HIVIAIDS policies (Act No. 27 of 
1996), and draft and adopt a code of conduct for the learners (Act No 4 of 
1996 section 8). 
A healthy school is one in which all learners can develop and grow safely with 
confidence (Karim & Karim, 1999:82). Learners can learn and develop only 
when they feel safe and are actually safe. Safe and healthy school 
environments would be the ones that are drug-free, rape-free and free of 
bullies where learners and educators learn and teach without risk of being 
infected or affected. 
Strategic and operational planning: Strategic principles are elaborated 
which are commonly held and understood, and which underpin realistic 
and realizable operational plans. 
Effective management: School management teams should be committed 
to not just react to the HIVIAIDS crisis, but also to anticipate its 
consequences and be effectively proactive in harnessing resources to 
counteract it. 
Appropriate capacity: Procedures and structures should be set in place for 
ensuring implementation of HIVIAIDS-dictated activities, building capacity 
at all levels of the system, and providing for personnel replacement and 
training. 
Research and monitonng: A research agenda should be developed, along 
with research principles, priorities and resources for collecting, storing and 
sharing information, and a set of benchmarks and crisis indicators - alarm 
bells indicating trouble - which can be monitored over time. 
. Streamlined funding: Adequate budgetary provision should be made for 
substitute educators in cases where educators are absent from school 
because of HIVIAIDS (Chalswoorth, 2001:279). 
2.8 Conclusion 
This chapter discussed a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS. 
The next chapter discusses the empirical design of this study. 
Chapter 3 
Empirical research design 
3.1 Introduction 
This chapter presents the research methods used in this study. It includes an 
overview and justification of the questionnaire used in the study, and an 
explanation of how the questionnaire was developed. The use of a 
questionnaire is taken as the most appropriate and practical technique in 
reaching the aims of this study, which are to: 
determine the nature of the management strategy for the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic in schools; 
determine the effects of the HIVIAIDS pandemic on the school system; 
and 
suggest a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools 
The study investigates the perceptions of educators, principals, deputy 
principals and heads of department on the impact of HIVIAIDS on educators, 
learners and the teaching and learning situation. The responses of the 
participants are used to make suggestions for a management strategy (see 
chapter 5) which schools can adopt in dealing with the HlVlAlDS pandemic at 
their schools. 
3.2 Method of research 
This research was conducted by means of a literature study and empirical 
research. 
3.2.1 Literature study 
Primary sources that were consulted include current international and national 
journals, papers presented at professional meetings, dissertations by 
57 
graduate students' reports written by school and university researchers, and 
both South African Acts 27 and 84 of 1996, which provide information on how 
far research on HIVIAIDS at schools and their effects on teaching, learning 
and management of schools have progressed. Acts were consulted for 
governmental and departmental policy theoretical frameworks. Books on 
HIVIAIDS serve as secondary sources. 
3.2.2 Empirical research 
The empirical investigation, both qualitative and quantitative in nature, was 
conducted to gather information about the effects of HIVIAIDS on educators, 
learners and the teaching and learning situation. Personal visits were made to 
primary and secondary schools in the townships and farm school areas where 
questionnaires were distributed to educators (educators sewing and 
appointed on post level one of the schools' organizational hierarchical 
structure of educational management) and school management teams 
comprised of Heads of Departments (educators serving and appointed on 
post level 2), Deputy Principals (educators sewing and appointed on post 
level 3) and Principals (educators appointed on either post level 4 or 
depending on the enrolment of the school). Questionnaires were handed to 
educators, heads of departments and deputy principals through the school 
principals with the request that the questionnaires had to be filled in within 
three days and the researcher would come back to the school on the fourth 
day to collect them. 
This method of distributing questionnaires to the educators via the school 
principals created problems for the researcher because not all questionnaires 
were returned. Only 363 out of 400 were returned. The table below indicates 
the numbers distributed to educators and school management teams, those 
that were returned and those that were not returned. 
TABLE 3.1 Feedback of the population group 
1 No. of I Number of questionnaires distributed 
schools 
30 
3.3 Description of the population 
No. lost or 
misplaced 
All educators and school management teams falling under the jurisdiction and 
control of the Gauteng Department of Education were considered as the study 
population. The Gauteng Department of Education in the Vaal Triangle area 
has 2 040 educators serving in school management teams in public schools, 
and this figure is calculated at an average figure of 5 school management 
team members per school. Seeing that the carrying out of the study could be 
delayed if all of them were to participate in this study and this could have 
heavy financial implications for the researcher, the researcher and the 
supervisor took these two factors into consideration in deciding on the 400 
participants who had to take part in this study. The researcher and the 
supervisor also decided to limit the study population to educators and school 
management teams in the Vaal Triangle area of the Gauteng Province. 
3.4 Method of random sampling 
No. distributed 
No. returned 
13 
Samples like cluster and random sampling were considered for use in this 
investigation. After careful consideration of the advantages and 
disadvantages of each of these methods, random sampling was decided on, 
to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. A list of all public 
schools from Vereeniging and Vanderbijlpark districts was obtained and 
59 
Managers 
95 
71 
Educators 
305 
292 
24 
Total 
400 
363 
Percentage 
100 
90.8 
37 9 2  
schools for investigation were randomly selected from the list. The 
respondents consisted of educators and school management teams from 30 
randomly selected public schools in both districts of the Vaal Triangle area of 
Gauteng Province. 
3.5 Random sample size 
A total of educators (N=400), which consisted of school management teams 
(N=80), and educators (N=320) from 30 public schools, participated in the 
survey. This sample ranged from farm school areas to township school areas, 
consisting of primary, secondary and combined schools. 
3.6Covering letter 
In a covering letter to the principals of 24 primary schools, 5 secondary 
schools, and 1 private school, the purpose of the questionnaire was 
described. Stressing the confidentiality of information, an appeal was made to 
the respondents to respond openly and sincerely (see Appendix A). 
3.7 Procedure 
With the permission of the school principals, the researcher distributed copies 
of the questionnaire to principals for distribution to their educators, HODS and 
Deputy Principals. Written guidelines were provided on the questionnaire to 
ensure, as far as possible, standardized administration and to secure 
participants' guarantee of confidentiality. 
Educators and school management teams were given three days to complete 
the questionnaires, which were to be collected by the researcher on the fourth 
day. All data were collected during September 2003. 
3.8The composition of the questionnaire (closed and openended 
questions) 
Although several measuring instruments have been devised to obtain self- 
reports of educators and school management teams on their perceptions of 
the impact of HIVIAIDS on educators, learners and the teaching and learning 
situation (see tables 4.9; 4.10; 4.11), as far as it could be ascertained, only 
overseas measuring instruments have been designed to determine the 
perceptions of educators in countries whose social and educational situations 
are different. As a result of a peculiar situation in South African society and 
schools, especially in Black townships where learners, parents and educators 
maintain different culturally founded stereotypes and misconceptions of 
HIVIAIDS (Crawler, 2004:39), not a single one of these instruments was 
suitable and appropriate for use in the investigation in question. It was then 
decided to construct a distinctive HIVIAIDS questionnaire which could be 
used to measure perceptions of educators and school management teams 
about the impact of HIV and AIDS on educators, learners and the school 
systems within their schools and cultural context. 
Based on the information gathered through a literature review, a questionnaire 
was designed. The questionnaire comprised 90 questions divided into five 
sections, namely: a section for biographic information (questions 1-7, see 
appendix A), a section of questions to determine the impact of HIVIAIDS on 
educators (questions 8-18, see appendix A), a section of questions to 
determine the impact of HIVIAIDS on learners (questions 19-38, see appendix 
A), a section of questions to determine the impact of HIVIAIDS on the 
teaching and learning situation (questions 39-68, see appendix A) and finally 
a section to determine perceptions on the existing measures to curb the 
negative effect of HIVIAIDS on teaching and learning (questions 69-90, see 
appendix A). Five of the questions in the questionnaire were open-ended and 
gave educators the opportunity to give their personal input (questionsl8, 
19.12,43.8,46.8 and 51). In total, 400 questionnaires were distributed. 
3.9Feedback of the research population group on the questionnaire 
Feedback from the 30-targeted schools was as follows: 
3.9.1 Number of  respondents per school category 
Table 3.2 
Type of schools 
Table 3.3 
Number of educators 
Educators I Frequency I Percentage 
Percentage 
Schools 
Primary 
Secondary 
Private 
I I 
Primary ( 295 184.5 
Frequency 
I I 
Secondary 1 53 115 
24 
5 
1 
80 
19.6 
0.4 
I I 
Schools from the township areas participated more than schools in the farm 
areas. This was due to the fact that there are more schools in the urban areas 
than in the rural areas. It was impossible to have a 100% retrieval of 
questionnaires, as most of them were left at the mercy of the principals of 
participating schools to deliver to educators and no follow-ups were made 
concerning the ones not retrieved. Thirteen (13) were incomplete because 
62 
Private 
Table 3.4 
3 1 0.5 
Location 
Rural 
Urban 
Frequency 
40 
309 
Percentage 
11.5 
88.5 
educators claimed that the questionnaire was too long making it difficult for 
them to concentrate on the questions. 
