Psychosocial effects on victims of father-daughter incest in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Boitumelo Rose-Mary Gqabi 22451862 Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Social Work at the North-West University (Mafikeng Campus) Supervisor: Dr. Elizabeth I. Smit May 2016 i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research entitled: Psychosocial effects on victims father-daughter incest in Ngaka Modiri Molema District, is my own work and all sources used have been acknowledged. ……………………………….. ………………………… SIGNATURE DATE (Boitumelo Rose-Mary Gqabi) ii DEDICATION I dedicate this study to my late parents, Tony Sekhumba and Sophy Nontobeko Gqabi. You could not witness my success because death chose you too soon. Your absence and memories motivated me through this journey. May your dearest souls rest in eternal peace. I will always love you. Dedication also goes to my son, Goitseone Gqabi. I wish and pray that this study becomes a source of inspiration for you to endeavour and flourish academically. iii AKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all, I would like to thank almighty God for his grace, care, protection and wisdom throughout the course of my studies. Secondly, I would also like to express my special appreciation to my study supervisor, Dr E.I. Smit. You have been a wonderful mentor to me. I would like to express my gratitude to you for your patience, support and encouragement throughout the course of my study.You encouraged me to not only grow as a social work researcher but also as an independent thinker. Your advice on my study has been priceless and the success of this study would not have been achieved had it not been for your guidance. My deep appreciation also goes to the North-West University, especially the Population and Health Research Focus Area for their financial support. You played an important role in helping me achieve my dream. I also wish to thank all the professionals from DSD, DCS, FAMSA and SAVF for taking their time to participate in this study; if it was not for your participation this study would not have been a success. My appreciation also goes to all the faculty members of Social Work, especially Dr N.G. Thekiso for her encouragement, empathy and motivation. My sincere thanks also go to my son Goitseone Gqabi and all my relatives. I am blessed to have you in my life. Words cannot express how grateful I am for the love, support, encouragement and belief in me as well as all of the sacrifices that you have made for me. Your belief in me has encouraged me to follow my dreams. I am where I am because of you. I would also like to thank my friends, Kamil Fuseini and iv Diseko Boikanyo for supporting me and opening their hearts when I needed them most. Your support strengthened and encouraged me to strive towards my goal. Psalm 118: 5 & 21 When hard pressed, I cried to the Lord; he brought me into a spacious place. I will give you thanks, for you answered me; you have become my salvation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .................................................................................................. i DEDICATION .................................................................................................... ii AKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. x ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................... xi ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY ................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem statement................................................................................... 2 1.3 Significance of the study .......................................................................... 3 1.4 Research aims and objectives ................................................................. 4 1.4 1 Aim .................................................................................................... 5 1.4.2 Objectives ......................................................................................... 5 1.5 Basic theoretical statement ..................................................................... 5 1.6 Literature review and Theoretical framework .......................................... 5 1.7 Definition of concepts .............................................................................. 6 1.8 Chapter outline ...................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK . 12 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 12 2.1.2 Literature Review ............................................................................ 12 2.2 Incest in the Western and African context ............................................. 13 vi 2.2.1 The Western context ....................................................................... 13 2.2.2 The African context ......................................................................... 14 2.3 The unfolding of father-daughter incest activities .................................. 15 2.3.1 The engagement phase .................................................................. 15 2.3.2 The sexual interaction stage ........................................................... 16 2.3.3The secrecy stage ............................................................................ 16 2.3.4 The disclosure stage ....................................................................... 17 2.3.5 The post disclosure/suppression stage ........................................... 19 2.4 Traits of family members in father-daughter incest situations ............... 20 2.4.1 The father ........................................................................................ 20 2.4.2 The mother ...................................................................................... 21 2.4.3 The daughter ................................................................................... 22 2.5 Rationalizations of incestuous behaviour .............................................. 23 2.5.1 Family system dysfunction .............................................................. 23 2.5.2 Socio-environmental aspect ............................................................ 24 2.5.3 Individual personality/psychopathology .......................................... 25 2.5.4 Familial socio-economic status ....................................................... 25 2.6 Psychosocial effects of incest ................................................................ 25 2.7 Theoretical framework for understanding father-daughter incest .......... 28 2.7.1 Family systems theory .................................................................... 28 2.7.2 Erik Erickson theory of psychosocial development ......................... 30 2.7.3 Psychoanalytic theory ..................................................................... 32 2.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 33 vii CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 34 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 34 3.2 Demarcation of the study ....................................................................... 34 3.3 Research design .................................................................................... 35 3.4 Type of research .................................................................................... 36 3.5 Research Procedure .............................................................................. 36 3.6 Research population and sampling ....................................................... 37 3.6.1 Population ....................................................................................... 37 3.6.2 Sampling ......................................................................................... 37 3.7 Methods of data collection ..................................................................... 39 3.7.1. Instrument ...................................................................................... 39 3.7.2 Data collection process ................................................................... 40 3.8 Transcription and field notes ................................................................. 41 3.9 Data analysis ......................................................................................... 42 3.10 Ethical considerations .......................................................................... 42 3.11 Limitations of the study ........................................................................ 44 3.12 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................. 45 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 45 4.2 Theme1: Factors leading to father-daughter incest ............................... 46 4.2.1 Factors that influence fathers to commit incest ......................... 47 4.2.2 Factors that influence daughters to indulge in incest ...................... 48 viii 4.2.3 Family circumstances that breed father-daughter incest ................ 49 4.3 Theme 2: Discovery of father-daughter incest ....................................... 52 4.3.1 Factors that impede the disclosure of father-daughter incest ......... 53 4.3.2 How the disclosure occurred ........................................................... 55 4.3.3 How incest cases come to social worker’s attention. ...................... 56 4.3.4 Reactions to the disclosure of incest .............................................. 57 4.4 Theme 3: Psychosocial effects of incest ............................................... 58 4.4.1 Effects on the father ........................................................................ 58 4.4.2 Effects on the daughter ................................................................... 59 4.4.3 Effects on the mother ...................................................................... 63 4.4.4 Effects on the family ........................................................................ 64 4.5 Theme 4: Interventions of incest ........................................................... 66 4.5.1 Training received for handling incest cases .................................... 67 4.5.2 Techniques used for handling incest cases .................................... 68 4.5.3 Reunification methods for incest incidences ................................... 71 4.6 Discussion ............................................................................................. 73 4.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 78 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS....... 79 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 79 5.2 Summary of findings .............................................................................. 79 5.2.1 To uncover factors contributing to incest ........................................ 79 5.2.2 To find out how incidences of incest become known ...................... 80 ix 5.2.3 To find out the different ways that incest can affect the offender, the victim and the family members................................................................. 81 5.2.4 To assess how professionals intervene in incest cases ................. 81 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................. 82 5.4.1 Recommendations for practice ....................................................... 82 5.4.2 Recommendations for future research ............................................ 83 5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 84 REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 86 APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 100 Appendix A: Ethical clearance ................................................................... 100 Note: The title of the study was reworded. .................................................... 100 Appendix B: Letter to organisations .......................................................... 101 Appendix C: Informed consent .................................................................. 102 Appendix D: Interview schedule for professionals who have work(ed) with father-daughter incest victims and their families. ...................................... 105 x LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Profile of the Participants........................................................................ 45 Table 4.2: Themes and subthemes identified in the study…………………………….44 xi ACRONYMS CSA- Child Sexual Abuse DCS- Department of Correctional Services DSD- Department of Social Development DWCPD- Department of Women, Children and People with Disability FAMSA- Families South Africa FDI- Father-daughter incest HDC-Higher Degrees Committee NCCAN- National Centre on Child Abuse and Neglect NGO- Non-Governmental Organisation NMMDM- Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality NWU-RERC- North-West University Research Ethics Regulatory Committee SANCCFW- South African National Council for Child and Family Welfare SAVF- Suid Afrikaanse Vrouefederasie UNDBPJVCAP- United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power UNICEF-United Nations Children’s Fund xii ABSTRACT Father-daughter incest, one of the most prohibited sexual acts, is increasingly becoming a widespread problem in South Africa. This study sought to investigate the psychosocial effects of incest on the victims, offenders and the family as a whole in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality situated at the North-West province. Specifically, the study explored factors contributing to incest, how incidences of incest become known, different ways that incest can affect the offender, the victim and the family as well as how professionals intervene in incest cases. The present study adopted a qualitative research design with an intention to illustrate how father- daughter incest occurs in human lives. The literature was studied to understand incest within the Western and African context, how father-daughter conspire, what influences the occurrence of father-daughter incest and what measures are taken to intervene in father-daughter incest cases. Data was collected through in-depth semi structured interviews with a sample of eight social workers and one auxiliary social worker who have helped father-daughter incest victims, offenders and their families on a therapeutic level. The results obtained from the thematic analysis through the utilization of Atlas.ti software indicated that father-daughter incest disrupts family systems which sometimes lead to divorce; fathers who commit incest are more likely to commit suicide; daughter’s education becomes disrupted and mothers mostly suffer from depression. Also, the findings of the study were that professionals were not provided with adequate training to intervene in father-daughter incest cases. It is recommended that professionals be trained to handle father-daughter incest cases. Evidently, findings from this study advocate that father-daughter incest is traumatic to the family as a whole. 1 CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction Incest is one of the most common forms of all sexual prohibitions. In most modern nations, and especially in South Africa, incest is classified as a social ill. In the United States of America, Australian states, Britain, England, Scotland, Sweden, New Zealand South Africa and Canada, incest is prohibited and punishable by law (Miller, 2012:826; Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:7; Sacco, 2009:34). According to Atwood (2007:288), if incest is considered to be forbidden, then in actuality, it could be considered a universal behaviour which is abhorrent. According to a clause in Sexual offences and related matter amendment Act (32 of 2007, s.12,ss.1 ) of South Africa, incest is described as an illegal and deliberate engagement in an act of sexual breach among persons who may not legally marry each other on account of consanguinity, kinship or adoptive relationship. In South Africa, incest has become a worrying factor. Russell (1993) as cited in Mbokazi (2005:10), estimated that incestuous abuse may be at least 50% higher in South Africa as compared to North America, suggesting that one quarter of sexual abuse cases amongst females in South Africa are incestuous. Instances of mother-son, father-son and mother-daughter incest have been reported (Crosson-Tower, 2014:115-117; Friedmann & Faguet, 2012:139,143 &145; Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101-103). However, father-daughter incest (FDI) is by far the most commonly reported (Figley, 2013: 357; Finkelhor, 2010: 88 & 89; Friedmann & Faguet, 2012:139; Kinnear, 2007:81; Murphy & Bishop, 2009: 174; Stanhope & Lancaster, 2014:839) . Fathers are ussually the perpetrators and daughters are more often the victims (Kinnear, 2007:8). According to the South African National Council for Child and Family Welfare (SANCCFW, 1998), as 2 cited in Mbokazi (2005:10) studies done in South Africa and America indicate that 66% of incest perpetrators are males. This study focuses on exploring the psychosocial effects of incest on the victims and the offenders. Although there are many forms of incest, e.g. sibling incest, mother-son incest, mother-daughter incest, father-son incest, the focus of this study is on FDI, which is discussed in consistency with a nuclear type of family, since incest is within the family and between family members. The family’s perspectives are also explored as they are affected by such experiences. 1.2 Problem statement Child sexual abuse (CSA) is not a new occurrence, but one which has risen in prominence over the last few years, predominantly in the wake of media publicity surrounding the rape of very young children (Richter et al., 2004:130). Studies in the context of South Africa show high levels of victimisation through incest. The 2005 National Youth Victimisation survey reported that 11% of young people were victimised by relatives or household members. In addition, the 2008 National Youth Lifestyle study found that 24% of sexual abuses reported by people under the age of 18 took place in their homes (Leoschut & Burton (2005) as cited in DSD et al., 2012:16). Crause (2010:1) indicates that 70% to 80% of reported incest cases occur between daughters and their stepfathers or biological fathers. Incest generates untold damage to the relationship between children and their parents, leaving children vulnerable and not knowing who to trust as someone very close to them abused them and breached their trust. Incest results in a disrupted family support 3 system, loss of trust in the people very close to the children who have the responsibility to take care and protect them from harm. The occurrence of incest challenges conventional views which see the family as a safe shelter for children (Mtshali, 2010:114). A child who is abused by a family member becomes overwhelmed as the trust and safety that a home ought to guarantee are destroyed (Boyd & Mackey, 2000:138). While children are supposed to be cared for and feel safe at home, in the case of children experiencing incestuous abuse it is different as they live in fear and are highly traumatized. Most often incest occurs in the child’s home and the child is usually pressured to participate (Zastrow, 2010:203). Regardless of the growing scholarly interest in the occurrence of incest, there is still limited scientific research in this country (Mtshali, 2010:114), specifically addressing the psychosocial effects of FDI. Based on the problem statement, the following research questions were formulated for the study. This guided how the study was conducted and how the data was collected. The research questions for the study are as follows:  What underlying factors prompted incest?  