Web based assistance for parents to help children and adolescents deal with effects of economic instability in the family L Janse van Rensburg 23238704 Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Philosophiae in Psychology the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University Promoter: Dr M Dunn May 2014 ii I had a dream … iii Vir my Pa, Heinie iv DECLARATION BY THE RESEARCHER I declare that the dissertation, Web based assistance for parents to help children and adolescents deal with effects of economic instability in the family, hereby handed in for the qualification Philosophiae Doctor in Psychology at the North-West University, is my own independent work and that I have not previously submitted the same work for a qualification at/in another university/faculty. The ownership of all intellectual property pertaining to and/or flowing from the dissertation (including, without limitation, all copyright in the dissertation), shall vest in the University, unless an agreement to the contrary is reached between the University and the student in accordance with such procedures or intellectual property policy as the Council of the University may approve from time to time. SIGNED: ________________________ DATE: April 2013 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gratitude is the memory of the heart. - Anonymous- I would hereby like to thank the following people for their support and guidance: My Heavenly Father – thank you for being my Shepherd, I did not lack anything. Thank you for laying me down in green pastures and for leading me beside quiet waters. Thank you for refreshing my soul and for guiding me along the right paths. Thank you that You were with me and that You comforted me. Thank you for your goodness and love … throughout all the days of my life. Amen. Gerhard – my husband and companion. Thank you for being part of every steppingstone towards reaching my ultimate dream. Thank you for your support, love and encouragement every step of the way. Being deeply supported by you gave me strength, while loving you dearly, gave me courage. Pa Heinie – my father and mentor. This dream was imbedded by you when I was still a little girl. I thank God for the absolute privilege to share the fulfilment of this dream with you. Thank you for helping me to nurture my dream and for always believing in me, even when I did not believe in myself. Dr Munita Dunn – my promotor. The task of the excellent teacher is to inspire and guide "apparently ordinary" people to unusual effort. Masterly, you have moulded and guided me through every step of this effort. We have had a special journey from Masters’ level and all along you have kindled and nurtured my dream and enabled me to reach heights beyond my comprehension. What an absolute privilege and blessing it was having you as my mentor. vi Serahni Symington ? my friend and fellow student. I can only thank God for having you as my companion on this journey. Thank you for the opportunity of sharing every moment of this road with you. There comes a point in life when you realise who really matters, who never did, and who always will. You always will. Helena Janse van Rensburg and Benita Faiers – thank you very much for all your creative input and enthusiasm. You will never know how much it is appreciated. Bronwyn and Hein – thank you for never hesitating in assisting me. Thank you for all the hours you have spent helping and encouraging me. Friends, family and colleagues – thank you for your continuous support, encouragement and love. vii ABSTRACT WEB BASED ASSISTANCE FOR PARENTS TO HELP CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS DEAL WITH EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC INSTABILITY IN THE FAMILY Keywords: website, economic instability, children, adolescents, family. The global financial crisis has proved to have had a significant impact on countries worldwide and South Africa was not spared of this global phenomenon. The ecological systems theory, family systems theory and gestalt field theory accentuate the impact a change within the environment can have on interconnected systems and it is therefore argued that the global unstable economy can have a significant impact on families and children. Literature indicates a vast amount of confirmation on the impact of the financial crisis on already poverty stricken areas. On the contrary, less focus is offered on the impact of the financial crisis on families within middle to upper class communities. Preliminary research confirms that although the basic needs of these families (such as food and shelter) have not been affected, significant change with regards to luxuries and expenditure patterns is present. Due to the fact that parents within families are also faced with financial difficulties, these changes are not facilitated and discussed with children and adolescents, causing unresolved emotions and uncertainties. This research was therefore aimed at the development of web based assistance for parents. In addition to the set aim of this