3.10 Statistical techniques 
Data was processed using the SPSS programme in consultation with the 
Statistical Consultation Services of North-West University in which the 
computer programme performed the TEST procedure of the SPSS System for 
Windows Release (SPSS-Institute, 2000; Steyn, 1990). 
3.1 1 Conclusion 
In this chapter the empirical design process of this research was discussed. 
The next chapter provides the analysis and interpretation of data collected 
during the empirical research. 
Chapter 4 
Data analysis and interpretation 
4.1 Introduction 
The purpose of the empirical survey of this research was to determine by 
means of a questionnaire: 
determine the nature of a management strategy for the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic at schools; 
determine the effects of the HIVIAIDS pandemic on the school system; 
and 
suggest a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS pandemic at 
schools 
The summary of the data collected by means of empirical research is 
analysed and interpreted in this chapter. The percentages of demographic 
particulars are reported and t-tests were conducted to compare the 
perceptions of educators and school management teams with regard to the 
effects of HIVIAIDS on educators, learners, teaching and learning situation 
(which in this research are referred to as school systems) and to find out if 
schools comply with certain categories of critical prerequisites for effective 
teaching and learning. These critical prerequisites are necessary for the 
suggestion of an effective strategy for managing school systems against 
HIVIAIDS. 
4.2 Data on the demographic information 
Data concerning the demographic information of respondents is presented in 
Tables 4.1 to 4.7. These data are analysed and interpreted. 
4.2.1 The distribution of the number of educators who participated in 
this research according to school types (N=349) 
Table 4.1 
( Variable ( N  
I 
Farm ( 40 
I 
Township 1 309 
I Type of School 
4.2.1.1 Analysis 
89% of respondents who participated in this research are from township 
schools, and 11 % are from farm schools. 
4.2.1.2 Interpretation 
It can be deduced from the data collected in figure 4.1 that the majority of 
schools in the Vaal Triangle are in township areas and a few in farm areas. 
This could be attributed to the fact that there is a great exodus of learners 
with their parents to the townships because of the current urbanization of the 
South African communities and the prospects of finding jobs in the highly 
industrialized Vaal Triangle towns which are situated near the townships. 
4.2.2 The distribution of the number of educators who participated in 
this research according to levels of schools in which they teach (N=351) 
Table 4.2 
I 
I Variable 1 b4 I 
I 
Primary 1 295 
Secondary 1 53 
I 
Combined 3 
Type of School 
Secondsy 
4.2.2.1 Analysis 
84% of the respondents who participated in this study are from primary 
schools, while 15% are from secondary schools and 1% from schools, which 
combined both primary and secondary school levels. 
4.2.2.2 Interpretation 
It can be deduced from the data collected in figure 4.2 that the majority of 
schools in the Vaal Triangle are primary schools, followed by secondary 
schools, with only a few combined schools. 
4.2.3 The distribution of the number of educators who participated in 
this research according to their current posts (N = 363) 
Table 4.3 
Variable N Current Post I 
Educator 292 
I 
HOD 43 1 
I 
Deputy Principal 10 
I 
Principal 1 18 
4.2.3.1 Analysis 
80% of respondents who participated in this research are educators, 12% are 
HODs, 3% are deputy principals, and 5% are principals. 
4.2.3.2 Interpretation 
It can be deduced from the data collected in figure 4.3 that educators are in 
the majority, followed by HODs, then Deputy Principals and lastly Principals. 
66 
4.2.4 The distribution of educators according to the phases in which 
they are teaching (N=366) 
Table 4.4 
Teaching Phase 
Variable 
Foundation 
Intermediate 
Senior e m  
FOundatrn 
FET 23 33% 6% FET 
4.2.4.1 Analysis 
38% of respondents who participated in this research teach in the 
intermediate phase, while 33% are in the foundation phase, followed by 23% 
in the senior phase, and 6% in the further education and training phase. 
4.2.4.2 Interpretation 
It can be deduced from the data collected in figure 4.4 that the majority of 
educators teach in the intermediate phase, followed by those in the foundation 
phase, others teach in the senior phase and lastly those that teach in further 
education and training phase. 
4.2.5 The distribution of  educators who participated in this research 
according to governmenfs classification of schools (N=361) 
Table 4.5 
( Variable 1 
I 
Private 1 12 
Type of School 
I 
Ex TED 2 
4.2.5.1 Analysis 
95% of respondents who participated in this research are from township 
schools, 3% from private schools, 1% from historically white schools and 1% 
from other schools. 
4.2.5.2 Interpretation 
It can be deduced from the data collected in figure 4.5 that the majority of 
educators are from township schools, followed by private schools. It is a 
reality in South Africa that townships are highly populated because of the 
majority of poor people who stay there. 
4.2.6 Reasons given for the mortality rate among educators 
For the purpose of interpreting this table, the researcher decided to combine 
the scales indicating always, often and sometimes in order to make a 
conclusion that certain variables mentioned in question 12 (see table 4.6 
below) indicate reasons for the mortality rate among educators at the schools 
of the respondents. 
Table 4.6 
Variable 
Illness 
Accident 
Suicide 
Violence 
Aids- 
related 
Always Often Sometimes Never 
I Reasons for  Mortality Rate 
Violence  
Accident 
Illness 
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 
I l Always l Often O Sometimes 0 Never 
4.2.6.1 Analysis 
75% of the respondents indicated that illness was the main reason for the 
mortality rate among educators at their respective schools. 
4.2.6.2 Interpretation 
This suggests that the main cause of educator mortality rate at schools which 
formed the sample of this study is illness. 
4.2.7 The extent of feelingslattitudes experienced by educators and 
school management teams who have to carry a heavy workload 
For the purpose of interpreting this table, the researcher decided to combine 
the scales indicating always, often and sometimes in order to draw a 
conclusion that certain variables mentioned in question 19 (see table 4.7 
below) indicate certain feelingslattitudes for having to carry more than one 
educator's heavy workload. 
Table 4.7 
Variable 1 Not 
at 
all 
Frustrated 7 
Stressed 
Motivated 
Coping 
Not coping 
Comfortable 1 123 
I 
Negative 1 79 
i 
Low morale 1 68 
I 
Depressed 1 64 
Resigning 1110 
Feelings and Attitudes 
Resigning 
Depressed 
LOW Morale 
Negetive 
Comfortable 
Not coping 
Coping 
Less interested 
Motivated 
Stressed 
Frustrated 
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 
I Not at all I Sometimes 0 Often 0 Always 
4.2.7.1 Analysis 
91% of the respondents reported that they are frustrated to a certain 
extent, while 9% of the respondents reported that they are not at all 
frustrated. 
90% of the respondents reported that they are stressed, to a certain 
extent while 10% of the respondents reported that they are not at all 
stressed. 
57% of the respondents reported that they are motivated to a certain 
extent, while 43% of the respondents reported that they are not at all 
motivated. 
77% of the respondents reported that they have a decreased interest 
to a certain extent, while 23%of the respondents reported that they do 
not have a decreased interest at all. 
74% of the respondents reported that they are coping to a certain 
extent, while 26% of the respondents reported that they are not coping 
at all. 
79% of the respondents reported that they are not coping to a certain 
extent, while 21% of the respondents reported that they are not coping 
at all. 
60% of the respondents reported that they are comfortable to a certain 
extent, while 40% of the respondents reported that they are not at all 
comfortable. 
74% of the respondents reported that they are negative to a certain 
extent, while 26% of the respondents reported that they are not at all 
negative. 
78% of the respondents reported that they experience low morale to a 
certain extent, while 22% of the respondents did not experience any 
low morale at all. 
80% of the respondents reported that they are depressed, while 20% 
of them said that they are not at all depressed. 
64% of the respondents reported that they felt like resigning, while 
36% of them said that they did not feel like resigning at all. 
71 
4.2.7.2 Interpretation 
These revelations of such a significant majority of educators and school 
management team members who are frustrated; stressed; have a decreased 
interest in their work; negative about their work; experience low morale; 
depressed; and feel like resigning is a great cause of concern for this 
research. These could be symptoms of being emotionally drained and burned 
out for respondents who participated in this study. A management strategy for 
dealing with these repercussions of HIVIAIDS pandemic should include the 
implementation of a Wellness Programme for staff at schools. 
It is interesting to note that in spite of manifesting symptoms of emotional 
debilitation and burnout the respondents still report to be motivated, coping 
and comfortable. This could be attributed to the fact that educators and school 
management team members still feel that teaching is a calling and therefore 
they have to tenaciously hold to the professional values of their teaching 
calling. 