How do incidences of incest become known?  How does the incident of incest affects the offender, the victim and the family?  How do professionals intervene in incest cases? 1.3 Significance of the study The significance of this study is broadly in two forms. First, this study seeks to provide evidence for policy formulations and interventions with regard to incest and second, it contributes to the existing literature on incest, specifically FDI. 4 In recent years, the high prevalence of child sexual abuse (CSA) in South Africa as well as its devastating consequences has caught the attention of policy makers and civic organisations. In response, various programmes and strategies have been put in place to curb this phenomenon(DSD et al., 2012:54). However, because there is limited scientific research that explores the dynamics and the root causes of CSA, especially FDI, the bases of these programmes are weak. This research seeks to contribute to the bases of such programmes. This is expected to help professionals develop evidence based strategies and programmes aimed at rehabilitating and reintegrating incest victims and offenders. FDI is an important but neglected area of scientific enquiry. Given that between 2010 and 2011 a total number of 28 128 CSA cases were reported (DSD et al., 2012:15), children who are in nuclear families are exposed to greater danger of sexual violence than those who are in extended families. This creates a worrying situation because it is expected that children would be better cared for within nuclear families. In addition, this neglect of research on incest, especially FDI is unfortunate, considering the high rate of CSA cases reported on a daily basis in South African communities, with girls being at greater risk particularly when they are at home (Dartnall & Jewkes, 2013:3; Mann & Götz, 2006:92). This study seeks to stimulate the discourse on FDI and contribute to the existing body of knowledge on FDI in the South African context. 1.4 Research aims and objectives Centred on the problem statement, the aim and the objectives of the study are framed as follows: 5 1.4 1 Aim The aim of this study is to investigate the psychosocial effects of father-daughter incest on the victims, the offenders and the family as a whole. This seeks to find out the responses from the participants, with a vision to contributing to the development of appropriate strategies on how to rehabilitate FDI victims, offenders and their families. 1.4.2 Objectives For the researcher to reach the above stated aim of the study, the following objectives were formulated:  To uncover factors contributing to incest,  To find out how incidences of incest become known,  To find out the different ways that incest can affect the victim, the offender and the family members.  To assess how professionals intervene in incest cases. 1.5 Basic theoretical statement Incest has psychosocial effects on the victim, the offender as well as the family as a whole and disrupts family bonds. 1.6 Literature review and Theoretical framework The literature review was of vast significance in this study, as it aided in familiarising the researcher with the literature available on FDI and to explore FDI in a broader framework. This included discussing incest in the Western and African context, psychosocial effects of incest and how professionals intervene in FDI cases. Bless, Higson-Smith & Kagee (2006:24), denote that literature review is necessary to acquaint 6 the researcher with latest developments in the area of study as well as to identify gaps and weaknesses in previous studies. The family systems theory (Fine & Fincham, 2013:439; Thomlison, 2010:32), the psychoanalytic theory (Brandell, 2010:42; Meyer et al., 2008:89; Shaffer, 2008:38) and Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (Papalia et al., 2007:358; Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32) were utilized to guide the study theoretically. These theoretical frameworks were used to explain the dynamics of incest in the family, the development and psychological functioning of both the victim and offender. 1.7 Definition of concepts It should be noted that throughout the study, the terms offender and perpetrator are used interchangeably to refer to a father who has committed incest. Victim is used to refer to a daughter who is sexually abused by her father. The focus of this study is mainly on offenders of FDI, victims who experienced incest at childhood stage and their families. The following concepts are used throughout the study: Child The Children’s Act (35 of 2005, s1.) and The Bill of Rights (1996, s.28, ss.3) defines a child as anyone under the age of 18 years. This definition is used throughout the study as it emphasizes that when a person is under 18 years of age, he or she is still a child. This means that under the age of 18 years, such an individual needs to be provided with basic needs, and their fundamental rights need to be secured by a senior person, as infringing upon them results in the commission of a criminal offence. 7 Child sexual abuse Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a sexual act constrained on a child who is immature in terms of emotional and cognitive development (Calder, 1999 cited in Richter et al., 2004:61). The National Centre on Child Abuse and Neglect (NCCAN) refers to CSA as the use of children by an adult to stimulate his or her sexual needs. For the purpose of this study, child sexual abuse is defined as interactions between a child and an adult to stimulate the sexual needs of the perpetrator, using authority to ensnare the child into the sexual activity. This definition is based on the focus of the study as it views perpetrators as adult males and victims as females who experienced incest at a childhood stage. Family A family is defined as people who have close relations, jointly long-term as well as extensive influences and common norms (Baker, 2003 cited in Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:153). Giddens (2009:1119), defines a family as a group of individuals who form an economic entity, and are related to one another by blood, marriage or adoption. Both Barker and Gidden’s definitions of a family are utilised throughout the study as they outline that families are intimate and share common norms. From the above definitions, one notes that a family is a relation of persons who share the same bloodline, by adoption, emotional attachment and norms, living in the same environment, with the adult members of the family being responsible for the nurturing of the young members of the family. 8 Incest The South African criminal law defines incest as an illegal and deliberate engagement in an act of sexual breach among persons who may not legally marry each other on account of consanguinity, kinship or adoptive relationship (Sexual offences and related matter amendment Act 32 of 2007, s.12, ss.1 ). Incest is defined as sexual contact or any form of sexual action between people who are closely related, particularly within the immediate family (Vander Mey & Neff (1986); Crause, 2010:1). For the purpose of this study, incest is defined as sexual abuse that occurs within the family system, involving children as victims and adults as perpetrators. Nuclear family A nuclear family is documented by sociologists and Anthropologists as a family unit which consists of two adults and their own or adopted children (Giddens, 2009:331). Kendall (2014:313) describes a nuclear family as a family that is composed of one or two parents and their children living apart from other relatives. From the two definitions, a nuclear family can be defined as parents living with their children, whether own or adopted and away from relatives. This definition formulated by the researcher is utilized throughout the study. Offender According to the Correctional Services Act of South Africa, an offender is any person, whether found guilty or not, who is incarcerated in any correctional centre (Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998, s. 1). Since the above definition does not state anything about a person committing an act that is in conflict with the law, the researcher formulated a definition. The researcher’s 9 definition states that an offender can be defined as a person who is in conflict with the norms of the society and the laws of the state who is driven by ulterior intention to infringe upon another human being’s rights. For the purpose of this study, the Correctional Services Act and the researcher’s definition of offender were used throughout the study, as the study focuses on those perpetrators of incest who are or who have been incarcerated for the incidence. Victim Rule 85 of the International Criminal Court and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, as cited in de Brouwer (2005:25) asserts that a victim means a person who has experienced injury as a result of the commission of any crime within the court jurisdiction. Victim(s) signify person(s) who have experienced injury through actions or omissions that are a breach and therefore constitute criminal abuse of power. This suffering may include bodily or psychological injury, economic loss or extensive harm of their fundamental rights (United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (UNDBPJVCAP 1985, cited in Rombouts, 2004:14). For the purpose of this study, the UNDBJVCAP (1985) definition of a victim is adopted as emphasis of the study is placed on describing the psychosocial effects of incest. When going through the definition of the victim, according to the UNDBPJVCAP 1985, concepts fundamental to the study, such as psychological injury and the harm of fundamental rights are highlighted. From this view, one notes that if one experiences mental injury, emotional suffering and his or her fundamental rights are impaired, his or her psychosocial wellbeing is affected somehow as their physical, mental and emotional 10 wellbeing are compromised and the entitlement of fundamental human rights that constitute psychosocial wellbeing is infringed upon. From the above definitions, a victim can be defined as a person whom his or her fundamental rights to life, human dignity as well as freedom and security, has been infringed, leaving him or her in physical, emotional, social, and psychological discomfort. 1.8 Chapter outline Chapter 1: Introduction In this chapter, a brief background of incest is provided. Chapter 2: Literature review and theoretical framework. This chapter provides different theoretical frameworks that explain the drives that influence incestuous behaviour, interactive social systems of incestuous behaviour and the transition of the families affected by incest. The rationalizations for the father- daughter incestuous behaviour, characteristics of incestuous family members as well as the psychosocial effects of father-daughter incest are discussed. Chapter 3: Methodology Chapter three describes how the study was conducted. Chapter 4: Results and discussion In this chapter, the research findings are presented, interpreted and discussed. Chapter: Summary, conclusion and recommendations 11 Chapter five summarises the findings, provides the conclusion that the researcher reached in the study and submits recommendations for practice and future research. 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This component of the study is important to any research as it informs the researcher on the trends and development of the research topic and the study at hand. In the researcher’s view it is the foundation that future literature should be built upon and thus affirms Creswell’s (2014:28) view that “literature review provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings”. In this chapter an overview of literature will be covered as well as the theories relevant to this phenomenon that is, incest. 2.1.2 Literature Review The high rate of child sexual abuse cases reported on a daily basis has alerted the South African community about the frequency of CSA, especially incest. In the early studies of incest, it has been shown that children who reported incest were not taken seriously nor believed (Atwood, 2007:288). During the last two decades, CSA (including incest) has received increased attention through media, research literature and practice (Motshedi, 2011:1). The Child Line indicates that of all CSA cases reported worldwide, 80-85% occur within the family (Lentz et al., 2012:164; Mbokazi, 2005:11), with girls being at a greater risk (Dartnall & Jewkes, 2013:3). In South Africa, studies show that incest accounts for approximately 30% of all CSA cases (Craft-Rosenberg & Pehler, 2011:645) with FDI being the highest reported in the media (Richter et al., 2004:23). Multifaceted factors characterise the concept of incest and the secrecy surrounding it. This chapter seeks to explore and understand FDI in a broader context and also to 13 understand the different ways that incest can affect the victim, the offender and the family. It delves into how families respond to the FDI incident and how professionals intervene in incest cases. This literature review seeks to uncover factors leading to FDI as well as factors associated with the non-disclosure of incest. In this section the following will be covered, incest in the Western and African context, the unfolding activities in the father-daughter incest which will be broken down in five phases, the traits of family members in father-daughter incest situations, the rationalizations of the incestuous behaviour and the psycho-social effects of incest. 2.2 Incest in the Western and African context 2.2.1 The Western context In the past, the media and professionals viewed and described incest as some sort of fantasy or myth (Crause, 2010:7). However, historians noted a dramatic shift in the western society’s reaction to incest between 1880 and 1914 (Smith, 2004:104). The discovery of FDI in towns across America provoked righteous anger as well as immediate response during the late 18th century. During the 19th century, Americans had a shocking familiarity with accusations of FDI (Sacco, 2009:19). This resulted in western cultures beginning to call attention to the innocence of childhood and progressively working to protect children from social harm, by adopting legislations designed for child protection (Smith, 2004:104). Britain finally introduced specific laws against incest in the Punishment against Incest Act in 1908, but due to the nature of the crime, prosecution remained extremely difficult (Smith, 2004:104). Due to the difficulty of prosecution of incest, ideas about men capable of committing incest and the views about the need to protect and nurture children changed over the 19th century (Sacco, 2009:19). Thus, social concern and 14 awareness about incest generally decreased between the 1920’s and the 1960’s (Smith, 2004:104). 2.2.2 The African context In some regions of Africa, there has been no term to name incest. Classifying relationships between parents and their children and those between siblings as prohibited corresponded with the establishment and recognition of the incest interdiction rule (Stan, 2009:51). The classification of incest as prohibited resulted from Africans valuing human dignity and Ubuntu “Personhood”, which are supremely important to them. Human dignity is important in Africans in a sense that traditionally, they believe that they are their brother’s keepers and they are concerned about their brother’s well- being (Izibili, 2009:12; Sullivan & Tifft, 2006: 165). “Ubuntu” is often associated with warm hospitality, generosity, love, sharing, peace (Nan & Mampilly, 2011:301), promoting unity of humanity (DeFrain & Asay, 2010: 19), and the development as well as fulfilment of persons’ potential (Battle, 2009:3). People who show no mercy or respect to others and those whose actions cause harm to others are perceived by Africans to be inhumane (Nan & Mampilly, 2011:301). Their actions are against Ubuntu’s principles. Thus incidents such as incest are abhorred as they are perceived to diminish human dignity (Emezue, Kosch, & Kangel, 2014: 702-703) and cause harm to others (Izibili, 2009:12). In South Africa, incest was the most neglected and misunderstood form of sexual abuse given that it has been depoliticised, privatised and viewed as a family matter or merely a personal problem as well as a women’s issue (Russell, 1997). Depoliticising and treating incest as a family matter or personal problem was deviating from African traditional belief that a person is a person through other persons, which denotes that the 15 personality of an individual is formed interdependently through the community (Battle, 2009:1-2). However, in today’s society, incest is distinguished as a serious offence and it is categorized as Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) (Crause, 2010:7), when it occurs between adults and those who are under the age of consent, which in South African laws are those who are below 18 years. This indicates that legal measures are taken to address incest in today’s society. The African traditional belief is that if prohibited acts such as incest are done, adverse consequences follow (Izibili, 2009:12). Hence incest offenders face legal charges and are sometimes ostracised by community members (Van Niekerk, 2005:142). 2.3 The unfolding of father-daughter incest activities Incest manifests itself in five stages: the engagement stage, sexual interaction, secrecy, disclosure and the post disclosure/suppression stage (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:1; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). 2.3.1 The engagement phase Opportunities for fathers to cultivate a flirtatious or threatening sexualised relationship with their daughters develop from fathers spending a lot of time alone with their daughters than with other children or even their wives (Finkelman, 2013:13). The abuse is usually introduced in a very low-key and non-threatening way (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:1). Fathers experiment with sexual activities with their daughters to see how proximate they can be and how the daughter reacts to this kind of behaviour (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). The opportunities for the fathers and daughters to be alone may be accidental in the beginning, but planned or created over time (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:1). Fathers may adopt a number of tactics to persuade the daughter and rationalise the abuse (Finkelman, 2013:95). 16 Some fathers usually confuse their daughters by convincing them that their intentions are to care for them (Bancroft et al., 2011:115). Other fathers present sexual activities as games or something special (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:1), and explain the sexual activities as normal or as being a form of sex education for their daughters (Finkelman, 2013:95; Schetky & Green, 2014:39). 2.3.2 The sexual interaction stage Incest occurring between fathers and daughters is often marked by an ongoing growth from mild to more severe sexual practices (Finkelman, 2013:97; Sadock & Sadock, 2011:1341). Sexual activities occur in various degrees of intimacy during this stage (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). These activities escalate from fondling, oral- genital sex to sexual penetration (Finkelman, 2013:95; New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:2; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). The longer this stage lasts, the more intimate fathers become with their daughters (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). 