research, the study arrived at findings that indicate and emphasise the important contribution of this study. Intervention research as research method was used in the conducting of the study. viii The developed web based assistance proved to serve as a functional tool for parents in addressing financial issues with their children and adolescents. It also raised parents’ awareness of the impact that a change in finances in the family can have which empowered the parents as well. It was also significantly noted that the website can be utilised within an educational setting which enhances the applicability of this study. The developed assistance contributes to society as it serves as a cost effective, accessible means of providing parents with practical guidelines and activities to help their children and adolescents deal with the effects of economic instability within the family. ix OPSOMMING WEBGEBASEERDE BYSTAND VIR OUERS TEN EINDE KINDERS EN ADOLESSENTE TE HELP OM EFFEKTE VAN EKONOMIESE ONSTABILITEIT BINNE DIE GESIN TE HANTEER Sleutelwoorde: webtuiste, ekonomiese onstabiliteit, kinders, adolessente, familie. Die wêreldwye finansiële krisis het 'n beduidende globale impak gehad en Suid-Afrika is nie van hierdie fenomeen gespaar nie. Die ekologiese sisteemteorie, familie sisteem teorie en gestalt veldteorie beklemtoon die impak wat 'n verandering binne ‘n omgewing kan hê op stelsels wat verband hou met mekaar en dit kan dus geargumenteer word dat die globale onstabiele ekonomie 'n beduidende impak op gesinne, kinders en adolessente kan hê. Literatuur bevestig die impak van die finansiële krisis op die reeds armoedige gebiede. Die teendeel is egter dat minder klem gelê word op die impak van die finansiële krisis op families in die middel tot hoër klas gemeenskappe. Aanvangsnavorsing bevestig dat, hoewel hierdie families se basiese behoeftes (soos kos en skuiling) nie nadelig geraak word nie, verandering met betrekking tot luukshede en bestedingspatrone wel plaasvind. As gevolg van die feit dat ouers binne gesinne die realiteit van hierdie finansiële aanpassings moet verwerk, word hierdie veranderinge nie gefasiliteer en bespreek met kinders en adolessente nie, wat veroorsaak dat onopgeloste emosies en onsekerhede ontstaan. Hierdie navorsing fokus dus op die ontwikkeling van webgebaseerde bystand vir ouers ten einde kinders en adolessente te help om die effek van ekonomiese onstabiliteit binne die gesin te hanteer. Bykomend tot die doel van hierdie navorsing, x het hierdie studie se bevindings die belangrike bydrae van hierdie studie beklemtoon. Intervensienavorsing as navorsingsmetode is gebruik in hierdie studie. Die ontwikkelde webgebaseerde bystand dien as 'n funksionele hulpmiddel vir ouers in die hantering en fasilitering van finansiële kwessies met hul kinders en adolessente. Ouers se bewustheid van die impak wat 'n verandering in finansies in die gesin kan hê is verhoog en dit dien as bemagtiging aan ouers. Melding is ook spesifiek gemaak dat die webwerf gebruik kan word binne 'n opvoedkundige instelling wat die toepaslikheid van hierdie studie verhoog. Die ontwikkelde bystand dra by tot die samelewing deurdat dit dien as 'n koste- effektiewe, toeganklike manier waarop ouers met praktiese riglyne en aktiwiteite hulle kinders en adolessente kan help om die effek van ekonomiese onstabiliteit binne die gesin te hanteer. xi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND LAYOUT OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Problem statement 6 1.3 Aims and objectives 7 1.3.1 Aim 7 1.3.2 Objectives 8 1.4 Central theoretical argument 8 1.5 Research question 9 1.6 Method of investigation 9 1.6.1 Analysis of literature 9 1.6.2 Using existing sources of information 9 1.6.3 Studying natural examples 10 1.6.4 Identifying functional elements of successful models 10 1.7 Empirical investigation 10 1.7.1 Research design 10 1.7.2 Participants 15 1.7.3 Measuring instruments 15 xii 1.7.4 Procedures 15 1.8 Ethical considerations 17 1.8.1 Confidentiality and anonymity 17 1.8.2 Informed consent 17 1.8.3 Voluntary participation 18 1.8.4 Potential harm and risk to respondents 18 1.8.5 Safe-keeping of data 18 1.8.6 Selection of participants 18 1.8.7 Triangulation 19 1.8.8 Payment 19 1.8.9 Competence of researcher 19 1.9 Data analysis 19 1.10 Chapter layout 20 1.11 Conclusion 20 xiii CHAPTER 2 THE FINANCIAL CRISIS AND THE FAMILY 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Origin and cause of economic instability 22 2.3 Impact of the recession: global perspective 28 2.4 Impact of the recession: South African perspective 33 2.5 Impact of recession on families 37 2.5.1 Unemployment 45 2.5.2 Changing patterns of spending and socializing 49 2.5.3 Stress and family relationships 53 2.5.3.1 the FAAR model. 55 2.5.3.2 family stress model. 57 2.6 Conclusion 59 xiv CHAPTER 3 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE: THE DEVELOPMENTAL JOURNEY 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 What is human development? 