4.2.8 Reasons for educator absenteeism in participating schools 
Table 4.8 
I I 
Sickness of1 59 112% 
Funerals 
others 
I I 
Work -related 1 48 110% 
114 
Other 1 1 3  1 3 %  
23% 
Reasons for Absenteeism 
300 
Sickness of F~nerals Sickness of Wwk Other 
self Others related 
4.2.8.1 Analysis 
52% of the respondents who participated in this research reported "Sickness 
of selF as the main reason for absenteeism among educators, 23% reported 
funeral attendance, while 12% reported sickness of others; work-related 
reasons accounted for lo%, while 3% was for other reasons. 
4.2.8.2 Interpretation 
The fact that most of the educator absenteeism is due to sickness of self 
clearly indicates that there is a problem concerning both the physical and 
psychological wellness of educators and school management team members 
at schools. The rate of funeral attendance is another cause for concern, 
while sickness of others is also a big problem for this research. It should be 
noted that educators could still find it d'~1cu1t to notify their managers of the 
nature and extent of their diseases, especially HIVIAIDS and other sexually 
transmitted infections because of the stigma and discrimination that always 
go with these ailments. An effective management strategy for such a state of 
affairs would include the promotion of human rights at all schools through 
infusing them in all school intra-and extra-curricular activities and implement 
effective Wellness Programmes for staff. 
4.3 An analysis of differences in the perceptions of educators and 
school management teams with regard to the effects of HIVIAIDS on 
school systems 
It was necessary to analyse the differences between the perceptions of 
educators and school management teams with regard to the effects of 
HIVIAIDS on educators, learners, the teaching and learning situation, and 
certain categories of critical prerequisites for effective teaching and learning, 
in order to determine if differences in perceptions between these important 
stakeholders in effective school management and leadership were significant 
or not. For this purpose, the t-test was used, and subsequently, the d-value 
was computed to determine the effect sizes of the significant differences. 
This was done for differences in responses between educators and school 
management teams. 
4.3.1 The t-test 
The t-test is used to determine whether two means differ significantly from 
each other or whether two sets of scores differ significantly at a selected 
probability level (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990:185; Vockel & Asher, 1995:321). 
The t-test was used in this study in order to determine if there are any 
significant differences between the perceptions of respondents (educators 
and school management teams) with regard to the effects of HIVIAIDS on 
educators, learners, and the teaching and learning situation and certain 
categories of critical prerequisites for effective teaching and learning. The t- 
test was also used for its reliability to produce accurate probability statements. 
4.3.2 The p-value 
The probability value (p-value) indicates whether there are statistically 
significant differences between two means of a sample (Vockel & Asher, 
1995:326). 
In this study: 
the 0.05 (5%) significance level was selected to determine if there are 
any significant differences between the perceptions of respondents 
(educators and school management teams) with regard to the effects 
of HIVIAIDS on educators, learners, and the teaching and learning 
situation and certain categories of critical prerequisites for effective 
teaching and learning; and 
p-values greater than 0, 05 indicated no significant differences in 
perceptions between educators and SMTs, while p-values less than 
0.05 indicated significant differences in the perceptions of respondents 
(educators and school management teams) with regard to the effects 
of HIVIAIDS on educators, learners, and the teaching and learning 
situation and certain categories of critical prerequisites for effective 
teaching and learning (Vockel & Asher, 1995:326). 
All these statistical differences were determined behnieen educators and 
school management teams. 
4.3.3 The d-value (effect size) 
The effect size assesses the magnitude of a difference between two means, 
that is: it takes into account the size of the difference between means, 
regardless of whether it is statistically significant (Fraenkel & Wallen, 
1990:189). In this regard, Vockel and Asher (1995:330) assert that the effect 
size determines if the difference is enough to recommend changes in the 
educational practice. Gall, Borg and Gall (1996:196) caution however, that 
though the effect size is helpful in judging the practical significance of a 
research result, it is by no means an absolute index of practical significance. 
It is therefore an aid to interpretation, albeit an important one. 
Therefore, in this study the effect size is computed in order to determine 
whether the observed differences in perceptions derived from the t-test can be 
interpreted to be of practical significance or use. This is done for differences 
in responses between educators and school management teams. It was 
obtained by using the following formula (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990:185; Vockel 
& Asher, 1995:334): 
where, 
; 1
- 
x 2 
= the mean of principalsldeputy principalslHODs 
= the mean of educators 
SDrnax = the maximum standard deviation (of either of the 
respondents) 
d = effect size 
The interpretation of the effect size was done on the basis of the following 
guidelines proffered by Vockel and Asher (1995:337): 
d = 0, 2 (small effect) 
d = 0, 5 (medium effect) 
d = 0, 8 (large effect) 
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (1990:187) effect sizes of 0, 5 or more 
should be treated as important. However, Vockel and Asher (1995338) 
postulate that such effect sizes could depend on the reader's frame of 
reference, that is, he may consider them either too small or too large, which 
projects the arbitrariness of quantitative operational definitions to qualitative 
adjectives. It was therefore decided in this study to interpret effect sizes above 
0, 8 to be important. This was because it was realised that all respondents are 
operating in school systems where the HIVIAIDS pandemic is still not a 
notifiable disease and, at times, it is still a taboo to discuss any items related 
to this pandemic. 
Therefore, they would all require developing a management strategy to deal 
with all the stereotypes and taboos on this pandemic. On the strength of that 
frame of reference, only significant differences of a large enough effect size, d 
= 0,8, would be considered to be of practical significance (Fraenkel & 
Wallenl990:187). 
Since the effect size indicates the practical significance of findings displaying 
significant differences, only those findings displaying significant differences in 
terms of their p-values are considered for practical significance. Therefore, d- 
values were only indicated in cases where p < 0, 05. 
The following section highlights the results of the t-test and the procedures 
which were used in this study, in order to determine if there are any significant 
differences with the perceptions of respondents (educators and school 
management teams) with regard to the effects of HIVIAIDS on educators, 
learners, the teaching and learning situation, and certain categories of critical 
prerequisites for effective teaching and learning. 
4.3.4The effects of HIVIAIDS on educators 
Table 4.9 
Item description Mean SD Mean SD T 
Educators SMT 
Educators who are HIV 3.55 1 0.69 3.60 1 0.62 -0.52 
or died 
affected 
educators 
2.73 4.27 2.20 1.85 0.66 
Problems experienced 2.77 0.94 2.81 0.88 -0.38 
in taking over for an 1 I I I I  
absent colleague 
Appointment of 3.33 0.98 3.31 1.01 0.15 
educator's workload 
5 z F n z t r  
mem bers I 
Frequent absence of 2.79 
staff members I 
I 
Staff members not 1 2.70 
replaced 
x i r - r & F  
personal illness I 
4.4 The comparison between educators and school management teams' 
perceptions of  the effects of HIVIAIDS on educators 
4.4.1 Analysis 
The p-values of Table 4.9.2 indicate that there were no significant differences 
in the perceptions of educators and school management teams with regard to 
the effects of HIVIAIDS on educators. 
4.4.2 Interpretation 
The reason for this result could be the fact that educators in township schools 
do not yet feel free to discuss their HIVIAIDS status with their colleagues 
because of the stigma that is always attached to the person suffering from this 
pandemic. Table 4.6.2 revealed that the majority of educators in the schools 
and school management teams who participated in this research stipulated 
illness as the reason for the mortality rate among educators at their schools. It 
would be interesting to investigate the real nature of these illnesses to see if 
these illnesses are not related to opportunistic diseases as highlighted in 
chapters 1 and 2 of this research (see paragraphs 1.1 & 2.2.1) 
4.5 The effects of HIVIAIDS on learners 
Table 4.10 
Item description I Mean ( SD I Mean I SD 
I I I 
Educators 1 SMT 
Awareness of learners who are 1 3.24 
HIV positive 
Number of learners affected 5.46 
Percentage of orphaned children 
by interrupted schooling 1 
2.03 
who repeated grades 
Percentage of learners affected 1.92 
dropped out of school due to 
I 
Percentage of learners who 1.78 
incomplete families- 
Learners involved in sexual 
and educators I 
1.93 
harassment by educators 
Relationships between learners 1.98 
Percentage of learners suffering 3.66 
from poor nutrition 
Percentage of learners unable to 3.82 
pay school fees 
Reasons for learner absence 2.37 
Absenteeism rate of learners on a 18.30 
weekly basis 
Both parents alive 
Paternal orphan 
Maternal orphan 
Double orphan 
Learners living with guardians 
4.14 
2.94 
2.61 
2.20 
3.10 
79 
family members 1 I 1 1 I 1 I 
I I I I , I I 
Learners whose parents have 1 2.30 1 0.52 1 1.83 1 0.50 1 1.74 1 0.08 1 
Learners who are HIV positive 
Learners living with HIV positive 
died of HIVIAIDS I  ( 1 1  
1.31 
1.29 
4.5.1 Analysis 
1.50 
2.13 
The results of table C reveal a significant statistical difference between the 
perceptions of educators and school management teams with regard to 
absenteeism rates of learners on a weekly basis (t=-249, p<0.01, dc0.30) and 
the life of both parents (t=-2,06, ~ ~ 0 . 0 4 ,  dc0.28). Statistically, both these 
differences between the perceptions of educators and school management 
teams imply a small effect in practice. 