2.3.3The secrecy stage The secrecy stage starts after the sexual behavior has begun and can last for days, months or even years. Secrecy increases the frequency of the sexual abuse and allows the sexual abuse to progress to greater intimacy (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005). Fathers use manipulation, threats and guilt to trap daughters in the abuse and to uphold the secret (Bancroft et al., 2011:115; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). Unfortunately, many children are doubtful to reveal the abuse and therefore risk further victimization, which may increase the probability of long-term hostile consequences 17 (Hershkowitz et al., 2007:112). Family response or fear of how family members might respond to disclosures are significant factors that impede the ability of victims to reveal incest (Taylor & Norma, 2013:121). Children in incestuous families are cultured to the idea that many things about the family are not to be talked about (Alaggia & Kirshenbaum, 2005:230). Consequently this culture puts victims in a situation where they do not want or are unable to disclose the abuse due to dread that revealing the abuse would disrupt the family. Schönbucher et al., (2012:3503-3504) discuss this dread in the victim as based on the perception that disclosure would make the family suffer financial and social irreparable damage (Taylor & Norma, 2013:117). Other victims do not reveal incest for the reason that they fear they will not be believed and that their families will be stigmatised (Schönbucher et al., 2012:3503; Taylor & Norma, 2013:117) . The presence of family violence, which includes woman abuse, mutual partner abuse and other forms of child abuse also plays a role in preventing children from revealing incest abuse (Alaggia & Kirshenbaum, 2005:230). Children fear that revealing incest would cause them to be victimised again or that offenders might retaliate against them (Taylor & Norma, 2013:118). Other factors that keep incestuous acts secretive are feelings of shame, denying the sexual abuse, lack of trust and fear of causing their mothers distress. Some children do not have a sufficiently close relationship with their mothers and sometimes view their mothers as emotionally unstable to confide in and do not want to burden them with such information (Schönbucher et al., 2012:3503). 2.3.4 The disclosure stage Disclosure of incest is a very difficult task because of its intra-familial nature, which is forbidden in every community as a taboo (Yildrim & Gümüş, 2011:116). Incest happens 18 behind closed doors and most victims live in silence, trauma and isolation (Mann & Götz, 2006:92). For that reason, most incidences of CSA have no witnesses, leave no physical signs, and are hidden by perpetrators. This makes the detection of CSA very difficult (Hershkowitz et al., 2007:112). Disclosure of incest may be voluntary or unintentional. On one hand children voluntarily disclose about incest for different reasons (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:2). Children usually report the abuse in order to share the secret with a reliable adult (Sadock & Sadock, 2011:1341), when they cannot stand the abuse anymore (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209) and when they want to get away from it (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:2). On the other hand, the incident of incest becomes known when another person has observed it, or when a physical injury related to CSA is noted by someone or even brought for medical attention (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:2; Sadock & Sadock, 2011:1341; Zastrow & Kirst- Ashman, 2010:209). Perpetrators are likely to react to disclosure with fear of losing their social status, jobs and incarceration. They react defensively as a way of protecting themselves and are aggressive towards the people who are supporting the victims (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:3). At the same time, these fathers may do their best to create negative public insights about their daughters. The motive is largely to make people not believe any possible disclosures daughters may make (Bancroft et al., 2011:113) . Family members’ reaction to disclosure can be compassionate or unsupportive. Children who disclose incest are more likely to face unsupportive family reactions 19 (Hershkowitz et al., 2007:119). Most victims report that their listeners react with horror and disgust when they try to open up about the incestuous sexual experience (Stroebel et al., 2012:190). Studies have found that shock and disbelief is ussually the initial reaction to disclosure of incest, followed by denial, fear, ambivalence, guilt, self-blame and anger towards perpetrators (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:52–54; Pretorius et al., 2011:4-5 &7-9; Saloojee, 2013:27-29). Some victims experience family members who do not openly reject the abuse, but blame the victim for it (Taylor & Norma, 2013:118). In most cases, FDI cases are unreported due to the victims’ fear of disrupting the family, being abandoned or even punished by family members (Richardson & Williams, 2008:100). Unsupportive reactions sometimes end in children experiencing verbal and physical abuse (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:54), as well as increased feelings of betrayal (Karakurt & Silver, 2014:82). These feelings of betrayal emerge when family members fail to protect the child from the abuse or change their attitude after disclosure (Karakurt & Silver, 2014:82). These reactions can deeply affect the confidence of a victim to disclose subsequent incestuous acts and to report the crime (Taylor & Norma, 2013:114–124). This can cause psychological harm to the victim through the process of shaming and rejection (Stroebel et al., 2012:192). 2.3.5 The post disclosure/suppression stage This stage is characterised by high anxiety for both the victim and the family. The anxiety includes the perpetrator experiencing denial and other family members experiencing self-blame and insecurity (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209). Family pressure or the child’s mental processes often lead the child to retract disclosure statements (Sadock & Sadock, 2011:1341). The family is likely to react by trying to suppress sharing of information and intervention (New York’s Child Welfare Training 20 Institute, 2005) and the child may perceive the abuse as being equal or the same as affection (Sadock & Sadock, 2011:1341). Most cases that come to the attention of professionals are reported when children decide to talk about the abuse (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:2). However, in some instances, families use money to bribe the victims, convincing them to withdraw charges against abusers if the incest is reported to legal authorities. Sometimes the child is verbally or physically pressurised to retract the statement (New York’s Child Welfare Training Institute, 2005:3). In instances where mothers are only concerned about the welfare and the reputations of their husbands, they use threats and persuasions to make the victim withdraw the charges against the perpetrator (Ahmad & Nasir, 2010:1025). 2.4 Traits of family members in father-daughter incest situations 2.4.1 The father In most cases, incestuous fathers appear to suffer from poor overall sexual functioning (Firestone et al., 2005:228). They experience some type of intrapsychic struggles or mental breakdown (Crosson-Tower, 2014:115; Firestone et al., 2005:228; Van Niekerk, 2005:139), as well as a sense of low self-worth from a very young age (Van Niekerk, 2005:143). In addition, incestuous fathers appear to have inadequate, chaotic and disruptive personality (Firestone et al., 2005:228; Singh et al., 2005:40). Often, the father has had an upbringing whereby he was emotionally withdrawn from his parents. This is influenced by experiencing rejection from his mother and abandonment by his father at a young age (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100). He may be overwhelmed by feelings of self-hatred, anger and feelings of wanting revenge (Crosson-Tower, 21 2014:115). Moreover, these fathers commonly have a history of numerous convictions for antisocial behaviour (Singh et al., 2005:40). Fathers who commit incest are known to blame their children’s mothers for their actions and commonly describe their abusive behavior as resulting from the caring or love they feel for their daughters (Bancroft et al., 2011:116&117). They have strong sex drives with little or absent shyness, which makes their sex lives with their wives to be aggressive, demanding and lacking emotional bonding or affection (Singh et al., 2005:40). In most cases these fathers come from broken homes, seldom completed their education (Singh et al., 2005:40) and are more likely to be alcohol dependent (Firestone et al., 2005:228). In public, incestuous fathers project images of being good with children, kind, humorous and outgoing (Bancroft et al., 2011:11&113). They sometimes attend only to aspects that develop their reputations of being excellent fathers in the eyes of the community. Furthermore, they try to show that their image does not fit with that of a sexual abuser (Bancroft et al., 2011:11&113). However, these fathers usually maintain dominant positions in their families through violence and threats (Schetky & Green, 2014:33). They are also very possessive of their children (Proulx et al., 2014). Nevertheless, the violence is mostly directed at their wives (Proulx et al., 2014:157). Common diagnoses for these fathers’ psychological disturbances include sociopath, paedophilia, dependent personality and paranoid personality disorder (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100). 2.4.2 The mother Mothers in incestuous families are either inadequate at playing their roles as mothers or they try to care for everybody’s needs except their daughters. They are usually 22 emotionally and physically detached from their daughters and unable to protect their children from incestuous abuse (Ackerman & Kane, 2005:591) because they ignore the signals of incest and their daughter’s reports of the abuse (Schetky & Green, 2014:36). In most cases, mothers are miserable about their marital situation and feel powerless about their family situation (Proulx et al., 2014:157). These mothers are commonly desperate to sustain their dysfunctional marriages (Bellack et al., 2013:192) and derive sexual gratification from domination of their husbands by means of physical abuse or even humiliation (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101). Often, these mothers are married to oppressive and authoritarian men who behave cruelly towards them. The weakness and dependency of these women prevent them from challenging their husband’s pathological behavior (Schetky & Green, 2014:37). Like the fathers, many of these mothers grew up in dysfunctional and abusive families (Ackerman & Kane, 2005:591). The personality of mothers in incestuous families is described as that of being overly dependent (Bellack et al., 2013:192; Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101), childish and close to their own rejecting and antagonistic mothers in a pathological manner (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101). Moreover, they are hysterical, extremely dramatic and not protective of themselves as they are to other people (Ackerman & Kane, 2005:591). 2.4.3 The daughter Most studies indicate that eldest daughters in FDI families are most vulnerable to abuse (Crosson-Tower, 2014:115; Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100; Schetky & Green, 2014:38; Singh et al., 2005:40 Townsend, 2014:865). There is no definitive profile of daughters in FDI. Daughters in FDI families are caught up in the dynamics of the family dysfunction, and for that reason no physical characteristics or personality traits make her more 23 vulnerable to the abuse (Crosson-Tower, 2014:114-115). Some daughters are psychotic and display symptoms such as disorganised personality and disruptive behaviour (Singh et al., 2005:41). For some daughters, sexual activities with their fathers represent an oedipal triumph over their mothers (Schetky & Green, 2014:38). 2.5 Rationalizations of incestuous behaviour Factors contributing to incestuous behavior between fathers and their daughters are diverse. These factors vary from family system dysfunction (Bolen, 2007:133), socio- environmental aspect, individual personalities or psychopathology (Bellack et al., 2013; Trepper & Barrett, 2013:25-26) and familial socioeconomic status (Forsyth & Copes, 2014:362). 2.5.1 Family system dysfunction Many researchers have stated that dysfunctional family systems contribute to the occurrence of FDI (Bellack et al., 2013:190). This dysfunctional family system includes sexual estrangement of couples, role reversal, emotional unavailability of the mother, the daughter’s need for care and close emotional association of the daughter with her father (Finkelman, 2013:93; Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100-101; Ochberg, 2013:179; Schetky & Green, 2014:37; Trepper & Barrett, 2013:26). The increasing substantiation of research findings emphasize that mothers play a key role in making it possible for the incestuous union between a father and his daughter to occur (Schetky & Green, 2014:37). Some mothers are sexually estranged from their husbands (Ochberg, 2013:179) and not engaged in their daughters’ lives (Schetky & Green, 2014:37) . Other mothers are absent from home on a regular basis and are unenthusiastic to accept their roles as wives or mothers (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101). 24 The sexual separation between the mother and the father is driven by the mother’s absence from home as well as her coldness and hostility towards her husband (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101). This coldness and hostility makes the father to experience weak sexual relationships with their wives and to turn to their daughters for sexually affectionate activities (Draucker & Martsolf, 2006:80-81; Lentz et al., 2012164). The unavailability of these mothers also forces their daughters onto their fathers for attention (Schetky & Green, 2014) and increases the chances of intimate sexual relationship (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014). In some instances, both parents intentionally or involuntarily view incest as more acceptable than an extramarital relationship (Lentz et al., 2012:164). Some fathers are not willing to seek sexual satisfaction outside the family, but rather prefer to use their daughters for sexual satisfaction. This is driven by the reason that these fathers want to be viewed as competent patriarchs (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100). Mothers conspire in the incestuous abuse to keep away from their sexual responsibilities (Draucker & Martsolf, 2006:81) and their roles. These mothers allow role reversal with their daughters and let them assume the privileges and responsibilities of a wife. These privileges and responsibilities instil a belief in these daughters that they are their fathers’ sexual partners or companions (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100-101; Schetky & Green, 2014;37). 2.5.2 Socio-environmental aspect A number of socio-environmental aspects are postulated as contributing to a family’s exposure to incest and these include the family’s acceptance of male authority, social isolation and long-lasting stress. Moreover, these socio-environmental aspects 25 comprise residing in communities that mutely accept incest or other forms of child sexual abuse and compliance to how men and women traditionally display affection (Trepper & Barrett, 2013:24). In some societies, violence is tolerated; women as well as children are viewed as inferior. Incest breeds in such environments (Proulx et al., 2014:157). 2.5.3 Individual personality/psychopathology Some rationalisations of incestuous behaviour include individual personality or psychopathology. These individual personalities and /or psychopathology include the dominant style of an incestuous father, the daughter and the mother’s passive dependant personality style and the father’s poor impulse control (Trepper & Barrett, 2013:25-26). 2.5.4 Familial socio-economic status Destitution faced by the family is also causal to the inception of incest. Mothers spend a lot of time absent from home in an effort to earn more money in order to take care of the family. However, this absence leaves the children exposed to the abuse as perpetrators then spend more time with them (Ahmad & Nasir, 2010:1024). 2.6 Psychosocial effects of incest CSA by a trusted family member, particularly a parent, causes major psychological trauma. While the abuse is still going on, this psychological trauma creates serious pain and long term sequels in the adult life of a victim (Finkelman, 2013:54). It appears that various aspects intensify the severity of trauma experienced by victims. These aspects include the degree of relatedness of the victim and the perpetrator, the extent of threats made by the perpetrator, the rate of recurrence of the abuse and the developmental 26 stage or age of the victim (Atwood, 2007:295; Coleman & Ganong, 2014:716; Mtshali, 2010:123; Schetky & Green, 2014:41). Fear and anxiety are symptoms that have been consistently described in children who experienced CSA (Schetky & Green, 2014:42). During childhood, victims frequently have nightmares about the incidences of their victimisation (Stroebel et al., 2012:183). They may develop mistrust, shame, doubt, guilt, a sense of inferiority and may also withdraw from their environments (Bancroft, 2009:126). These children also have feelings that range from disappointment to rage, towards other family members resulting from the occurrence of the abuse. They feel betrayed and feel that other family members, especially the mother, failed to protect them from the abuse (Draucker & Martsolf, 2006:80&81; Stroebel et al., 2012:183). Moreover, children perceive this betrayal as violation of “the protector role” by someone they depend on for trust and care (Karakurt & Silver, 2014:82). CSA deregulates children’s brains and bodies as they are exposed to a state of hyper arousal and are most of the time on guard to protect themselves from abuse (Karakurt & Silver, 2014:85). These injuries may continue to have negative influences on the victims’ lives (Coleman & Ganong, 2014:716). In adolescence, victims often feel guilty and blame themselves for the incest occurrence (Lentz et al., 2012:164; Schetky & Green, 2014:42). These feelings are even worsened when the child finds the sexual abuse pleasurable (Schetky & Green, 2014:42). Such victims frequently feel humiliated and develop poor self-esteem (Lentz et al., 2012:164). In addition, the victim’s academic performance is also affected by the FDI occurrence (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101; Richardson & Williams, 2008:105). The 27 victim may have difficulties in concentrating at school or even losing interest in schooling (Schetky & Green, 2014:43). After reaching age 18, which is adulthood, victims may experience continual or belated posttraumatic stress disorder (Schetky & Green, 2014:43). Victims may have difficulties in trusting people and building relationships (Coleman & Ganong, 2014:716). They tend to have higher number of adult sexual partners (Stroebel et al., 2012:187). Those partners are chosen according to their capability for physical and sexual violence (Lentz et al., 2012:164). In a nutshell, adults who were victimised during childhood have poor relational satisfaction in romantic relationships (Baxter, 2013), and prefer chaotic family experiences after leaving home (Lentz et al., 2012:164). In some cases, victims have poor self-image, damaged self-worth and significantly feel like damaged goods (Schetky & Green, 2014:42; Stroebel et al., 2012:183). These individuals often neglect individual capabilities which cause them to fail to understand who they are. They lose touch with their uniqueness (Stroebel et al., 2012:183). Some victims only equate their self-worth in the context of sexual encounters (Coleman & Ganong, 2014:716) and some engage in sexual activities to obtain money, drugs or other goods (Stroebel et al., 2012:183). Offenders seem to experience guilt, self-hatred, vulnerability, strong feelings of powerlessness, enormous amount of self-blame, criticism as well as ostracism from the society regarding their incestuous behaviour. Moreover, offenders are punished by the society in their effort to conform to society’s expectations and to be socially accepted again (Van Niekerk, 2005:140-143). 