62 3.3. Middle childhood and adolescence as developmental phases 64 3.3.1 Physical development 66 3.3.2 Cognitive development 70 3.3.3 Emotional and personal development 77 3.3.4 Self-concept and identity development 81 3.3.5 Social development 87 3.3.6 Moral development 90 3.3.7 The role of the family during middle childhood and adolescence 95 3.4 The integration of human development, theories and the economy 98 3.5 Conclusion 102 xv CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASSISTANCE FOR PARENTS 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Discussing financial matters in conversations 104 4.3 Play and play therapy as intervention medium 106 4.4. Gestalt as basis of play therapy as intervention 115 4.4.1 Holism 119 4.4.2 Relationship between parents and children 120 4.4.3 Contact 123 4.4.4 Awareness 131 4.5 The use of website with multimedia features as assistance for parents 132 4.6 Conclusion 141 xvi CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5.1 Introduction 143 5.2 Intervention research as research approach 144 5.2.1 Phase one: problem analysis and project planning 149 5.2.1.1 phase one ?operation one: identifying and involving clients. 152 5.2.1.2 phase one ?operation two: gaining entry and cooperation from settings. 154 5.2.1.3 phase one ?operation three and four: identifying and analysing concerns of the population. 156 5.2.1.4 phase one ?operation five: setting goals and objectives. 166 5.2.2 Phase two: information gathering and synthesis 167 5.2.2.1 phase two ?operation one: using existing information sources. 169 5.2.2.2 phase two ?operation two: studying natural examples. 170 5.2.2.3 phase two ?operation three: identifying functional elements of successful models. 170 5.2.3. Phase three: design 171 xvii 5.2.3.1 phase three ?operation one: designing observational system. 172 5.2.3.2 phase three ?operation two: specifying procedural elements for intervention. 173 5.2.4 Phase four: early development and pilot testing 174 5.2.4.1 phase four ?operation one: developing a prototype or preliminary intervention. 175 5.2.4.2 phase four ?operation two and three: conducting pilot study and applying design criteria to preliminary intervention concept. 178 5.2.5. Phase five: evaluation and advanced development 178 5.2.5.1 phase five ? operation one: selecting an experimental design. 179 5.2.5.2 phase five ? operation two and three: collecting and analysing data and replicating the intervention under field conditions. 180 5.2.5.3 phase five ? operation four: refining the intervention. 180 5.2.6. Phase six: dissemination 181 5.3 Conclusion 181 xviii CHAPTER 6 PRESENTATION OF DATA 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 Research methodology 184 6.2.1 Research question 184 6.3 Data collection 185 6.3.1 Coding of data and establishing of themes 186 6.4 Data from pilot study 187 6.4.1 Theme 1: general opinion of website and activities as assistance to parents 188 6.4.2 Theme 2: structure and functionality of the website 190 6.4.3 Theme 3: shortcomings and suggestions 191 6.5 Data from the study 193 6.5.1 Theme 1: general feedback on the website 194 6.5.1.1 subtheme 1: structuring and functionality. 195 6.5.1.2 subtheme 2: visuals and overall appearance. 196 6.5.2 Theme 2: awareness 197 xix 6.5.2.1 subtheme 1: impact of change due to finances on children. 198 6.5.3 Theme 3: educational value of website 202 6.5.3.1 subtheme 1: use of website as part as life skills education. 203 6.5.4 Theme 4: addressing the issue of finances 206 6.5.4.1 subtheme 1: conversation difficulties with regards to finances. 206 6.5.5 Theme 5: empowering tool for parents 210 6.5.6 Theme 6: age appropriateness 213 6.6 Conclusion 215 xx CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1 Introduction 217 7.2 Overview of the study 217 7.3 Discussion: evaluation of the strengths and limitations of the study 222 7.3.1 The strengths of the study 222 7.3.2 Limitations of this study 225 7.4 Recommendations 226 7.5 Conclusion 227 xxi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Typical business cycle phases (Wallstreet Survivor, 2012) 24 Figure 2: Economic growth 1949-2011 (Economics help, 2012) 25 Figure 3: Impact of the previous recession (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) 37 Figure 4: Ecological systems theory (MSN Fall 2011 Instructor) 39 Figure 5: Effect of recession on families 45 Figure 6: Unemployment rate per province (www.statssa.gov.za) 46 Figure 7: Areas of economising (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) 51 Figure 8: Changing patterns of socialisation (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) 52 Figure 9: The Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model (McDonald, Kysela, Drummond, Martin & Wiles, 24 February, n.d) 56 Figure 10: The Family Stress Model of Economic Hardship (Ahmed, 2005, p.2) 57 Figure 11: Influences on personal development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 62) 78 Figure 12: Self-esteem (Berk, 2008, p. 484) 84 Figure 13: Kohlberg’s three levels and six stages on moral development (Santrock, 2008, p.433, Kohlberg, 