0.47 
0.81 
4.5.2 Interpretation 
0.64 
0.42 
1.46 
1.47 
This result is attributable to the fact that educators have daily access to 
learners' information on absenteeism and the life of both parents because of 
the registers they have to control for their classes, while school management 
1.39 
1.91 
teams only work on summaries provided by educators. 
4.6 The effects of HIVIAIDS on teaching and learning 
Table 4.1 1 
Item description 
Does HIVIAIDS have 
Mean 
a detrimental effect 
on teaching and 
learning? 
Is the academic 
Educators 
1.47 1 0.50 
SD 
1.55 
SMT 
1.47 1 0.50 
Mean 
0.00 
1.03 
SD 
1.43 
T 
0.94 1.78 
progress 
satisfactory? 
Classes too big 
Impossible to pay 
attention to 
individual learners 
Learners are 
frequently absent 
Educator workload 
too heavy 
Learners not 
motivated 
Frequent absence of 
educators due to 
family 
responsibilities 
Frequent absence of 
educators due to 
personal illness 
Lack of motivation 
Lack of social 
interactions 
Hyperactivity 
Passivity 
Nervousness 
Poor discipline 
Absenteeism 
Tiredness 
Lack of motivation 
Lack of 
concentration 
Memory loss 
Poor attention span 
members 
responsibilities at 
4.6.1 Analysis 
home 
Poor academic 
performance 
Rejection by peers 
School- related 
problems 
Diarrhoea 
Pneumonia 
Tuberculosis 
Severe weight loss 
The results of table 4.9.3 reveal a significant statistical difference between the 
perceptions of educators and school management teams with regard to 
classes which are too big (t=-2.07, pC0.04, dc0.4); educator workload too 
heavy (t=-3.62, pcO.00, dc0.6); lack of concentration (t=2.56, p<0.01, dc0.4); 
decreased interest in school and school activities (t=-3.63, p<O.OO,d<0.5); 
illness of family members (t=2.37, ~ ~ 0 . 0 2 ,  dc0.3); loss of family members 
(t=2.25, ~ ~ 0 . 0 2 ,  dc0.3); too many responsibilities at home (t=3.02, pc0.00, 
dc0.4); poor academic performance p2.36, 0.02, dc0.3). Statistically, the 
differences between the perceptions of educators and school management 
teams with regard to classes which are too big, lack of concentration, illness 
of family members, loss of family members, too many responsibilities at home 
82 
2.81 
2.23 
2.30 
3.28 
3.25 
3.24 
3.04 
0.81 
0.74 
0.92 
0.92 
0.92 
1.06 
0.64 
2.52 
2.12 
2.25 
3.28 
3.22 
3.11 
3.09 
0.85 
0.68 
0.84 
0.84 
0.94 
1.00 
0.51 
2.36 
0.94 
0.43 
0.06 
0.27 
0.99 
-0.35 
0.96 
0.79 
0.32 
0.73 
0.02 
0.35 
0.66 
0.12 
- 
and poor academic performance imply a small significant effect in practice; 
whereas decreased interest in school and school activities, and educator 
workload which is too heavy imply a medium significant effect in practice. 
4.6.2 Interpretation 
These results indicate that the perceptions of educators and school 
management teams with regard to classes which are too big, manifestations 
of lack of concentration among learners, manifestations of illness of family 
members, loss of family members, too many responsibilities at home, poor 
academic performance among learners, educator workload which is too 
heavy, and decreased interest in school and school activities are different. 
This could be attributable to the fact that educators spend a lot of time with 
their learners in classrooms and their experiences of what happens in the 
classroom may be different. Educators are likely to experience more burnout 
and job satisfaction because of their daily exposure to learner experiences of 
depression and stress. 
4.7 Pre-requisites for effective teaching and learning 
Table 4.12 
learning 
On-going interaction between 3.30 0.71 3.27 0.60 0.34 0.73 
I learners and educators 
Educators correct tests 
- 
Tests are handed back in good 
time 
Educators check learners 
3.45 
3.20 
homework 
Educators provide assistance 
( with educational problems 1 1 
0.63 
0.72 
3.27 
with personal problems 
Educators provide assistance 
0.72 
3.07 0.73 
3.21 
Educators involve learners 
I attention I I 
0.71 
actively in learning 
Educators reinforce learning 
Educators pay individual 
I I 
Educators control disciplinary 1 3.21 1 0.79 
3.42 0.70 
3.33 
2.98 
I learners pay attention during 1 1 
0.71 
0.83 
problems effectively 
Educators make sure that 
Educators are role models in 1 3.30 1 0.71 
3.39 
lesson presentation 
Educators are dependable 
I good ethics, attitudes and 1 I 
0.67 
2.89 0.99 
values 
Educators are punctual and 
I involved with learners I 1 
regular in attendance 
Educators are sexually 
3.08 
I grades combined into one I I 
0.69 
1.25 
I I 
0.66 
Are learners of different 
deal with learners who cannot 
84 
classroom? 
Is the curriculum flexible to 
1.96 0.20 
1.59 0.49 
attend school or whosc 
schooling is interrupted? 
Are classes left untaught? 
Is there a sufficient educato~ 
supply? 
Are posts filled in good time? 
Are staff developmenl 
programmes in place f o ~  
educators who have to cope 
with heavy workloads? 
Does the curriculum teacb 
learners how to handle the 
emotional changes during 
puberty and adolescence? 
Is the curriculum focusing on 
promoting abstinence from 
sexual activities? 
Does the curriculum focus on 
promoting a delay in taking 
part in sexual activities? 
Are topics on HIVIAIDS 
infused into subjects? 
Are these topics well taught? 
Is there an indepth coverage 
of HIVIAIDS topics? 
Planning of extra-curricular 
activities planned to address 
HIVIAIDS 
9re school-based activities 
arranged to address 
\re intensive pre-service and 
)r in-service training I 
programmes implemented? 
Are educators confident to 1.20 0.40 1.21 
teach HIVIAIDS topics? 
Are strict measures in place to 1.28 0.45 1.1 1 
deal with staff involved in 
sexual harassment of1 I I 
learners? 
Are strict measures in place to 1.27 0.44 1 . I6  
deal with love relationships 
between learners and staff I I I 
members? 
Are there strict measures for 1.19 0.39 1.22 
educators who are frequently ( I I 
absent? 
Is your school offering feeding 1 . I2  0.33 1 . I5  
scheme? 
Are you of the opinion that it is 1 .I 9 0.40 1.20 
the school's task to deal with 1 I I 
the causes and effect of 
HIVIAIDS? 
give too much attention to 
HIVIAIDS in our schools? 
4.7.1 Analysis 
The results of table E reveal a significant statistical difference between the 
perceptions of educators and school management teams with regard to 
educators involving learners actively in learning (t=2.47, pc0.01, dc0.3); 
educators controlling disciplinary problems effectively (t=2.14, ~ ~ 0 . 0 3 ,  d<0.3); 
educators making sure that learners pay attention during lesson presentation 
(k3.29, pcO.00, d<0.5); the curriculum focusing on promoting abstinence from 
sexual activities (t=2.50, p<0.01, dc0.3); planning extra-curricular activities to 
86 
address HIVIAIDS (t=2.78, p~0.01, d<0.4) and dealing with staff involved in 
sexual harassment of learners (t=2.83, pcO.00, dc0.4). 
Statistically, the differences between the perceptions of educators and school 
management teams with regard to educators involving learners actively in 
learning, educators controlling disciplinary problems effectively, the curriculum 
focusing on promoting abstinence from sexual activities, planning extra- 
curricular activities to address HIVIAIDS, and dealing with staff involved in 
sexual harassment of learners, imply a small significant effect in practice; 
whereas educators making sure that learners pay attention during lesson 
presentation implies a medium significant effect in practice. 
4.7.2 Interpretation 
These results indicate that the perceptions of educators and school 
management teams with regard to educators involving learners actively in 
learning; educators controlling disciplinary problems effectively; educators 
making sure that learners pay attention during lesson presentation; the 
curriculum focusing on promoting abstinence from sexual activities; planning 
extra-curricular activities to address HIVIAIDS; and dealing with staff involved 
in sexual harassment of learners are different. These results could be 
attributable to the fact that the needs of the Revised National Curriculum 
Statement (RNCS) expect educators to facilitate and let more work be done 
by learners through discovery and exploration of their abilities, thus exposing 
them to working in groups. This leads them to work effectively according to 
their capabilities and to show expertise, rather than the educator wasting their 
time, teaching aspects which may tend to be boring and uninteresting to the 
learners. Active participation of learners in their respective groups is thus 
observed and noise disturbances are inevitable, as the situation sometimes 
turns out to be chaotic and uncontrollable as learners are all engaged in 
proving their communication and listening skill potentials with their peers, thus 
impacting negatively on educators as if they cannot control disciplinary 
problems effectively. 