28 Mothers experience several effects after their daughters have disclosed their fathers’ sexual abuse. These effects include feelings of guilt and self-blame, developed rage towards themselves and their spouses (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:52). In addition, mothers also suffer from experiencing upsetting chronic thoughts of the abuse and shame (Saloojee, 2013:31). Popular and clinical literature often outline that these mothers are blamed by the community and extended family members for the occurrence of incest (Draucker & Martsolf, 2006:80-81; Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:52). Moreover, mothers develop intense fear of being alone, family dissolution, losing everything including the spouse and the children, financial support and suffering from mental breakdown (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:52–54). 2.7 Theoretical framework for understanding father-daughter incest 2.7.1 Family systems theory Family systems theory provides an outline for defining and understanding the relations between family members (Fine & Fincham, 2013:439). Systems theory posits that all parts of the system are attached to each other, and proper understanding is not possible if the parts are isolated. To explain that in a family context, it can be understood within their family structure, roles, culture, beliefs as well as interpersonal relationships where family fulfilment is maintained (Thomlison, 2010:32). Family systems in which FDI occurs are often closed, tend to have more structured roles and responsibilities, rigid rules as well as traditional divisions of labour (Craft- Rosenberg & Pehler, 2011:646; Trepper & Barrett, 2014:28). Boundaries within the family are low, but very high with the community (Ackerman & Kane, 2005:591). These rigid boundaries are upheld to create barriers between the family environment and its social environment as means of keeping outsiders away (Crowe et al., 2010:407; 29 Trepper & Barrett, 2014:28) and protecting their sexual secret (Trepper & Barrett, 2014:28). An inherent rule that evolves in some incestuous families is that special emotional needs should be met within the family. Members depend upon each other for emotional support and self-esteem maintenance (Trepper & Barrett, 2014:28). This results in role and boundary confusion. Intergenerational boundaries are crossed in relation to sexuality and habitually in other areas such as household decision-making or management (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:168). Role reversal takes place because children become parentified as attention is expressed sexually on them (Crowe et al., 2010:407). The father depends on the daughter for emotional as well as sexual satisfaction and refuses to accept her socialisation, mostly when she seeks to have a boyfriend (Nurcombe, 2010:162). Daughters gain special power over the fathers and control a secret they consider obligatory. Some daughters get confused on responding to the fathers as children or as lovers because they do not know whether their fathers act as fathers or lovers (Zastrow, 2010:203). This confusion often results from the daughters being children but at times acting out the roles of lovers and equals in the eyes of their fathers. The blurring of intergenerational boundaries is promoted by the dependency problems and the ensnaring produced by the emotional isolation of the family (Trepper & Barrett, 2014:29). Viewing role and boundary confusion from another angle is that the parental subsystem has also failed because it has not carried out two of the primary functions of parenting, which are nurturing and socialization. On one hand, nurturing has been minimal as caring became sexualized (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:169). On the other hand, the mother 30 failed to protect the child while the father violated the intergenerational boundaries (Schetky & Green, 2014:39). Failing to carry out the functions of parenting may end up leaving the child being socially deviant (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:169). 2.7.2 Erik Erickson theory of psychosocial development Children in incestuous families perform developmental tasks appropriate for adults (Trepper & Barrett, 2013:29). Their personality and psychological development is at risk of being disrupted (Richardson & Williams, 2008:105) as both parents compromise their attainment of basic trust (Schetky & Green, 2014:41). Moreover, these children are unable to develop meaningful relationships with their peers. As a result, they fail to become satisfactorily socialized (Schetky & Green, 2014:39). Erikson believed that universally, human beings experience inconsistencies during their lives (Sigelman & Rider, 2005:34). His theory of psychosocial development addresses growth across the life span (Newman & Newman, 2011:62). For the purpose of this study, focus is on four stages, which are industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation and generativity versus stagnation. Industry versus inferiority (6-12 years) In this stage, children must learn skills that are highly valued in their societies (Papalia et al., 2007:358). They must also keep up with their peers and master important social as well as academic skills (Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32). When children fail to learn and master these skills, they are more likely to feel inferior (Shives, 2008:371; Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32). Moreover, they lack motivation, become uncooperative, incompetent and unreliable (Shives, 2008:371). Experiences of abuse and brutality restrict children 31 to form industrious attitudes and aggravate their sense of inferiority. This sense of inferiority may potentially be long-standing in children (Bancroft, 2009:126). Identity versus role confusion (12-18 years) Usually in this stage, adolescents self-examine themselves in the sense of trying to understand and know who they are as they must establish social and vocational identities (Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32). If children experience negative practices in this stage, they cannot move forward with confidence and attain a positive identity. They may also be faced with difficulty in overcoming distorted messages about sexuality (Bancroft, 2009:126). Intimacy versus isolation (18-35 years) In this stage, young adults seek to form a joint identity with another person but may fear intimacy (Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32), due to residual effects of abuse (Bancroft, 2009:126). Past abusive relationships may destroy the victim’s ability to trust others (Bancroft, 2009:126). This broken trust may risk these victims becoming overly isolated (Papalia et al., 2007:512), emotionally jealous, possessive (Shives, 2008:371- 372) and lonely (Sigelman & Rider, 2005:32). Generativity versus stagnation (35-60 years) Generativity is the concern of mature adults for establishing and guiding the next generation (Papalia et al., 2007:589). Middle aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers (Sigelman & 32 Rider, 2005:32). For adults who experienced abuse during childhood, the psychological stages of development may not be successfully integrated. Adult survivors of abuse may still be attempting to sort their former harmful experiences and lost opportunities out (Bancroft, 2009:127). 2.7.3 Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory is a conceptual framework which makes it possible to explain past behavior (Meyer et al., 2008:89). It describes human beings as being servants to inherent biological drives. These drives mature steadily over childhood and play a key role in determining the personalities of individuals (Shaffer, 2008:38). Moreover, it presumes that failing to resolve the Oedipal complex as well as the existence of unconscious and collective experiences in childhood might carry on to adulthood and become an origin of psychopathology (Brandell, 2010:42). The marital bond in incestuous families is not capable of satisfying the dependency needs of the parents who were emotionally deprived during their childhood (Schetky & Green, 2014:39). Freud believed that sexual deviation personality disorders in adults arise from unresolved sexual problems in childhood (Davidson, 2008). The Oedipal complex in daughters who are sexually abused by their fathers exists due the daughters’ fundamental doubt and sense of vulnerability. The daughter sometimes wishes for a sexual relationship with the father and sometimes has a death related wish for the mother (Brandell, 2010:48). In addition, some of these daughters agree to incest with the intention of revenging on the mother who is assumed to be non- nurturing (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100). 33 2.8 Conclusion This chapter discussed how father-daughter incest was perceived within the western and African context in the past. Moreover, it provides a clear description of how FDI unfolds in families and characteristics of those family members affected by FDI. The researcher also looked at the psychosocial factors that lead people to engage FDI activities and how these activities affect them. Different theories that guided the study for explaining and understanding the occurrence of FDI were also discussed. 34 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The researcher views methodology as a plan on how to do things. In simple terms, a research method is a process to collect information and come to scientific conclusions about the study. Research methodology is an art of how research should be carried out, emphasising the procedures that the researchers go about in order to describe, explain, and predict phenomena (Rajasekar, Philominanthan & Chinnanthambi, 2006:5). This chapter presents the demarcation of the study area and the methods that were utilized. Descriptions of the research design and the study population and how they were sampled are provided. Moreover, this chapter explains how data was collected and analysed. The procedures that were followed to carry out the study and the ethical considerations that guided the process are also discussed. 3.2 Demarcation of the study The study was conducted in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality (NMMDM). It is a predominantly rural area situated in the middle of the North-West Province, which shares an international boundary with the Republic of Botswana. NMMDM comprises five local municipalities which are Ditsobotla, Mafikeng, Ramotshere Moiloa, Ratlou and Tswaing (Department of Corporate Governance and Traditional Affairs, n.d.:4; “Municipality: Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality | The South African LED Network,” 2015). The principal towns in NMMDM are Lichtenburg, Mafikeng/ Mmabatho and Zeerust (Department of Corporate Governance and Traditional Affairs, n.d.:4). 35 NMMDM covers an area of 2 820 607 square kilometres and has a total population of 806 914. From the whole population, 35 percent of people over 20 years of age have received primary education and about 2 percent people have received some form of tertiary education. The rate of educational attainment makes the educational and employability skills to be generally low. 42, 3 percent people are unemployed and 59, 47 percent people live in poverty. Ratlou is proclaimed to have the highest poverty rate with a percentage of 75, 43, followed by Ramotshere Moilwa with 64, 69 percent, then Tswaing with 64, 18 percent, then Ditsobotla with 55, 32 percent and Mafikeng being the least poor at 37, 74 percent . Nearly 75 percent of those who are working, especially in the rural areas, are engaged in poorly paying basic occupations and earn less than R1 500, 00 per month. The retail trade, the community, social and personal services sector as well as the agriculture and wholesale, employs most people in Mafikeng\ Mmabatho (Department of Corporate Governance and Traditional Affairs, n.d.:4&5). 3.3 Research design This study utilized the qualitative research approach, employing the phenomenological design. According to Polkinghorne (2005:137) the qualitative approach intends to unfold and illustrate human experiences and also the investigation of variables that are unknown and need to be discovered (Creswell, 2014:86). Moreover, it helps to answer questions about the complex nature of the incest phenomenon studied (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005:94). Since qualitative researchers are primarily interested in the meaning humans give to their life experiences, phenomenological design was used as it offers a better understanding of the specificity and complexity of the processes at work by providing insider’s point of view (Houser, 2015:87). This was done in order to obtain an intimate 36 familiarity with their social world (De Vos et al., 2011:320). The researcher investigated FDI with the intention of seeking in-depth information and giving comprehensive explanations of the experiences of the psychosocial effects of incest on the victim, offender and the family as a whole. Basic case study entails detailed and thorough investigation of single case or multiple cases (Bryman, 2012:66). The case(s) are investigated through in-depth data collection utilizing numerous sources of information (Creswell, 2007:73). 3.4 Type of research This study is basic in nature and aims to understand the psychosocial effects of incest on the victim and the offender. Furthermore, the study aims to find out whether FDI disrupts family bonds or not. Basic research aims to understand, develop and test the hypothesis of the study and add valuable knowledge about the phenomenon studied to the social world (Cargan, 2007:6). 3.5 Research Procedure The research proposal was presented and accepted by the Higher Degree Committee (HDC) of the Human and Social Sciences Faculty in the North-West Univesity (Mafikeng Campus). Permission to initiate the study was sought and granted by the North-West University Research Ethics Regulatory Committee (NWU-RERC). Letters requesting permission to conduct the study at the Department of Social Development (DSD) service points, Department of Correctional Services (DCS) head office, Families South Africa (FAMSA) and Suid Afrikaanse Vrouederasie (SAVF) were sent out to professionals in charge of the organisations. Appointments to conduct interviews were made with only those professionals who met the criteria of participating in the study and were willing to participate. On meeting the 37 participants, the purpose of the study and the ethics guiding the study were explained. In addition, the participants were asked to read and sign the consent form (Appendix C) to grant permission before commencing with the interviews. All interviews were conducted at the professionals’ offices in NMMDM and were audio taped except one interview of which the participant was not comfortable with being audio recorded. In the case where the professional was not comfortable with being audio recorded, only field notes were taken to collect data. Nevertheless, field notes were also taken from the other interviews that were audio recorded. The audio recordings and field notes were then transcribed. 3.6 Research population and sampling 3.6.1 Population The target population of the study were professionals who have worked with father- daughter cases on a therapeutic level. A population is a collection of elements from which a sample is selected (Babbie, 2009:199). Social workers and psychologists of either race or gender who worked with FDI cases within NMMDM were targeted as principal participants of this study. 3.6.2 Sampling Sampling is the process used to select a smaller number of units of a population with common characteristics of that total population (De Vos et al., 2011:223). Two sampling techniques were employed in the study. The researcher purposively selected eight governmental and four non-governmental organisations (NGOs) located in NMMDM. The governmental institutions included five Department of Social Development (DSD) service point agencies and three Department of Correctional Services (DCS) correctional centres. The four NGOs included one Families South Africa (FAMSA) 38 agency and three Suid Afrikanse Vroue Federasie (SAVF) agencies. The organisations are specifically located at Delareyville, Lichtenburg, Mafikeng, Setlagole and Zeerust and were selected because of the guaranteed opportunity of finding social workers and psychologists. Purposive sampling is used to select places because of their relevance to the research interest or their ability to purposively inform the research questions (Bryman, 2012:418; Creswell, 2007:125). Because cases of FDI, as indicated earlier in the literature, are rarely reported due to various reasons, not all the organisations purposefully identified necessarily had professionals who had handled FDI cases. Contact with professionals was made through snowballing. This was done through managers of NGOs and DSD service points referring the researcher to professionals who had intervened in FDI cases. At the end of each interview, professionals were asked if they know someone who has dealt with FDI cases. If the professionals knew someone, they were asked to direct the researcher to that person. This was done through asking contact details or work addresses of the people assumed to have worked with incest cases. The snowball technique is exceptional when an under-reported or uncommon phenomenon is investigated (De Vos et al., 2011:394) and when members of population studied are not easily located (Babbie, 2009:193). Since it focused on identifying hard to reach individuals, it involved approaching a single case involved in the phenomenon studied (De Vos et al., 2011:393). Data is collected from a small group of relevant participants who could be located. Those participants are then asked to link the researcher with other potential participants they know who have the characteristics or experience relevant to the study (Babbie, 2009:193; Bryman, 2012:424). 39 3.6.2.1 Sample size Due to the nature of this study, a sample size could not be predetermined because it was difficult to establish the specific number of participants to be interviewed before achieving theoretical saturation (Bryman, 2012:425). However, the sample reached a total number of 9 participants, which included 1 auxiliary social worker and 8 social workers. These participants were henceforth to be identified as Social Worker 1, Social Worker 2 and so forth to mark each specific response. The specific number of participants was established by achieving saturation. The researcher stopped collecting data when participants no longer revealed new insights about the topic studied (Creswell, 2013:189). 3.2.6.2 Sampling criteria  Only professionals who handled FDI cases were selected as participants of the study.  The sexually abused daughter that the professional had worked with must have been a minor (under the age of 18) at the time the abuse occurred as well as when she had a therapeutic working relationship with the professional.  The mother of the victim and the father or stepfather had to be in the relationship at the time of the abuse. 3.7 Methods of data collection 3.7.1. Instrument Data was collected using key informant semi-structured interviews. Key informant interviews are short, discussions with individuals who have information about the phenomenon studied (Diem & Moyer, 2005: 94; Munde & Marks, 2009:181). The 40 purpose of key informant interviews is to collect information from individuals who can provide insight in the researcher’s topic of interest. Participants or key informants are identified or selected according to their special knowledge, experience or perspective and ability to accurately share information about the researchers topic of interest (Aral, Douglas & Lipshutz, 2007:453; Diem & Moyer, 2005: 95; Munde & Marks, 2009:181). Semi-structured interviews were used because of their flexible nature. The flexibility of semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to gain a thorough picture of participants’ opinions and insights or explanations of the topic studied (De Vos et al., 2011:351). Individual participants were allowed some latitude in how to reply to the questions asked, allowing communication to flow more naturally (Bryman, 2012:471; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010:102). The researcher was able to make follow up on interesting topics that arose during the interview (De Vos et al., 2011:351-352). Semi- structured interviews allow the discovery of new aspects of the topic studied, through detailed exploration of explanations supplied by the participants (Bless et al., 2006:119). 3.7.2 Data collection process Interviews were conducted in a face-to-face mode using a set of predetermined questions (See Appendix D) to guide the interview and to yield as much information as the researcher could get. Before the interview took place, the researcher informed the participants of how the interview would take place, what the study entailed and what was expected from them. In a research endeavour, prospective participants must be provided with credible rationale of the study they are asked to participate in (Bryman, 2012:217). This was done through verbal explanation and issuing consent forms (Appendix C) to the participants to read and sign if they agreed to participate in the 41 study. The researcher started with questions that participants could answer easily, and then proceeded to questions that needed many explanations. The researcher collected data by taking notes and audio-recording the interviews. Field notes were taken as a backup in the event that the audio recorder failed (Creswell, 2013:194). Furthermore, they helped the researcher to recall and reflect on the interview process. Interviews were only recorded when participants permitted the researcher. When participants were not comfortable to be audio recorded, field notes were taken and elaborated after the interview (De Vos et al., 2011:359). Though it was mentioned in the consent form that interviews would be audio recorded, the researcher verbally sought permission from the participants before recording them. One of the participants refused to be voice recorded and only field notes were taken during this interview. 3.8 Transcription and field notes Field notes were taken during and after each interview since they provide an important source of information that cannot be captured by the audio recorder. The researcher made notes on the environment, body language and behaviours of the participant, which helped in the course of the interviews and initial thoughts on the analysis of the main transcripts. As part of the reiterative process of data collection in the qualitative paradigm, transcription of the interviews was done immediately after each interview. Some scholars (De Vos et al., 2011:360) suggest that for data saturation to become more obvious, interviews must be transcribed while they are still fresh in the researcher’s mind. Thus, each interview was transcribed before the next interview could take place. 42 This worked largely because it was not always easy to schedule appointments with the participants. Nevertheless, in the rare cases whereby the researcher had more than one interview scheduled in a day, the recordings of those interviews were transcribed on a later date. In transcribing interviews, it is important to ensure that the transcript is the same as what the participant said during the interview. Hence, in this study the interviews were transcribed verbatim. 3.9 Data analysis The thematic data analysis approach was used to analyse the data, utilising the Atlas.ti version 7 software. According to Guest & MacQueen (2008:138), thematic analysis focuses on identifying and describing hidden and unequivocal ideas . The focus of this study was on understanding and explaining the FDI and its underlying forces. Through multiple reading of the transcripts, major themes and sub-themes were discovered from the data. Codes were then generated by assigning meaning to the information collected during the fieldwork. These codes were then grouped into categories of themes. Through an iterative process of carefully comparing the categories of these themes were fine-tuned in the analysis. To gain a deeper meaning of the themes, they were explored thoroughly and thereafter discussed in the context of the objectives. 3.10 Ethical considerations The researcher adhered to the following ethical aspects in order to avoid the abuse of participants’ rights, to grant the participants the right to self-determination, and to set the rules which guided both the researcher and the participants on how to conduct themselves as well as what to expect from the research process. Emphasis was on the 43 study being conducted based on mutual trust, acceptance as well as cooperation (De Vos et al., 2011:13). Since studies should not be conducted and data should not be obtained at the cost of human life and organisations, and for mutual trust, acceptance, cooperation, promises and well accepted conversations as well as expectations to take place, the following ethical considerations were seriously considered:  Permission to conduct the study The researcher requested and obtained permission to conduct the study in NMMDM from the DSD, DCS, FAMSA and SAVF.  Informed consent Obtaining consent from the participants is not merely the signing of a consent form, but consent should be voluntary and informed (Terre Blanche et al., 2006:66). The researcher explained the goal of the study and the procedures that were followed to the participants. Participants were made aware that participation is voluntary, and that they could withdraw from the study at any time they do not feel comfortable to continue.  Anonymity and confidentiality The participants’ identifying particulars were not disclosed. The researcher also upheld the right to privacy when working with participants, allowing them to decide when and where they would disclose their clients’ experiences, but at the same time guarded against being spellbound by the participants. Both the participants and the researcher chose appropriate time and places for them to meet. Informed consent form signed by participants also assured them of the parameters of confidentiality of the information 44 retrieved from them. Participants were told how the data was recorded, stored and processed for release (Terre Blanche et al., 2006:68).  Actions and competence of researchers Due to the sensitivity of this study, the researcher was professional and acted with integrity at all times. The researcher made sure that the participants were not emotionally and psychologically harmed, have the right to privacy and self- determination, and participation was informed and voluntary in the study. The researcher also acknowledged the sources of the information used in the study. 3.11 Limitations of the study The findings of this study needs to be interpreted with some caution, taking into consideration some limitations. Firstly, because of the sensitive nature of the subject matter, victims and offenders of father-daughter incest could not be interviewed. Secondly, the study also sought to interview professionals who have worked with victims and offenders of father-daughter incest on a therapeutic level. However, professionals from the Department of Correctional Services who handle father-daughter incest cases could not be interviewed due to bureaucratic procedures, which took longer than the time frame for the study. These limitations notwithstanding, the findings of this study have important policy implications for the understanding of father-daughter incest in the South African context. 3.12 Conclusion This chapter described the methodology utilized in the study. An explanation of how the study population was sampled, which research design was followed and how data was collected and analysed was provided. 45 CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents findings from the in-depth interviews conducted with professionals on psychosocial effects of incest on victims and offenders. The findings stem from the analysis of the data collected in the form of interviews, which were recorded and noted down. These findings are categorised into four main themes: factors leading to incest, discovery of incest, psychosocial effects of incest and interventions of incest. Each of the themes has a number of subthemes and this is substantiated by quotes from the interview transcripts. Table 4.2 shows the themes and subthemes. Table 4.1: Profile of the Participants No Participant (Position) Area 1 Social Worker Mafikeng 2 Auxilliary Mafikeng 3 Social Worker Delareyville 4 Social Worker Mafikeng 5 Social Worker Lichtenburg 6 Social Worker Lichtenburg 7 Social Worker Mafikeng 8 Social Worker Mafikeng 46 9 Social Worker Mafikeng (Social Workers as participants in the study) Table 4.2: Themes and subthemes identified in the study Themes Subthemes 1. Factors leading to father-daughter incest I. Factors that influence fathers to commit incest. II. Factors that influence daughters to indulge in incest. III. Family circumstances that breed father- daughter incest. 2. Discovery of father- daughter incest I. Factors that impede the disclosure of father- daughter incest II. How the disclosure occurred III. Reactions to the disclosure of father-daughter incest 3. Psychosocial effects of father-daughter incest I. Effects on the father II. Effects on the daughter III. Effects on the mother IV. Effects on the family 4. Interventions of father- daughter incest I. Training received for handling incest cases II. Techniques used for handling incest cases III. Reunification methods for incest incidences 4.2 Theme1: Factors leading to father-daughter incest This section examines various factors leading to incest, the prohibition of sexual relationships between persons who are related to each other by blood, and consanguinity or adoption. The response of one of the participants in this study perceive this behaviour to be the influence of evil spirits on men. “I think that it is bad 47 sprit that would attack a person and make him to do things that he at the end regret doing” (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). 4.2.1 Factors that influence fathers to commit incest The data in this study reveal that men who experienced sexual abuse during childhood are more likely to indulge in FDI, especially when they did not receive appropriate treatment. The researcher observed and concluded that due to lack of or perhaps inadequate treatment, these men subject their daughters to the same abuse and perceive it to be normal. Previously, the father or the mother also experienced that kind of abuse as well and unfortunately was never dealt with…So they never had that opportunities to deal with that. So it was just something that continued (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). One of the participants mentioned that men who indulge in incest often have sexual intercourse with young girls who are about the same age as their daughters. The researcher observed and concluded that because these fathers get used to having sexual intercourse with young girls, they perceive their daughters in the same light. To these men, sexual intercourse with their daughters is normal behaviour. The husband was cheating, and cheating with very young girls the same age as this young girl at home. Therefore, it became something that he is used to (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). 48 One of the risk factors of FDI is decreased expression of affection between the parents (Stroebel et al., 2013:585). Data from this study provide evidence that some men who have sexual intercourse with their daughters indicate that they do not get sexual satisfaction from their partners. Thus, largely because of their dissatisfied sexual desires, they have sexual intercourse with their daughters. Basically, the father gave the explanation that he reverted to the daughter because the mother was not fulfilling her roles as a mother. I’m talking about the bedroom issues (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Some of the offenders told me that they never got sexual pleasure from their partners (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). Other cases are that the mother does not sexually satisfy the father. He satisfies his needs by abusing his child. There are those fathers whose sexual desire is abnormal (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). 4.2.2 Factors that influence daughters to indulge in incest Some participants in this study indicated that some fathers usually wrongfully influence their daughters into believing that their intentions are to care for them and that what they are doing is the right thing to do. Thus, these daughters get the conviction that engaging in sexual intercourse with their fathers is normal, especially when their mothers are not around. 49 The daughter has been made to believe, by her father that of course that what they are doing is right. So they just normalised something that is abnormal (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). These fathers are not shy to tell the children that their mothers are not around, they should have sex (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). The wrong influence…So the father influenced the child (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). Social worker 8 in Mafikeng indicated that a daughter disclosed that: “I know that my father loves me as a daughter I didn’t know there was anything wrong with that up until my mom confronted the whole thing.” 4.2.3 Family circumstances that breed father-daughter incest Many participants in this study emphasized absent mothers to be the predominant cause of FDI. The participants highlighted that due to adverse prevailing circumstances, these mothers spend most of the time away from their families because they are working. In other cases, mothers spend most the time out of their homes, socializing. The researcher concluded that the absence of mothers in the home gives rise to the fathers spending most time with their daughters and to sexually abuse them. The main reasons are when the mother works, she is not present at home and the father finds himself with this child. They have time… In the course of time when the mother was absent or even when she was in the house, the father 50 started fondling the child. At the end when the mother was not in the house, he started sexually abusing the child (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). The mother is unavailable most of the time. She stays where she work and only comes home on weekends. That has been the situation since the daughter was young (Social worker 3, Delareyville). The sexual intercourse was happening within the household when her mother has already gone to work (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). The child was always around, the child according to the father, she is mature enough, and he is left with the daughter when the mother is at work. So that’s what led to the whole situation (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). The child that was admitted here indicated that the mother was forever out with friends. The mother was busy. So it was easy for these things to happen in her absence (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). And then poor circumstances…they are poor, the father doesn’t work, the mother is absent from time to time because she has to go and work wherever because she has to bring money into the house…Mothers not always available and yah …emotional neglect, the children are not looked well after emotionally… It’s only father taking care of the children (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). The data in this study point out that some mothers play an active role in the repeated occurrence of FDI. These mothers are aware of the incest and decide to keep it a secret 51 or ignore it. The researcher observed and concluded that the secrecy is sometimes a way of protecting their partners from the wrath of the community. The mother of the victim turned a blind eye on the abuse and kept it a secret… The mother knew about the abuse and ignored it. She did not want to be part of it (Social worker 3, Delareyville). When I do my investigation, I found out that it happened, especially for this foreign child it happened at home…If the community can find out of something like this, it’s going to be a community rival. So what happened is when I investigated further I found out that the mother was sending the child here to keep quiet…Then the mother even at court, the reaction when the father was detained, you could see that the mother know it was true. But it is just that she is caught in between Social worker 7, Mafikeng). The researcher concludes that the passive characters of mothers in the upbringing of their daughters also influence repeated occurrences of FDI. Data from this study indicates that in some cases, incest occurs while the mothers are around without noticing it or not noticing any changes within the family. So the step father abused the child while the mother was not aware…While the mother was in her bedroom the father/stepfather went for the child (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). The mother said she was not aware until she was made aware by one of the neighbours (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). 