Concerning the planning of extra-curricular activities to address HIVIAIDS, it is 
understandable that some educators still have myths and reservations about 
the seriousness of the pandemic and want to shy away from the reality of its 
existence. This can lead others to a wait- and- see period and they will plan 
those activities when they come into contact with infected and affected 
learners at their schools. Regarding strict measures being in place for staff 
members involved in the sexual harassment of learners, the Department of 
Education has clearly stated that any educator found guilty of sexual 
harassment of learners will be charged with misconduct and upon being found 
guilty of the act, will be expelled from school with immediate effect. 
4.8 Conclusion 
In chapter 4, responses gathered from respondents through data collection 
instrument were analysed and interpreted. In chapter 5 a summary, 
conclusions and recommendations will be made. The recommendations are 
based on the findings of both the literature and the empirical studies of this 
research. 
Chapter 5 
Summary, findings and recommendations 
5.1 Introduction 
In this chapter, a summary of the four preceding chapters is presented. Firstly, 
the summary of the findings from the literature review which were highlighted 
in chapters 1 and 2 are presented, followed by the summary of the statement 
of the problem, purpose and methods of research as highlighted in chapters 1 
and 3, and lastly the summary of the findings of the empirical research as 
revealed in chapter 4. The summaries of the literature findings and empirical 
research chapters will enable the researcher to formulate recommendations 
for a management strategy which schools could adopt and adapt in their 
dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic at their respective schools. 
5.2 Summary and conclusions 
5.2.1 Findings and conclusions from the literature study (see chapters 1 
and 2). 
The literature review of this research revealed that HIVIAIDS wreaks havoc on 
learners and educators' psychological health and mental functions such as 
memory, concentration and creativity (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.4). 
Behavioural efficiency and effectiveness, interpersonal relationships and 
personal productivity are also limited (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.4). 
Because of the physical and psychological demands involved in coping with 
this dreadful disease, it is not surprising that physicians and psychologists have 
suggested that experiencing HIVIAIDS will have a negative effect on an 
infected learner and educator in hislher general academic and vocational 
functioning at school (see paragraph 1.1). Some insight into what this 
apocalyptic scenario means for the general functioning of the school system 
can be gleaned from an examination of the potential multiple effects of 
HIVIAIDS on education, such as: 
decline in school enrolment as a result of the death of learners; 
the quality of education suffering because of educator absenteeism and 
deaths; 
erratic performance of professional duties by educators; 
depleted education budgets through double payment of educators, as 
sick educators have to be replaced while on fully paid sick leave; and 
the emotional and physical stress and pains that HIV- infected and 
AIDS- suffering learners and educators go through which impact on 
their effective learning and teaching abilities (see paragraph 1.1 and 
paragraph 2.4). 
All these variables have a devastating impact on the general effective 
functioning of the school (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.4). 
The foregoing paragraphs indicate that a management strategy is a virtual 
necessity for schools in order to deal with the HIVIAIDS pandemic 
concertedly. This may not be a recipe for success, but without it, a school is 
much more likely to fail to develop the necessary human resources for the 
country and at the same time to lose educator human resources in case of 
HIVIAIDS infected learners and educators dying or crippled by the pandemic. 
A sound management strategy: 
can serve as a framework for decisions and for securing support and 
approval of funds to help and support learners and educators infected 
with and affected by the HIVIAIDS pandemic; 
a can provide a basis for more detailed planning to deal with the 
potential areas of HIVIAIDS impact on learners, educators and the 
school systems in general; 
can explain the HIVIAIDS vision and mission statement to learners, 
educators, parents and communities in order to inform, motivate and 
involve them in the struggle against this deadly pandemic; 
can assist benchmarking and performance monitoring of the school in 
dealing with the HIVIAIDS pandemic; and 
can stimulate organizational change and become a building block in 
the next HIVIAIDS plan (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.6). 
A satisfactory management strategy is realistic and allows school principals, 
deputy principals and their heads of departments to think strategically and act 
operationally. The management strategy of the school is guided by the 
principles that: 
learners and educators with HIVIAIDS should be involved in all 
prevention, intervention and care strategies at school; 
learners and educators with HIVIAIDS, their partners, families and 
friends should not suffer because of discrimination; 
the vulnerable position of women at school should be addressed, to 
ensure that they do not suffer discrimination, nor remain unable to take 
effective measures to prevent infection; 
confidentiality and informed consent of learners and educators with 
regard to HIV- testing and test results should be protected; 
education, counselling and health care should be sensitive to the 
culture, language and social circumstances of all learners and 
educators at all times; 
all intervention and care strategies should be subject to critical 
evaluation and assessment; 
the school should work with all sectors of government and other 
stakeholders in their communities in the fight against HIVIAIDS; 
an ecosystemic, constructivist and holistic approach to education and 
care should be developed and sustained; 
capacity building should be emphasized to accelerate HIVIAIDS 
prevention and control measures; and 
the prevention and control of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) are 
central elements in the response to HIVIAIDS (see paragraph 1.1 and 
paragraph 2.6). 
Unlike an operational strategy (which is of a shorter term, tactical, focused, 
implementable and measurable), a management strategy is visionary, 
91 
conceptual and directional. A management strategy involves the process of 
planning to combat the HIVIAIDS pandemic such as where, when, duration, 
budget, who performs certain duties, how the goals are to be achieved, while 
the final preparations such as tasks, deadlines, funding and so on form an 
operational strategy (see paragraph l. land paragraph 2.5). The primary goals 
for the management strategy are to: 
reduce the number of new HIV infections (especially among learners 
and educators); and 
reduce the impact of HIVIAIDS on individuals, families and 
communities (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.6.3). 
The following general strategies, which are crucial in developing an effective 
management strategy, have been highlighted: 
an effective and culturally appropriate information, education and 
communications (IEC) strategy 
increased access and acceptability to Voluntary HIV counselling 
and testing 
improved STD management, treatment of opportunistic infections 
and increased condom use to reduce STD and HIV transmission 
improved care and treatment of HIV- positive persons and persons 
living with AIDS, to promote a better quality of life and limit the 
need for hospital care (see paragraph 1 .I and paragraph 2.6.3). 
The literature review also revealed that the management strategy should be 
structured according to: 
prevention; 
treatment, care and support; human and legal rights; and 
monitoring, research and surveillance (see paragraph 1.1 and 
paragraph 2.4). 
In addition, learners are broadly targeted as a priority population group, 
especially for prevention efforts (see paragraph1 .I and paragraph 2.6). 
92 
5.2.2 Statement of the problem 
The argument presented in this research is that a school with a high number 
of learners, educators and non-teaching staff members infected with and 
affected by HIVIAIDS cannot function efficiently and effectively, since learners 
infected with and affected by HIVIAIDS cannot cope with learning and cannot 
perform their learning tasks to the best of their latent and innate abilities, while 
infected and affected educators cannot teach effectively because they are 
often ill and absent from school, and this has an effect on the efficient and 
effective management of the school. 
It also emerged in the literature review findings that learners and educators 
infected with HIVIAIDS can be psychotic (see paragraphsl.1 and paragraph 
2.4) and it is the belief of the researcher of this dissertation that a psychotic 
learner and educator cannot effectively learn, teach and work because of 
psychological obfuscation that usually accompanies psychosis. 
5.2.3 Findings and conclusion from the empirical investigation 
The empirical investigation on the items of the questionnaire (see appendix A) 
revealed that: 
the majority of the respondents perceived illness as the main reason for 
the mortality rate among educators (see Table 4.6, paragraph 4.2.6) 
the majority of the respondents revealed that educators and 
management teams are: 
o frustrated; 
o stressed; 
o less interested in their work; 
o negative about their work; 
o experiencing low morale; and 
o depressed (see Table 4.7, paragraph 4.2.7) 
These emotional problems are manifestations of being emotionally drained and 
of burnout because of having to carry a heavy workload for an absent educator 
(see Table 4.9, paragraph 4.3.4). Such emotional debilitations call for a 
management strategy that encapsulates an effective psychological wellness 
programme for all staff members of the school (see Table 4.7and paragraph 
4.2.7). 
The majority of respondents reported that reasons for educator 
absenteeism were sickness of self (see Table 4.8 and paragraph 4.2.8). 
It is difficult to speculate what the cause of sickness of self is, because 
HIVIAIDS is not yet a notifiable disease in South Africa and the stigma 
'and discrimination that always go with this pandemic could be the 
reason educators find it difficult to divulge their ailments to their 
colleagues and supervisors, that is, school management team members. 
This research found no significant differences on the perceptions of 
educators and school management teams on the effects of HIVIAIDS on 
educators (see Table 4.9, paragraph 4.3.4). 