52 Some participants also reported poverty, unemployment, substance abuse and overwhelming children with household chores to be factors that breed the occurrence of father-daughter incest. Excessive intake of alcohol affects child-rearing, causing the mothers not to look after their children well. One of the factors that contribute to the occurrence of father-daughter incest is poverty, unemployment and substance abuse... you’ll find both parents being involved in substance abuse, drinking, excessively so. The parenting becomes not effective towards the children because the mother neglects the children and the father will have the opportunity to harass or sexually abuse the children (Auxiliary Social worker, Mafikeng). Poverty and alchhol abuse are the predominant cause problem that emanate to incest (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). One of the contributing factors is that you find the parents, not that we’re condoning that but parents overwhelming their first born with home chores and taking responsibility generally when it comes to the day to day running of the household. Therefore, they think at the back of their minds, they are in charge of the family. They want to be in charge in every aspect including the topic of incest cases (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). 4.3 Theme 2: Discovery of father-daughter incest From the interviews it emerged that respondents understand that incest is discovered in various ways. Some daughters disclose immediately after the first abusive act whereas 53 some only disclose after a number of abusive acts. In some instances, incest is discovered accidentally whereas in other cases someone might observe unusual behaviour in either the daughter or the father and begin to suspect that there is FDI. Sometimes fathers disclose the abuse themselves. 4.3.1 Factors that impede the disclosure of father-daughter incest Delayed disclosure of incest is common. Barriers for non-disclosure or reporting of FDI are found within families (Taylor & Norma, 2013:114). Some families regard FDI as a family secret, so the matter is discussed within the boundaries of the family. Participants in this study indicated that some fathers use threats and tell daughters not to disclose the abuse. One participant indicated that sometimes mothers are the ones who prevent children from reporting the abuse due to their dependence on these fathers. The father was abusing the child sexually. So it was kept in limbo…and again it also has this I don’t know what should I call it, cultural whatever…It has that things just have to be discussed here at home and they finish them there…Because that’s what happened with the first case. When the matter came out, before it can even be reported to the teacher it was discussed and it was aired to be kept between the family (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). Their fathers told them not to disclose the abuse to their mothers (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). And there were threats from the father so there was no way that she could report…In most cases, the father will be the provider and the mother will not be working so the only source of income is from the father’s side…So when the 54 sexual abuse happens, that issue become an impact. You’ll find out that the mother does not want the child to report such because the father is the provider. … The mother was afraid to report such case because she cannot take care of the family (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). Responses from some participants indicate that other reasons for daughters not to disclose or report incest are fear to break the family apart, shock, shyness and fear of disbelief from family members. She indicated that she was afraid of creating a conflict between her mother and her father (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). She could not tell the mother, reasons being that she was afraid to break her mother’s marriage…So the child because of shock could not tell of the incident. (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). In most cases, like I have indicated earlier, these children are shy. They are shy to disclose that their fathers are sexually abusing them (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). That child said she didn’t report it to the mother because she wouldn’t even believe her (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). 55 4.3.2 How the disclosure occurred The disclosure of incest is difficult because of its intra-familial nature (Yildrim & Gümüş, 2011:114). Participants in this study pointed out that victims sometimes disclose the abuse unintentionally and sometimes voluntarily to professionals. The father was not satisfied about the daughter having a boyfriend. They had arguments resulting from the daughter’s relationship. He threatened the daughter that if she does not leave the boyfriend he is going to kill her. One day the argument went on and on and it came to a point whereby the father shot the daughter on the thigh. The father was arrested and is still incarcerated. That is when the abuse came out to the public (Social worker 3, Delareyville). She went secretly to the psychologist, self-referred and that’s where she disclosed (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). The data in this study show that in some instances, victims disclose the abuse to a family member or someone they trust. It was only this year at the age of 22 when the abuser or the stepfather went for the third time that the child opened up, told one of the family members who is a social worker … And then what happened is that she also told the younger sister (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). She reported instead to somebody else and that’s how it came out (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). 56 4.3.3 How incest cases come to social worker’s attention. Family members and other professionals such as police officers and teachers often report incest cases to social workers. This is because often they have the responsibility to enhance and to restore the well-being of people, as well as to solve problem in human relationships. The following responses from the participants clarify how FDI cases were reported to them. The case came to my attention after the matter was reported by the victim to the police (Social worker 3, Delareyville). The younger sister came to me secretly without the knowledge of the mother, told me that her older sister needs attention. That’s how this case came to my attention. The case was referred to the social workers. It was investigated, the report was presented and the child was sent here (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). The person that realised is the teacher at school …so when the teacher made investigations, all these things came up and when the child was taken to the hospital, it was found that she had been sexually abused… The case was referred to the social workers. It was investigated, the report was presented and the child was sent here…One of the community members who happened to be a friend to this man…also identified, the child confessed to her and she reported to the social workers. The very same procedure happened (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). Most of them are via the police, so the first intake was done by the police. Then there were also cases that the school requested to be investigated further. So 57 [cases of incest surface] mainly through the police and the school (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). 4.3.4 Reactions to the disclosure of incest One of the participants in this study indicated that some daughters receive positive reactions subsequent to the disclosure of incest. Some mothers and family members are supportive to the victims after the abuse has taken place and during the time it is reported. The younger sister was also not happy with what is happening to her sister …The younger sister feels no, she does not have to blame herself. In one way or the other she had to cough it out. She is happy that the abuser is gone … she felt that what he did to end his life is what he deserved so that the whole family can no longer be tortured…as for the other members of family, they feel the way the offender has acted, it brings a closure to the family’s misery (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). So she showed signs of support to the daughter just so she can gain the sense of ownership of her life, just the mother is there, physically, emotionally and otherwise (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Responses from some participants in this study confirm that some daughters receive unsupportive reactions from their mothers after the disclosure of FDI. The participants indicated that some mothers do not believe their daughters’ disclosure and some become angry with their daughters for reporting the abuse. 58 She said she had a sister of 13 years and the very same thing was happening… and they tried to tell their mother she didn’t believe them (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). The mother was very cross with the daughter for disclosing the abuse (Social worker 3, Delareyville). 4.4 Theme 3: Psychosocial effects of incest From the interviews, it also emerged that father-daughter incest has an intense effect on the psychosocial and social well-being of the victim, offender and the family as a whole and is known to cause a number of difficulties to those who are affected. This study uncovered how offenders, victims and families are affected by such incidences. 4.4.1 Effects on the father Some participants revealed that fathers who commit incest are usually not prepared to face the consequences of their actions. This uneasiness to face consequences often result in fathers committing suicide. In addition, some fathers become depressed and find it difficult to fit in the society. Some of the responses from the participants that clarify how FDI have an effect on fathers were: After what he had done he decided to kill himself because he now thought of the consequences after that child divulged the information… he knew that the consequences for that incest or activity was jail… instead of facing the legal consequences the father… the stepfather… killed himself. In essence he pulled the trigger to end his life (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). 59 It was difficult for the father to fit in properly as a father within the family…and as a result of that disturbance… the father was depressed to a point where he committed suicide… it’s another huddle if not the most severe outcome of incest (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). 4.4.2 Effects on the daughter There are a number of effects experienced by daughters who were sexually abused by their fathers. The data in this study show that children who have been subjected to father-daughter incest are more likely to suffer immediate and long-term effects with self-blame and guilt being the most common. Social worker 4 in Mafikeng rephrased what the client divulged: Had I not told, the family would still be happy, I blame myself for the misery that I brought to the family. The victim expresses mixed feelings… The victim blames herself, to say perhaps she could have just kept quiet and resisted to come home. Maybe the stepfather could still have been alive, so she feels she is the cause of the whole misery to the family, had she not told about the incident, the stepfather could still have been alive and the mother would still be happy (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). The aftermath was very severe on the living and the girl was also feeling guilty… that had she not disclosed the incest her father wouldn’t have killed himself (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). 60 … Coming to her senses of what is actually happening around her, with regard to [this] whole thing she started realising this man has been using her wrongly and now her mom and dad are divorcing because of her deeds. The daughter is now taking the blame of the whole dysfunction in the family (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Some daughters end up being pregnant. Due to unwanted pregnancies, some daughters become depressed to a point whereby they think of ending their lives as noted in the following comments: As a result of the abuse, the daughter gave birth to two children, a boy and a girl (Social worker 3, Delareyville). The daughter became depressed. You must remember that now the whole thing has come out in [the] form of another human being, a baby within the family... she got angry, she got depressed when she thought about the whole thing and the fact that she was sitting with the baby and her father’s baby …she also wanted to kill the child and kill herself (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). Some daughters get angry at themselves and everyone in their presence, including those who are helping them. Some develop hatred towards their fathers. The following responses indicate how daughters feel after their fathers have sexually abused them: Sometimes she was so angry with everybody around herself. She was hurting, screaming and breaking plates as well as glasses because she was angry with 61 herself and everybody around herself about what happened to her (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). Some of the children, you know they get so angry and they portray that to everyone else who they work with (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). She regrets having to do whatever they did with the father… the daughter is now resentful towards the father (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Other effects of FDI include denial and isolation. One participant expressed that some daughters deny the incestuous abuse because they think they are the ones at fault. Some participants indicated that other daughters isolate themselves; they do not want to socialize with other people, especially males. From the data in this study, the researcher concluded that victims do not want to be with other people because they develop a tendency of not trusting people of the opposite sex. At first she admitted it; she reported it and then she went back into a phase she said no it didn’t happen. She denied… she was reacting out as well… Because she said OK, it’s my entire fault (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). The children really isolate themselves and they really feel depressed. Depression, isolation, guilt, a lot of guilt. They experience those feelings (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). 62 She is forever in her own space; she doesn’t like to associate with the boys… where boys are involved she doesn’t want to acclimatise (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). In some instances, victims’ behaviours become disruptive, they practice the sexual abuse acts on other children, as noted in the following comment: She is isolated but at the same time was very rebellious in a sense that you’d see that somebody did this to her but she is displaying it on the other children that are staying here…They retaliate, their behaviour is mostly maladaptive but when you look at the core it’s because of what happened to them (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). Father-daughter incest has a damaging effect towards the education of victims. Daughters cannot focus or concentrate and become disruptive at school; their school performance becomes disrupted and weak. The following comments clarify how FDI has a damaging effect towards the education of victims: If this child is still at school, she becomes disturbed, she cannot perform well at school because at home, where she should get support from, she is abused, so this thing disturbs the child … Sometimes, her study programmes are disrupted (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). At school, she started to give problems, her behaviour was uncontrollable due to the fact the thing happened to her… Because she was also ugly with the children and the school work dropped (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). 63 …That used to be a very bright child at school but her performance deteriorated tremendously (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). 4.4.3 Effects on the mother Again from the interviews and literature review, it emerged that mothers whose daughters are FDI victims experience enormous guilt and self- blame, articulating that they blame themselves and feel guilty for not detecting the abuse sooner and that they failed to protect their daughters from the abuse (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:54; Plummer & Eastin, 2007:1060&1061; Pretorius et al., 2011:8; Willingham, 2007:52&53). The participants in this study stressed that mothers are normally overwhelmed after finding out that their partners have sexually abused their daughters. In addition, participants pointed out that these mothers experience the incident of father-daughter incest as painful, coupled with feelings of guilt and self-blame. Well the mother emotionally expressed enormous emotional turmoil as a result of this. Thinking about the future of her daughter, how is she going to perceive men generally because someone that the daughter is looking up to has practised this particular thing to her? To her she feels that she is to be blamed by neglecting her responsibility (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). The mother feel very sorry for the child and at the same time she blames herself that she was not a mother enough to can have picked it up… she feels that she failed be a mother, to protect the children as she would have loved to (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). 64 The mother was feeling guilty… It came from the facts that how can such a thing happen under my nose; it means I’m not an attentive mother (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). The data in this study revealed that in some instances, mothers feel betrayed by their partners as well as their daughters. Furthermore, mothers are angry and disappointed in their partners. Mothers are also diagnosed with depression. The mother feels betrayed by both … whenever the mother mentions the father she just burst into tears (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). The mother indicated that she is very angry and disappointed at the deceased meaning the offender because now she is remaining with the questions that he could have been answering…the mother was diagnosed with major depression (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). 