The study revealed the following significant differences on the perceptions 
of educators and school management teams on the effects of HIVIAIDS on 
learners: 
There were significant differences between the perceptions of the 
educators and school management team members with regard to 
the absenteeism rate of learners on a weekly basis, and concerning 
the fact that both parents are alive (see Table 4.10, paragraph 4.5). 
The study revealed the following significant differences on the perceptions 
of educators and school management teams on the effects of the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic on the teaching and learning situation: 
classes are too big; 
educator workload is too heavy; 
lack of concentration decreased interest in school; 
illness of family members; 
loss of family members; 
too many responsibilities at home; and 
poor academic performance (see Table 4.1 1, paragraph 4.6). 
The study revealed the following significant differences on the perceptions 
of educators and school management teams on the prerequisites for 
effective teaching and learning: 
educators involve learners actively in learning; 
educators control disciplinary problems effectively; 
educators make sure that learners pay attention during lesson 
presentation; 
the curriculum focuses on promoting a delay in taking part in sexual 
activities; 
planning of extra-curricular activities to address HIVIAIDS; and 
strict measures to deal with staff involved in sexual harassment of 
learners (see Table 4.12, paragraph 4.7). 
5.2.4 Problems and possible shortcomings of the research 
The research was done on homogeneous racial groups, that is, Blacks from the 
townships (see Table 4.2, paragraph 4.2.2). Had it involved heterogeneous 
groups from all racial groups of South Africa, it would have provided an 
effective comparison of the perceptions of all racial groups on the effects of 
HIVIAIDS on school systems, especially because cultural beliefs have a 
bearing on sexual orientations and convictions about the origins of the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic (see paragraph 1.1 and paragraph 2.4). 
The questionnaire was long (90 items), which could have caused the 
respondents to lose concentration and interest while filling in the answers. That 
is why some items were not responded to, which could have impacted on the 
reliability and validity of the study. Some items of the questionnaire could have 
been combined in order to prevent duplication and confusing the respondents. 
Learners were also not part of the population of this research. Their perceptions 
and responses would have added more weight to the validity and reliability of 
this study. 
5.2.5 Limitations of the study 
The study may have suffered because of the following limitations: 
5.2.6 Missing data 
Due to either a lack of a clear understanding of the questionnaires, or a 
negative attitude towards the questionnaires, some educators and school 
management teams failed to complete them fully. This resulted in missing 
data and an inconsistency in the numbers of sample sizes for the various 
analyses. 
5.2.7 Measuring instrument 
With relation to instrumentation, it would be better if the questionnaire was 
standardized for all South Africans in order to determine the stereotypes and 
attitudes towards HIVIAIDS of all racial and cultural groups of educators and 
school management teams in this country. 
5.3 Recommendations 
Both the findings of the literature review and of the empirical research (see 
chapters 1, 2, and 4) highlight the necessity of a management strategy for 
dealing with HIVIAIDS at schools. It emerged from the literature review that 
the primary purpose of a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS at 
schools should be to: 
provide a strategic and operational framework for the prevention of the 
HIVIAIDS pandemic (see paragraph 1 . l )  
guide all stakeholders of the school (learners, educators and parents) 
in HIVIAIDS prevention, care and support (see paragraphl.1); 
96 
guide external support organizations providing support (financial and 
technical assistance, etcetera) for all HIVIAIDS-related activities at 
schools (see paragraph 2.6.5); 
provide a mechanism for the mobilisation and allocation of resources 
(see paragraph 2.5.2); and 
provide guidelines for monitoring and co-ordinating activities for 
preventing the spread of HIVIAIDS, and caring for learners and 
educators living with HIVIAIDS (see paragraph 2.5.5.2). 
Since HIVIAIDS is a health problem (see paragraphs 1.1; 2.2.1; 2.2.2; 2.4) 
and a human rights problem (see paragraphs 2.4; 2.6), it goes without saying 
that any management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS at schools should be 
founded on, among other things, World Health Organization (WHO) 
Guidelines on HIV-Infection and AIDS; Constitution of RSA 108 of 1996, 
especially the Bill of Rights; White Paper on Transformation of Health 
Services 66711999; Statement to the National Assembly: DR M. E. 
Tshabalala-Msimang, Minister of Health, on HIVIAIDS and Related Issues, 
2004; South African National Policy on HIVIAIDS (Act No. 27 of 1996); 
HIVIAIDS Strategic Plan for SA 2000-2005, Department of Health. 
On the basis of both the findings of the literature review and the empirical 
research, a management strategy for dealing with HIVIAIDS at schools should 
be informed by the following health promotion and human rights based 
principles: 
5.3.1 Confidentiality, respect, sensitivity and kindness in dealing with 
HIVIAIDS matters 
Information regarding the HIV status of an educator and learner must 
not be divulged to others (officials, other educators, learners or 
relatives) without the consent of the learner or educator concerned. 
This information must be kept confidential at all times. 
. The principle of "need to know basis" or "shared confidentiality" should 
be applied only to those who need to know in order to render 
appropriate health, social, psychological, religious and custodial 
(security) care of HIV positive learners and educators. 
5.3.2 Promotion and encouragement of voluntary HIV- testing 
The compulsory testing of learners and educators to determine the 
presence of HIV-status is considered as an unnecessary or ineffective 
endeavour with no treatment basis, unethical and is therefore 
forbidden. 
. Testing learners and educators for HIV-antibodies must only be carried 
out, upon request of the learner or educator, by recommendation of a 
registered nurse or by written order of the attending medical 
officerlpractitioner. 
. In all cases where voluntary testing is requested, the learner or 
educator must consent to the test in writing, and be subjected to 
adequate pre- and post-test counselling. 
An HIV test carried out without informed consent shall be considered to 
be an unlawful infringement of the learnerleducator or the child's bodily 
integrity and invasion of privacy. 
. If a learner is to be HIV tested, the parent or legal guardian should give 
informed written consent. 
For the mentally ill or handicapped learners or educators, the spouse, 
parent or the appointed curator adlitem should give consent for testing. 
The counsellor must ensure that the patient understands the reasons 
for testing, the nature of the test, the meaning of the positive and 
negative test results, implications of the results both negative and 
positive, and follow-up plans. 
In the event of anonymous HIV epidemiological surveys, written 
informed consent must be obtained from all participants. 
. Voluntary testing of learners and educators should be encouraged, 
services should be accessible and incentives should be provided to 
those who come out for testing. 
. All HIV positive tests must be confirmed. 
. Counselling must be conducted by a professional trained in 
counselling. 
5.3.3 Non-segregation of learners and staff living with HlVlAlDS from 
learners and staff not living with HlVlAlDS 
Learners and educators who are HIV positive should not be separated 
from others. 
Learners and educators living with HIVIAIDS must be treated the same 
way as the general public where every person is to be considered 
potentially HIV positive. 
. Medical segregation (isolation) will be practised only when indicated by 
the person's medical conditions, for example by active TB, 
incontinence, persistent bleeding, sores and other infections to prevent 
the spread of infection to other learners and educators. 
Should medical isolation (segregation) be carried out, it should be done 
without any reference to whether the learner or educator is or is not 
infected with HIV. 
HIV positive learners and educators should have equal access to all 
intra- and extra-curricular activities of the school. They should also 
participate in all other educational and school programmes without 
discrimination. 
5.3.4 Availability of  pre and post testing counselling services for 
learners and staff 
Schools should be seen as an ideal environment for preventive programmes 
with learner and educator populations. 
Information about HIV must be given to learners on admission to 
school, on a continuous basis and during teaching and learning 
situations regarding HIVIAIDS and STDs. 
The information should include: HIVIAIDS-what it is, cause, risk 
behaviours, spread within school environment, signs and symptoms, 
stages, complications, prevention, safer sex, STDs, etcetera. 
Female learners and educators should be informed about mother-to- 
child contamination during pregnancy, birth and breast-feeding. 
Female learners and educators should also be informed about the 
available reproductive health care services such as TOP (termination 
of pregnancy). 
Health education should be given to all categories of personnel, that is, 
to both teaching and non-teaching staff. 
A variety of strategies such as pamphlets, lectures, discussions, 
audiovisuals, debates, workshops, dramas, role-plays, etcetera should 
be employed in preventive programmes. 
Learners and educators should be trained in life skills to enable them to 
take responsible decisions regarding their health and lives. 
HIVIAIDS programmes should be culture, language, literacy, gender 
and age specific. 
Educators in all phases of the school should participate in HIVIAIDS 
organization, as they are in daily contact with learners. 
The World AIDS Day and all other national and international 
Commemorations such as Women's Day, Youth Day, Human Rights 
Day, etcetera, should be commemorated in such a way that the target 
groups or people are sensitized about HIVIAIDS. These celebrations 
should be used as opportunities to promote awareness about the 
pandemic. 