4.4.4 Effects on the family The researcher observed from the data in this study and concluded that family maladjustment is the key effect of father-daughter incest. The following quote explains how mothers do not trust their husbands after the discovery of FDI, which leads to them separating and sometimes divorcing: The issue of trust is tampered with…… the issue of trust between the mother and the father totally is broken …the issue of father playing their role, as the provider, as the protector has tampered with and in most cases it leads to divorce… I mean some people just can’t take it and they opt for divorce…After the 65 intervention, the mother decided to file for divorce, which is still pending but according to her there’s no way she can continue with such a relationship … The father had moved a few houses in their hood. Few houses there, staying with the cousin because the mother communicated that she’s not comfortable to be under one roof with this particular person (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Participants in this study indicated that in some cases, the family becomes completely divided and the relationship between mothers and their daughters is broken. I would say it divides the family because the other sibling was moved to the continuum of care, the other ones remained at home and visitation was minimal. The other siblings would visit, the mother was not allowed to visit because she stays with the perpetrator. If we go to court, the other siblings could not come to court because they were caught in between, they didn’t know if they could come to court to support their sister and if they support their sister, what would happen when they go back home (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). … So as I say the family was completely disrupted… The relationship between mother and daughter was not good anymore. The mother was feeling that “you are such a skelem” that you can kill me if things happened under my nose with me there in and out. It means that relationship was totally broken (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). The other effect of FDI, as revealed by the data in this study is that daughters confuse their roles as daughters and want to perform the roles that should be performed by their mothers. 66 At the back of their minds, they think that they are in charge of the family. Therefore they want to be in charge in every aspect including the topic of incest cases… Like the shifting of roles (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). Families in which incest has occurred undergo social trauma. Participants in this study indicated that these families are sometimes ashamed of what happened in the family and the judgement from the community. As for the family…they feel ashamed of what has happened to them because they think other families are perfect …This whole incident because the other people within community know, indented the image of the children (Social worker 4, Mafikeng). Socially, people when they come to know about the family secrets, they have a different way of looking at that family to a point where sometimes the family gets ostracised, it is as if they are of low morals (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). 4.5 Theme 4: Interventions of incest Due to the severity of the psychosocial effects of incest, intervention is geared at restoring the wellbeing of the victim, offender and the family as a whole. Moreover, intervention with children is focused on making the children mindful that they are not at fault about what happened to them. In the case of offenders, intervention is focused on educating them of their roles as parents and rehabilitating them from their pathological behaviour. 67 4.5.1 Training received for handling incest cases The data in this study shows that some professionals are regularly involved in intervening in father-daughter incest cases. However, most participants in this study indicated that they have not received specific training for handling incest cases. I did not get training as much (Auxiliary Social worker, Mafikeng). None at all except my study of incest cases during my practice. I never had training on incest (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). No, I have not received any training. It is within the therapeutic relationship that I had cases like these but I have not received formal and direct training (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). Some participants expressed that they receive training and attend workshops with regard to working with sexual abuse cases. This training also covers FDI intervention. The following comments explains the types of training that some participants receive for working with incest cases: I am trained as a social worker and then I also received training in play therapy assessments .I also received training in assessment of cases, especially with regard to sexual nature and then safety and risk assessment training… then I was also trained in those years to act as a probation officer. I received more training with regard to court work and working with offenders (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). 68 I have done the R P model assessment tool from Reney Potgieter with the children. But you can assess the children with play therapy …The R P, it’s the name of the model. It’s where you do play therapy with the children, to get information for reports for the court (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). Initially I have the social work degree qualification and then it is complimented by the workshop that we normally undergo in my organisation. I attended a workshop in Johannesburg that addressed specifically the relationship between children and their parents as well, and the issue of incest was covered in that workshop (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). 4.5.2 Techniques used for handling incest cases Some participants usually use skills acquired from their basic social work training to handle FDI cases. And obviously as it comes along you’d want to use your social work techniques such as probing… your clarification to clarify what is actually communicated and to confront of course. Confrontation skills because that is unbecoming, you can’t as a father sleep with your daughter…and play the role of an enabler to enable this father to educate him about the restrictions when it comes to his social relations and his intimate relationships (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). The data in this study shows that occasionally, behaviour modification technique is used in treating incest victims and their families. The participants in this study indicated that they use behaviour modification technique with the aim of helping victims not to 69 perceive themselves as only victims of incest, but as people who can overcome the situation and heal from the painful experience. I used mainly the behaviour changing technique because I had to assist the victim from moving from being a victim to a survivor and to accepting what has happened (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). For every CYCC (Child and Youth Care Centre), the behaviour modification is the most appropriate (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). We had the client and the service is that we took her out of the situation of being a victim to be a survivor. She should not view herself as a victim but she should take herself as a survivor, because most of the time when view herself as a victim she becomes hard on herself (Auxiliary Social worker, Mafikeng). Casework and task centred model was also used by the participants in this study to intervene in FDI cases in order to grant the clients the opportunities to express themselves individually. Task centred model was used to give clients tasks in order to assess their role in the changing process. The predominant method is casework. Under casework is interviewing and then the technique that I usually use is involvement. Because for you to get whatever you want, the client needs to be involved. Also I give a lot of tasks and when the client reports back, I will be able to identify that where does this particular person lack, how does she wants to be assisted and all that (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). 70 In most cases, I used casework method; I talked to her, when two people talk to each other it is dyadic. Therefore, this child can confide in you because the truth is you will not tell everyone what is happening between herself and her father (Social worker 1, Mafikeng). Due to the nature of father-daughter incest psychological harm, one participant indicated that including other professionals was key when dealing with FDI cases. Some participants use empowerment technique to help victims and their families. First I want to tell you that working with these cases, you never work alone and I never worked alone. I included a team which included psychologists and maybe also other social workers who are also experienced in working with this sort of case (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). We had to work with the school and try to explain to them on a confidential basis that this happened to this child (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). We have programmes like self-awareness programme and then we’ve got victim empowerment VEP (Victim Empowerment Programme) which is used to give support to victims from various crimes (Auxiliary Social worker, Mafikeng). So we had to confront and empower the victim as well… So we’re trying to make sure that she regains power, she goes to her normal state of being as a person (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). 71 …We empower clients to help themselves, giving them information, giving them knowledge about incest and the impact that incest has on families (Social worker 9, Mafikeng). Other techniques used by one of the participants to intervene in incest cases are systems theory, family constellation, play and joint intervention. What one used is the issue of systems theory. Where you would want to understand the functioning of the family as a whole. I used it to understand their interaction as a family…for the purpose of joint interview and holistic intervention I had to bring the father on board…I had to intervene between the father and the child in a joint interview… Using what we call family constellation to say this father, where does he come from. To understand his background, where does he come from, what led to him perceiving life this way? Just to understand the situation wholly (Social worker 8, Mafikeng). 4.5.3 Reunification methods for incest incidences Reunification processes of incest incidences are generally different. Professionals apply different strategies to reunite families in which incest occurs, depending on circumstances of the family. One of the participants in this study utilized programmes specifically designed for disrupted families. The child could be re-unified with the mother… Initially she was reluctant, after the [detention] of the father, she was supposed to go in two weeks but because she was reluctant, so we had to keep her for another month just to reassure her (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). 72 We have a programme called, readjustment programme in the CYCC (Child and Youth Care Centre), so we did go there and the relationship was well and we even went to the school and interviewed the teachers and she was performing ok. You could see that this incident was the one that really was a hiccup in her life. Telephonically so, I usually check them and they are still ok (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). The data in this study show that sometimes offenders and victims are not re-unified due to incarceration of the offender, death of the offender or the victim refusing re- unification. Sometimes victims do not want to be re-united to their families, especially when their mothers were aware of the abuse because they do not trust that they will protect them from harm. I have not re-united the victim with her father because the in case I am thinking of, the father was sentenced (Social worker 6, Lichtenburg). The father was detained for 15 years and is presently at Rooigrond. I have not tried to re-unite them (Social worker 7, Mafikeng). No not really, I mean the child was 10 already, she could have talked for herself and when she actually realised after all the therapy we had done, she realised that she was not the bad guy in the story. She did not really want any contact with her father anymore. Therefore, she was able to make that own decision (Social worker 5, Lichtenburg). 73 4.6 Discussion The main purpose of the present study was to examine the psychosocial effects of incest on the victim and the offender in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality. The study found there were numerous and devastating effects of father-daughter incest on the victim, offender and the family as a whole. Regarding the offenders (fathers), the study revealed that fathers usually committed suicide, largely because these fathers were not ready to face the legal consequences (in most cases incarceration) of their actions or the wrath of the family and community as a whole. With respect to the effects of FDI on the victim (daughter), the present study found numerous effects. The study found that daughters who were sexually abused by their fathers mostly get depressed and isolate themselves and in most cases do not want to associate with boys. This can be attributed to the trauma and sometimes how the disclosure was handled. Other studies have found that daughters get depressed and isolate themselves because they find it difficult to trust people and build relationships (Coleman & Ganong, 2014:716), perhaps because they think these are the very people who were supposed to have protected them in the first place. FDI had serious consequences on the victim’s education. Their educational careers were disrupted because some of them fell pregnant and in most cases, their school performance dropped. These findings are consistent with findings from other parts of South Africa and elsewhere in the world. These studies also show that daughters’ performance in school is immensely affected (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101; Richardson & Williams, 2008:105) because they have difficulties in paying attention at school or they even lose interest in education completely (Schetky & Green, 2014:43). 74 The study further revealed that in school, these children developed disruptive behaviour because they think that other people’s intentions are to harm them just like their fathers. Further, the study found that some of the sexually abused daughters harboured suicidal thoughts because they could not stand the shame and humiliation, perhaps because of low self-esteem which has been demonstrated by other studies (Lentz et al., 2012:164). The present study revealed that the most common effects of FDI were guilt and self- blame. Mostly daughters blame themselves not only for the occurrence of the abuse but also for the family disruptions after the disclosure. Other studies have also found that these abused daughters usually feel guilty and blame themselves for the incest occurrence (Lentz et al., 2012:164; Schetky & Green, 2014:42). These feelings of guilt and self-blame are even heightened when the daughter was actively indulging in the sexual abuse (Schetky & Green, 2014:42). Consistent with other studies (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:52), this study found that the effects of FDI on mothers were: guilt, self-blame, anger, betrayal and disappointment, and in most cases, depression, because of the notion that they failed to protect their daughters, thus they engaged in retrospective questioning of their choices and their daughters’ behaviour (Willingham, 2007:52&53). Mothers often feel guilty, blame themselves and get angry at themselves because they feel they failed to notice and to protect their daughters against the incest. Other studies also show that guilt was a common feeling described by mothers after the disclosure of abuse and it affected how mothers related to their children after the disclosure. Mothers felt that they were responsible for the abuse since they could not detect the abuse (Plummer & Eastin, 2007:1060&1061; Willingham, 2007:52&53). 75 Regarding the family as a whole, the main effect found in this study was disrupted families (divorce), and in cases where parents are not divorced there are issues of mistrust among family members. These findings of this study are consistent with the finding of (Mbokazi, 2005:104&105; Pretorius et al., 2011:5) that mothers experience anger towards both their daughters and their partners and they also feel betrayed by their partners and experience problems in trusting their partners. This study also explored the factors that lead to incest. Several factors within the family influence FDI. The present study found that fathers who commit incest experienced sexual abuse in the early stages of their lives. These fathers perceive their act to be normal and practice it with their daughters because it is something that happened to them and was never dealt with appropriately. The literature (Brandell, 2010:42; Davidson, 2008) suggests that sexual deviation personality disorders in adults such as incest arise from unresolved sexual problems in childhood and that failing to resolve the Oedipal complex as well as the existence of unconscious and collective experiences in childhood might carry on to adulthood and become an origin of psychopathology. The study also found that fathers commit incest because they are used to having sexual intercourse with young girls who are the same age group as their daughters. These fathers abuse their daughters sexually because they perceive them in the same light as the young girls they are used to having sexual intercourse with. Sexual estrangement has been found in the literature as a push factor for fathers to commit incest (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:100-101; Schetky & Green, 2014:37; Trepper & Barrett, 2013:26). In the present study it was found that fathers who commit incest experience lack of sexual satisfaction. This is perhaps because their partners do not satisfy them sexually. 76 Considering the factors that influence daughters to indulge in incest, the study reveals that daughters are wrongly influenced by their fathers to engage in incestuous activities. Usually, fathers convince the daughters, making them believe that they are not doing anything wrong by having sexual intercourse with them. More so, the study found that family circumstances also contribute to the occurrence of FDI. Mothers were found to play a role in these circumstances. Other studies have found that some mothers are more often absent from home, thus, mothers’ unavailability at home forces daughters to mostly seek attention from their fathers, which increases the chances of FDI (Mrazek & Kempe, 2014:101; Schetky & Green, 2014:37). In this study, mothers were also found to spend a lot of time away from their home, leaving the fathers and the daughters together for extended periods, which created a conducive environment for the incest abuse. In some instances, the study revealed that some mothers were aware of the abuse and decided to ignore it and sometimes keep it a secret. These finding is consistent with findings from a study conducted by Lentz et al. (2012:164) that mothers and fathers sometimes agree on incest as acceptable. Following the exploration of factors leading to FDI, this study also examined how FDI is discovered. The findings indicate that daughters sometimes disclose the abuse unintentionally and sometimes prefer to disclose to someone they trust or professionals. In the case that social workers are aware of the FDI, other professionals such as teachers and police officers usually reported it. Moreover, the study revealed that disclosure or reporting of incest is hindered by many factors. In the case of disclosure, fathers normally threaten their daughters and tell them not to disclose the abuse. These finding is consistent with (Bancroft et al., 2011:115; Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2010:209) that manipulation and threats deceive their daughters to keep the abuse a secret. 