5.3.5 Universal precautions 
All body fluids such as blood, urine, vomits, semen, sputum, saliva, 
e faces, pus, tears, mucus and others should be treated as potentially 
infectious as they may contain the HIV-Virus. 
Universal precautions should aim at the prevention of contamination 
with not only the HIV infection, but also with other blood-borne 
diseases such as Hepatitis B and C, etcetera. 
Open wounds, sores, bruises and other skin lesions should be 
considered potentially infectious. 
When handling these fluids and lesions, protection should be ensured 
through the use of gloves. 
Soiled linen should also be considered as dangerous and therefore 
gloves should be worn and the linen must be disinfected prior to 
laundering, in the case of boarding schools. 
Protection should be ensured when performing messy procedures on 
learners and educators. 
Care should be taken to ensure that all school laboratory equipment, 
instruments and toilets are kept clean, including baths, showers and 
toilets. 
All learners, parents and staff should have information about the 
universal precautions and a copy of the guidelines should be displayed 
on notice boards and school surroundings. 
5.3.6 Availability of condoms 
Condoms should be accessible to learners and educators who need 
them, including the information regarding their use. 
Condom dispensers should be secured at accessible areas at all 
schools. 
The Health Advisory Committee should keep a record of the number of 
condoms dispensed, for monitoring purposes. 
The availability of condoms should be seen as an integral part of the 
HIVIAIDS intervention strategy. 
5.3.7 Management of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) 
Learners and educators should be encouraged to seek medical care 
for early treatment of STDs. 
Provision of proper treatment and health education, including 
monitoring, is essential for the effective management of STDs. 
5.3.8 Nontonsensual (coercive) sex among learners and staff 
Both learners and educators must be sensitized about the dangers of 
unprotected sex, violation of others' human rights and the 
criminalization of any non-consensual (coercive) sex or rape. 
All rapes must be reported and the victim must receive medical 
intervention. Vulnerable female learners and educators must be 
empowered to protect themselves from rapes and abuse by fellow 
learners and educators. 
5.3.9 Management of HIVIAIDS and opportunistic diseases 
Care and support should be provided to every learner especially those 
infected and affected, their families and relatives. 
. The management of opportunistic diseases and infections should be in 
accordance with the guidelines of the Department of Health. 
There must be effective management of the physical, emotional, social 
and spiritual needs and problems of learners and educators living with 
HIV to reduce the stress level and retard progression into full-blown 
AIDS. 
5.3.10 Partnership 
Both the School Management Teams and the School Governing Bodies 
should counteract the undesirable effects of the pandemic within the general 
population; lobby for a more equitable and just distribution of resources in 
schools; obtain guidelines on infection control from specific centres in the 
country which deal with HIVIAIDS, ensure that amongst their membership 
there are those who have or are prepared to receive the necessary training, 
education and support so as to maintain high standards of service to people 
living with HIVIAIDS. The School Governing Bodies should exchange, 
knowledge, share experiences, learn from others and encourage other role 
players to participate in these endeavours. 
External role players such as Non Governmental Organizations 
(NGOs), churches, business sectors, tertiary institutions, unions, 
professional organizations, people living with HIVIAIDS and individuals. 
should be encouraged to render their services at schools. 
Cooperation with relevant organizations and individuals, especially 
those with expertise in HIV prevention, counselling, training, support 
and home care should be encouraged to render services to learners 
and educators. 
Learners and educators should participate in HIVIAIDS programmes as 
peer educators and support system for fellow learners and educators. 
All categories of personnel-nurses, social workers, psychologists, 
educators, religious officers, employee assistant practitioners and 
custodial staff should participate actively in HIVIAIDS programmes. 
Caregivers such as nurses, volunteers and others should receive care 
and support, with the understanding that caring for those who have 
HIVIAIDS is stressful. 
School staff should also participate in community HIVIAIDS and other 
programmeslactivities. 
Each school must have NGO HIVIAIDS programmeslactivities and 
identify other community structures to assist in HIVIAIDS programmes. 
5.3.1 1 Capacity building 
Each school should have one or more HIVIAIDS focal personls who 
will be actively involved in coordinating programmes. These persons 
need not necessarily be nurses. However, they must be trained and 
have sufficient knowledge about HIVIAIDS. 
Each school should have trained counsellors. 
Educators and non-teaching staff should be trained in HIVIAIDS. 
Each school must have an HIVIAIDS plan which is being strictly 
implemented and monitored and evaluated for impact. 
Each school must identify and ensure that resources (human, fiscal 
and logistical) are available to support HIVIAIDS programmes. 
. Each school must have learner and staff peer educators, and the 
selection criteria for such a task could include: 
o respect by colleagues and learners 
o respect by fellow learners 
o ability to communicate 
o interest in health or HIVIAIDS matters 
o sense of maturity. 
5.3.12 Promotion of the rights of learners and personnel to protection 
. The observance of human rights is critical for the protection of the 
vulnerable. 
Both the learners and personnel at all schools should be trained in 
Human Rights. 
. All sexual assaults to learners and educators must be reported and 
recorded and criminal action taken against the perpetrators. 
Learners should be empowered to be able to protect themselves and 
fellow learners. 
. Learners and educators have the right to privacy, bodily autonomy, 
integrity and safety and these and other rights should be protected. 
The deliberate spread of HIV infection by learners and educators to 
fellow learners and educators should be regarded as a serious crime 
against which action should be taken. 
5.3.13 Contact tracing 
Measures should be taken at each school to trace contact of HIV, STD 
s and Hepatitis B and C infections. 
Contacts should not only be limited to sexual contacts, but also include 
sharing of shaving appliances and others where there is a possibility of 
coming into contact with the blood of another person. 
5.4 Conclusion 
This study explored a management strategy for dealing with the HIVIAIDS 
pandemic at schools by means of a literature review and empirical research. 
Valuable findings were highlighted. It is hoped that it will make a valuable 
contribution in developing inclusive health promoting school policies and 
procedures which respect the human dignity and rights of learners living with 
HIVIAIDS. 
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HIVIAIDS Research project: Effect on the 
classroom 
Staff members and students of the Potchefstroom University are involved with 
a research project on the effect of HIVIAids on the learning and teaching 
situation in schools. The purpose of the research is to help schools to deal 
with the problem. 
Please complete the attached questionnaire. 
You andlor your school will at no stage be identified in the research process. 
SECTION A: BlOGRAPHlC INFORMATION 
lndicate whether your school is an urban or a rural school by marking 
your choice with an X in the appropriate block 
lndicate whether your school is a primary or secondary school. 
Rural Urban 
I I 
Please indicate the numbers of teachers in your school I Male I I 
Indicate your current post. 
lndicate the phase in which you are 
presently teaching. 
lndicate the school in which you are 
currently teaching.. 
I Female I I 
Please indicate the numbers of learners in your school I I 
- - 
Teacher 
Foundation 
Public 
Head of 
Department 
Inter-mediate 
Private 
Deputy 
Principal 
Senior 
Ex TED 
Model C 
Principal 
FET 
Other 
SECTION B: THE EFFECTS OF HIVIAIDS ON TEACHERS 
How often are the followina reasons indicated for the mortalitv rate amona teachers at vour school?. 
Are you currently aware of any teachers at your school 
who are HIV positive or who have AIDS. 
How many teachers at your school have medically retired or died over Female the last three years due to a suspected AIDS-related disease? 
2001 
Illness 
yes 
Accident 
Violence/Homicide 1 Alwavs 1 Often 1 Sometimes 1 Never 1 
Do not 
know 
Not 
sure 
Always 
Suicide 
Aids-related illnesses I Alwavs I Often I Sometimes 1 Never I 
No 
Always 
Suicide 1 Alwavs 1 Often I Sometimes 1 Never 1 
Often 
Always 
Often 
Sometimes 
Often 
If your answer to question 8 was YES or NOT SURE, please provide 
an indication of the number of teachers who are possibly affected by 
completing the table. 
Never 
Sometimes 
Male 
Female 
Absenteeism rates of teachers on a weekly basis. Indicate the number 
of teachers who are absent on a weekly basis, by completing the 
diagram. 
Are substitute teachers appointed at your school for days / Always I I Somsimes I Never I on which permanent teachers are absent? 
Never 
Sometimes 
Male 
Female 
Do you experience problems for having to take over the 
responsibilities of an absent colleague? 
Are you coping with more than one educator's workload? 
Never 
Always 
If your answer to question 15 was YES, indicate the importance of the following reasonls for your 
having to carry this workload. 
Yes 
Sometimes 
No 
Frequent absence of staff members Definitely true to attend to family responsibilities. I True I Sometimes true / Untrue 1 
Never 
Shortage of staff members. 1 Definitely true I True Sometimes true I Untrue 
Staff members are not replaced. 
Other (specify). 
Absence of staff members due to 
personal illness. 
17. lndicate to what extent do you experience the following feelingslattitudes for having to carry such a 
heavy workload. 