77 Manipulating and threatening daughters is a tactical way of these fathers preventing the abuse from becoming known. Consistent with other studies (Ahmad & Nasir, 2010:1025; Richardson & Williams, 2008:100), this study showed that FDI cases are unreported due to the victims’ fear of disrupting the family and fear that the parents may divorce. The study also found that sometimes victims do not disclose the abuse because they fear that disclosure will tear the family apart and fear being disbelieved by other family members. In other cases victims are shy and in some cases they are shocked that their fathers abused them. In relation to reporting the abuse, FDI is treated as a family secret and mothers usually prevent their children from reporting the abuse. This decision from mother is influenced by the economic circumstances of the family. These mothers are, in most cases, dependent on the fathers. The study further revealed that some mothers and family members are supportive to victims after disclosing the abuse. Consistent with studies conducted in South Africa and Australia, the study found that some mothers did not believe their daughters subsequent to the FDI disclosure (Mayekiso & Mbokazi, 2007:53; Saloojee, 2013:27; Taylor & Norma, 2013:117). Moreover, the study found that some mothers get angry at their daughters for reporting the abuse. The study finally explored the intervention methods and strategies of FDI. The study found that social workers who intervened in FDI cases did not receive training to intervene in FDI cases. In order to help the people affected by FDI the study also found that social workers used skills they acquired during their social work training such as behaviour modification, casework and empowerment as well as workshops they attend. With respect to reunification of offenders and their victims, the study revealed that in most cases offenders and victims are not reunified. Reunification of offenders and their 78 victims is disadvantaged by the death of the offender, incarceration and sometimes the victim refusing to be reunited with the offenders and sometimes their families especially when their mothers were aware of the abuse. 4.7 Conclusion This chapter presented the findings of this study in accordance with the objectives set for the study and the themes that were discovered during data analysis. Each theme and subtheme was substantiated by quotes from the interview transcripts. 79 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This study sought to explore psychosocial effects of incest on victims and offenders in Ngaka Modiri Molema district. Literature on this subject area and specifically in the South African context has neglected father-daughter incest. This neglect is unfortunate, considering the escalating number of reported cases and the consequences FDI has on the victim, and the family as a whole. These consequences make it very important and especially timely to get a better understanding of the dynamics of FDI. Specifically, the study set out to uncover factors contributing to incest as well as how FDI incidences become known. In addition, the study sought to find out different ways FDI could affect the offender, the victim and the family as a whole. Further, the study assessed how professionals intervene in FDI cases. This study employed a qualitative research approach, using semi-structured in-depth interview schedules to collect data from the social workers. The study used the thematic analysis approach to achieve the set objectives. 5.2 Summary of findings The key findings are objective specific and are summarised within the respective objectives. This section synthesises the empirical findings in accordance with the study’s four objectives. 5.2.1 To uncover factors contributing to incest The study found that various factors contribute to FDI. In most cases, fathers who commit incest were exposed to sexual abuse at an early age. This becomes a habit and they in turn wrongly influence their daughters because they perceive this act to be 80 normal. In addition, fathers’ uncontrolled sexual desires also contribute to FDI and this is exacerbated by the absence of the mothers. Due to families’ economic status, mothers spend a lot of time outside the home, trying to earn more money to take care of the family. Thus, children are overwhelmed by household chores and at the back of their minds they think that they are in charge of every aspect in the household. Thus, their fathers whom they spend more time with, easily convince them to indulge in incest. 5.2.2 To find out how incidences of incest become known The disclosure of FDI is not usually straight forward. Incest is often regarded as a family secret. Family members often try their possible best to keep it within the family. While fathers convince victims not to disclose the abuse to anyone, mothers who are aware of the abuse prevent victims from disclosing due to their economic status where the father is the breadwinner of the family. The study reveals two main ways that FDI is usually disclosed. Usually, victims unintentionally or voluntarily confide in someone they trust. In other cases, teachers observe changes in behaviour and school performance of the abused victims. Through questioning, these children often disclose their predicaments to their teachers. Hence, these people victims confide in, in turn report the abuse to either the police or social workers. When FDI is disclosed, it is usually received either positively or negatively. Whereas in some cases family members believe and support the victim, in other cases, some families do not believe the victims when they disclose about the abuse. 81 5.2.3 To find out the different ways that incest can affect the offender, the victim and the family members The study found that the effects of FDI can be classified into four categories: the effect on the father, daughter, mother and the family as a whole. It appeared that fathers commit suicide or get depressed when the incestuous abuse has been discovered. Daughters appear to be affected in so many ways. They blame themselves and feel guilty for the disruption in the family. In addition, daughters do not want to associate with the opposite sex peers. They become resentful of their fathers and depressed to a point whereby they think of committing suicide. Usually after the FDI has been discovered, these children develop disruptive behaviour at school, which affects their school performance. In other cases, these daughters fall pregnant and this also disrupts their education. Regarding the mothers, they blame themselves and feel guilty that they were not good parents to their daughters and did not protect them as they should have. These mothers feel that they have failed their daughters. In other instances, mothers feel betrayed by both their daughters and partners. Some mothers suffer from depression after realising what has been happening. In general, the disclosure of FDI has serious implications for the family. Families usually become ashamed of the FDI incident. It also results in broken trust amongst parents and amongst mothers and daughters and it also leads to divorce. 5.2.4 To assess how professionals intervene in incest cases Professionals who are supposed to handle FDI appear not to have received specific training directed at handling FDI cases. The study found that even though professionals do not receive training, they use various techniques such as behaviour modification, 82 casework and empowerment in order to professionally deal with FDI. In most cases, victims are not reunited to their offenders due to offenders committing suicide and sometimes being incarcerated. However, the study also showed that readjustment programme is used to assess whether the child is settling well back into the family. 5.4 Recommendations 5.4.1 Recommendations for practice Given that this study found that FDI has unbearable effects on the daughter, father and the family as a whole and social workers who are supposed to provide therapeutic and educational services do not have specific training directed at intervening in FDI cases, the following recommendations are made:  Professionals should be provided with specific training through workshops and short courses directed at intervening in FDI cases in order to provide best services to victims, offenders and families. Professionals should also continue to expand their knowledge about FDI by familiarising themselves with latest literature about FDI.  Services specifically directed at the rehabilitation of FDI victims, offenders and their families should be developed by organisations such as the Department of Social Development in order to handle FDI effectively.  Offenders should be educated about their roles as fathers and their importance; how the abuses affect(ed) the well-being of the victims and the family as a whole to avoid further abuse. 83 Considering the fact that FDI is a serious offence and that victims do not easily disclose the abuse due to different barriers, the following recommendations are made:  Children must be conscientised about FDI, not only at home but at schools, churches and in the media as well. FDI should be incorporated in child sexual abuse campaigns.  Mothers should be educated on how to create family safety plans directed at ensuring that their daughters/children are protected from sexual abuse.  Mothers should also be educated to build and strengthen relationships based on trust with their daughters as well as other family members. In addition, mothers should also be educated to create support networks in their families to promote open communication based on respect. 5.4.2 Recommendations for future research Since there is limited research on FDI in the South African context, the following recommendations are made:  It is important that research on FDI continue to explore its dynamics, people’s insights, understanding and attitudes towards it.  Researchers may build on the findings of this study, not only to advance knowledge but to promote awareness of FDI through useful strategies. 84 5.3 Conclusion Father-daughter incest remains a social taboo and its debilitating effects primarily affect the family as a whole. The brutality and repercussions of this issue on the father, daughter and the family as a whole has been well established. These repercussions include family maladjustment which sometimes ends up in divorce, mothers being diagnosed with major depression, daughters’ education being disrupted, and fathers committing suicide. Though the effects of FDI are unbearable, some mothers choose not to report the cases subsequent the disclosure, which intensify the effects, especially on the daughters. The aim of this study is to investigate the psychosocial effects of father-daughter incest on the victims, the offenders and the family as a whole. This study was conducted in order to understand and provide information on what contributes to the incident of FDI to occur; to understand how incidences of FDI become known; how FDI incidences affects the participants of the activity and the other members of the family; to assess how professionals intervene in incest cases. The findings of the study with regard to factors that contributes to FDI to occur were clearly articulated, highlighting sexual dissatisfaction and adverse family socio- economic circumstances to be key factors in the occurrence of FDI. Thus the objective of finding out what influences FDI to occur was fully achived. With regard to understanding how FDI incidences become known, the objective was not fully achieved because disclosure was made to someone else before the case was referred to the participant. Therefore, most participants failed or could not explain how the victims disclosed the abuse. 85 The objective of finding out different ways that FDI can affect the offender, the victim and the family as a whole was fully achieved. Participants clearly explained the harm FDI caused to the affected individuals in terms of the social and psychological aspects. The objective of assessing how professionals intervene in FDI cases was also fully achieved. Participants explained in detail the methods and techniques they use when intervening in FDI cases. From the responses that the participants were giving, the researcher could also indentify challenges that these professionals are facing. Based on the findings or challenges, the researcher could recommend on what should be done to minimise these challenges. Clearly, this study discovered and explained the psychosocial effects of FDI. The aim and the objectives of the study were achieved through selecting professionals who have had the opportunity to work with victims, offenders and families affected by FDI to participate in the study, as they enlightened the researcher with the information relevant for the study. From the findings of this study and related to the aim of this study, it is observable that FDI is traumatic and the family members, especially the father, the daughter and the mother face many problems. 86 REFERENCES Ackerman, M.J. & Kane, A.W. 2005. 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The title of my study is “Psychosocial effects on victims of father-daughter incest in Ngaka Modiri Molema District”.This project is conducted under the supervision of Dr. E.I Smit (NWU, Mafikeng Campus). I am writing to request permission to conduct this research study at your organisation. I would be grateful if you granted me permission to conduct interviews with professionals who have worked with father-daughter incest offenders, victims as well as their families. I have received ethical clearance from NWU Research Ethics Committee. Attached herein is a copy of the research proposal approval letter which I received from the NWU Higher Degrees Committee of Human and Social Sciences. Your approval to conduct this study will be greatly appreciated Yours sincerely Boitumelo R.M. Gqabi ………………………. 102 Appendix C: Informed consent Psychosocial effects on victims of father-daughter incest in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Address: Department of Social Work, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, Private bag X2046, Mmabatho Principal investigator: Boitumelo Gqabi Introduction You are asked to take part in this research study of “Psychosocial effects on victims of father-daughter incest in Ngaka Modiri Molema District”.Please read this consent form and ask any questions that you may have before agreeing to participate in the study. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the psychosocial effects of incest on the victims, offenders and the family as a whole. This seeks to find out the responses from both sides (victims and offenders), with a vision to contributing to a development of appropriate strategies on how to rehabilitate incest victims and offenders. Description of the Study Procedures If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to respond to questions that the interviewer will be asking. This will be a once off interview which will take only 30 minutes. Interviews will be audio recorded. You will be given a signed and dated copy of this form to keep, along with any other printed materials deemed necessary by the study investigators. 103 Risks/Discomforts of Being in this Study Participation in this study might lead to experiencing emotional discomfort as questions about sexual experiences will be asked. In case of any emotional or psychological discomfort there are professionals who are on standby to provide therapeutic counselling. Aside the risks mentioned there are no other expected risks. Benefits of Being in the Study The study may not benefit you directly. However, it will help in the understanding of psychosocial effects of incest on the victims, offenders and the family as a whole. In addition, this study will also contribute to the development of appropriate strategies on how to rehabilitate incest victims and offenders. Confidentiality In this study information on your identity will not be collected. The records of this study will be kept strictly confidential. Research records will be kept in a locked file and all electronic information will be coded and secured using a password protected file. However, trained research assistants may sometimes look at your research records. Your identity will not be included in any report or document that may be published. Participant’s rights The decision to participate in this study is entirely voluntary. You may refuse to take part in the study at any time without affecting your relationship with the investigators of this study. You have the right not to answer any single question as well as to withdraw completely from the interview at any point during the process. Additionally; you have the 104 right to request that the interviewer not use any of the interview material. If you choose to stop the interview, all the responses you provide will be deleted from the study. Right to Ask Questions and Report Concerns You have the right to ask questions about this research study and to have those questions answered by me before, during or after the research. If you have any further questions about the study, at any time feel free to contact me at […………].This research has been reviewed and approved by the North-West University Institutional Review Board (IRB). An IRB is a committee that reviews research studies in order to help protect participants. If you have any other concerns about your rights as a research participant that have not been answered by the investigators, you may contact the chairperson of the North-West University Institutional Review Board (IRB) at [018 2994 927/6]. CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY Please sign/thumb print below if you agree to participate in the study. The above consent form describing the benefits, risks and procedures for this study has been read and explained to me. I have been given an opportunity to ask questions about the research and they have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate as a volunteer. Participant’s signature/Thumbprint…........................... Date…………………….… Interviewer’s signature……………………………......... Date………………………… 105 Appendix D: Interview schedule for professionals who have work(ed) with father- daughter incest victims and their families. 1. Have you handled incest cases before? 2. What type of training did you receive for working with victims of incest? 3. How many cases of incest have you handled so far? 4. How did the case(s) come to your attention? 5. From the assessment you made from handling incest cases, what are the factors that lead to incest? 6. From the assessment you made from handling incest cases, what are the psychosocial effects of incest on the victim and the family as a whole? 7. What techniques do you use when working with incest victims? 8. Does your service/input include the improvement of handling incest? 9. How do you re-integrate incest victims with their offenders? 10. Does this re-integration programme include better father-daughter relationships? 11. What recommendations do you have / can you make to improve professional handling of incest? Note: Follow up questions will be asked if necessary