Definitely true 
Definitely true 
17.2 Stressed 
Sometimes true True 
17.1 Frustrated 
17.3 Motivated 
Untrue 
True 
Not at all 1 Sometimes 1 Often 
Sometimes true 
Always 
Not at all I Sometimes I Often 
Untrue 
Always 
Not at all I Sometimes I Often 
17.5 Coping with the situation 
Always 
17.4 Decreased interest in school and school activities 
17.6 Not coping with the situation 
17.7 Comfortable 
17.8 Negative 
Not at all 
17.9 Low morale 
17.10 Depressed 
Sometimes I Often Always 
Not at all 
Not at all I Sometimes 1 Often I Always 
1 Not at all I Sometimes I Often 1 Always I 
Not at all 
1 Not at all 1 Sometimes I Often 1 Always 1 
Sometimes 
1 Not at all 1 Sometimes I Often I Always I 
Sometimes 
Often 
18. Reasons for absenteeism. lndicate the main reason for teacher absence at your school by marking with 
an X in the amro~riate block. 
Always 
Often 
17.1 1 Feel like resigning 
Always 
Not at all I Sometimes 1 Often I Always 
SECTION C: THE EFFECTS OF HIVIAIDS ON LEARNERS 
17.12 Other (specify) 
Sickness of 
the self Funerals 
19. Are you currently aware of any learners at your school 
who are HIV positive or who have AIDS. 
21. Based on your experience in the last 3 years what percentage of orphaned children repeated grades. 
lndicate your choice by marking with an X in the appropriate block. 
20. If your answer to question 19 was YES or NOT SURE, please provide 
an indication of the number of learners who are possibly affected by 
completing the table. 
22. lndicate the estimated % of learners affected by interrupted schooling the past three years by 
completing the table below. lndicate your choice by marking with an X in the appropriate block. 
1 10-20% 1 20-30% 1 30-40% 1 40-50% 1 50-60% 1 60-70% 1 7040% 1 
Sickness of others 
(Family members) 
Yes 
Male 
Female 
Work related 
Not 
sure 
Other 
Do not 
know No 
23. lndicate the estimated % of learners that drop out of school the past three years due to incomplete 
families by completing the table below. lndicate your choice by marking with an X in the appropriate 
block. 
10-20% 
26. lndicate the estimated % of learners in your school who are suffering from poor nutrition, by completing 
the table below. 
28. lndicate the main reason for learner absence at your school by marking with an X in the appropriate 
block. 
27. lndicate the estimated % of learners who are unable to pay for school fees and school requirements. 
24. Are you aware of learners at your school who were involved in sexual 
harassment cases by teachers in the past three years? 
25. Are you aware of any love relationships between learners and teachers 
at your school? 
10-20% 
10-20% 
20-30% 
3040% 20-30% 
Sickness 
of the self 
Female 
4060% 3040% 
20-30% 
29. Absenteeism rates of learners on a weekly basis. lndicate the number 
of learners who are absent on a weekly basis, by completing the 
diagram. 
30. Learner status at home. Give an indication of the estimated percentage of learners exposed to the 
different types of home situations by completing the table below. lndicate your choice by markina with 
Funerals 
Male 
- - 
an X in theappropriate block. 
5040% 
4040% 
3040% 
. . 
Home situation Percentage of learners 
60-70% 5040% 
Sickness of 
others (Family 
members) 
60-70% 
7040% 
4060% 
7040% 
zkeosf 
members 
38. Learners whose 
parentslguardianshave 
died of HIVIAIDS 
5040% 
Lack of school 
feeslschool 
requirements 
10-20 
60-70% 7040% 
Lack of 
money for 
transport 
20-30 
Have to take 
care of responsi- 
bilities at home 
3040 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80+ 
SECTION D: THE EFFECTS OF HIVIAIDS ON TEACHING AND 
LEARNING 
Do you think that the HIVIAIDS pandemy has a detrimental effect on 
teaching and learning in your school? 
Are you satisfied with the academic progress of the learners in your 
school? 
If your answer to question 40 was NO, indicate the importance of the following reasonh for you 
not being satisfied. 
Classes are too big. I Definitely I True true 1 1 Untrue I true 
Learners are frequently absent 
It is not possible to pay attention to individual 
learners. 
1 Definitely 1 True 
true I s O ~ ~ ~ m e s  1 untrue I 
Teacher workload is too heavy 
Definitely 
true 
I Definitely I True 
true I s O ~ ~ ~  I n u  I 
True 
Learners are not motivated 
Frequent absence of teachers from school due to 
family responsibilities. 
Frequent absence of teachers due to personal 
illness. 
Poor discipline 
Sometimes 
true 
Nervousness 
Untrue 
Definitely 
true 
Definitely 
true 
Definitely 
true 
Absenteeism 
Other (specify) (-1 
To what extent are the following stress reactions notieable among your learners?. 
Not at all 
Not at all 
True 
True 
Lack of motivation 
Lack of social interactions 
Hyperactivity 
Passivity 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Not at all 
Sometimes 
true 
Sometimes 
true 
Sometimes 
true 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
U,t, 
Untrue 
Untrue 
Often 
Often 
Sometimes ( Often 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Always 
Always 
Always 
Often 
Often 
Often 
Often 
Always 
Always 
Always 
Always 
Personal illness 
Illness of family members 
Loss of family members 
Too many responsibilities at home 
Poor academic performance 
Rejection by peers 
School related problems 
To what extent are the following manifestations of depression noticeable among your learners?. 
Tiredness 
Lack of motivation 
Lack of concentration 
Memory loss 
Poor attention span 
Decreased interest in school and school activities 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
How important would you rate the following reasons for the manifestation of stress and 
depression among your learners? 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
Not at all 
A 
Other (specify) I l l  
Answer the following questions with an X in the appropriate block. Are there learners in your 
schoollclasses who suffer from HIV-related illnesses such as: 
Little 
Little 
Little 
Little 
Little 
Little 
Little 
Diarrhoea? 
Pneumonia? 
Tuberculosis? 
Severe weight loss? 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Sometimes 
Quite 
Quite 
Quite 
Quite 
Quite 
Quite 
Quite 
Other (specify) 1
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Often 
Often 
Often 
Often 
Often 
Often 
very 
. 
very 
very A 
very 
. 
VeV 1 
very 
very 
Always 
Always 
Always 
- 
Always 
- 
Always 
Always 
2 
Probably 
Probably 
Probably 
Probably 
Unsure 
Unsure 
Unsure 
Unsure 
No 
No 
No 
No 

SECTION E: MEASURES TO CURB THE EFFECT OF HIVIAIDS ON TEACHING 
AND LEARNING 
Please answer the following questions by marking an X in the appropriate 
block (Yes or No) 
1 69 Are learners of d~fferent grades combmed Into one classroom? -- -- 
71. Are classes at your school left untaughffunsupe~ised? I Y ~ S  I NO 
Yes 
70. Is the curriculum of the school flexible to deal with learners who 
cannot attend school during normal school hours or whose schooling 
is interrupted? 
No 
73. Are posts at your school filled timorously? I yes I NO I 
Yes 
72. Does your school have a sufficient teacher supply? 
No 
77. Does the curriculum focus on promoting a delay in taking part in / yes / No I 
sexual activities? 
Yes 
74. Are staff development programmes in place for educators who have 
to cope with heavy workloads andlor low morale? 
75. Does the curriculum teach learners how to handle the emotional 
changes that occur during puberty and adolescence? 
76. Does the curriculum focus on promoting abstinence from sexual 
activities? 
No 
yes 
Yes 
yes 
78. Are topics on HIVIAIDS infused into carrier subjects: Biology, Life 
Orientation and Health Education? 
No 
No 
No 
79. Are topics of HIVIAIDS well taught? 
80. Is there an in-depth coverage of HIVIAIDS topics? 
Yes 
81. Are extracurricular activities planned to address HIVIAIDS? 
1 83. Are intensive pre-sewice andlor in-se~ice training programmes for / yes I No I 
HIVIAIDS implemented? 
No 
Yes 
Yes 
82. Are school-based activities e.g. School health programmes, guidance 
and counselling arranged to address HIVIAIDS? 
1 84. Do teachers feel confident to teach HIVIAIDS topics? I yes I NO I 
- 
No 
No 
Yes 
1 85. Are strict measures in place to deal with staff members who are / yes / No / 
involved in sexual harassment of learners? 
No 
Yes No 
86. Are strict measures in place to deal with love relationships between 
learners and teachers? 
87. Are strict measures in place to deal with teachers who are frequently 
absent? 
Yes 
Yes 
No 
No 
I 90. Are you of the opinion that we give too much attention to HIVIAIDS in 1 yes I No 1 
our schools? 
88. Does your school offer a feeding scheme? 
89. Are you of the opinion that it is the school's task to deal with the 
causes and effect of HIVIAids? 
Yes 
yes 
No 
No