1971, p. 1-2) 92 xxii Figure 14: The ecological developmental model for understanding the effects of economic instability on individuals 100 Figure 15: The Gestalt cycle of Experience (http://www.nancyhine.co.uk/gestalt.shtml) 126 Figure 16: Illustration of introjection 127 Figure 17: Illustration of projection 128 Figure 18: Illustration of confluence 128 Figure 19: Illustration of retroflection 129 Figure 20: Illustration of deflection 129 Figure 21: Illustration of desensitisation 130 Figure 22: Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Doolittle & Tech, n.d.) 136 Figure 23: Summary of principles used in design of website and activities 140 Figure 24: Graphic depiction of data collection procedures 185 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Effects of recession and those at risk (Research Summary, 2008) 1 Table 2: Ecological systems theory compared to the field theory (http://ncsss.cua.edu/res/docs/field/theories.pdf), Pett, 2005, p. 46; Yontef & Jacobs, 2011, p. 343; Wheeler, 1991, p. 27). 42 xxiii Table 3: Physical changes during adolescence (Arnett, 2007, p. 44; Berk, 2012) 68 Table 4: Stages of development according to Piaget (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 37) 70 Table 5: Comparison between the theoretical views of Piaget en Vygotsky (Thomas, n.d.) 74 Table 6: Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development (Erikson, 1966; Louw & Louw, 2007, p. 20) 81 Table 7: States of identity development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 73) 85 Table 8: Milestones in children’s development 88 Table 9: Healthy and dysfunctional families (Callaghan & Minuchin, n.d.) 97 Table 10: Types of play and their functions 107 Table 11: Differences between play and play therapy 110 Table 12: Gestalt cycle (Mann, 2010, p. 40) 124 Table 13: Advantages and disadvantages of the use of multimedia 133 Table 14: Average number of hours spent with each media, in a typical day of 8-18 year olds (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2011, p. 263) 138 Table 15: Summary of selected differences between Knowledge Development, Knowledge Utilisation, and Design and Development in intervention research (Rothman & Thomas, 1994, p. 7) 145 xxiv Table 16: Phases and operations of intervention research (Rothman & Thomas, 1994) 147 Table 17: Phase one: problem analysis and project planning 150 Table 18: National table of targets for the school allocation (2012-2014) 152 Table 19: Distribution of questionnaires 158 Table 20: Correlations between financial issues and the behavior of children 160 Table 21: Correlations. Pearson product-moment correlation for luxuries and anger 161 Table 22: The facilitation of finances with children 162 Table 23: Support and Intervention 163 Table 24: Usefulness of website for parents 164 Table 25: Available interventions for parents 165 Table 26: Information gathering and synthesis 168 Table 27: Phase three: Design 172 Table 28: Phase four: Early development and pilot testing 174 Table 29: Evaluation and advanced development 179 xxv APPENDICES Appendix 1: Consent from WCED 230 Appendix 2: Needs analysis questionnaire 232 Appendix 3: Declaration by scribe 236 Appendix 4: Parents’ evaluation sheet ? pilot study 237 Appendix 5: Parents’ evaluation sheet 239 Appendix 6: Consent form of participants 243 References 244 - 1 - CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND LAYOUT OF THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction Economic turmoil and instability has been a worldwide reality for the past few years and while countries are in different economic positions, the recession caused by the financial crisis in 2008 has a significant impact on the global economy (Gray, Edwards, Hayes & Baxter, 2009; United Nations, 2011). Irons (2009), Kilmister (2008) and Nesvisky (2012) confirm that this impact, caused by the change in the economy, can have lasting effects. The global financial crisis, according to Shah (2010), has showed effects in the middle of 2007 and into 2008. By 2008 the crisis in the United States of America had worsened as stock markets around the globe collapsed and became highly volatile. This caXsed ³consXmer confidence to hit rock bottom as everyone tightened their belts in the fear of what lied ahead´ &anstar  para. 1). Peck (2010) confirms this statement. Not only was the effect of the financial crises visible abroad, it became a reality in South Africa as well. According to Chuma (2008) and Moss (2009): 6oXth $frica is $frica’s leading economy and by far the most integrated into the global economy 7he e[posXre of the 6$ economy has meant it’s been one of the first African countries to be struck by the global financial hurricane which originated from the United States sub-prime mortgage bubble (Chuma, 2008, p. 1). - 2 - Economic instability, unfortunately, therefore also became a reality in South Africa, as was confirmed by media headlines the past few years. Headlines such as ³+ard times ahead as recession bite´ (Momberg, 2009, April 9), ³5ecession wipes oXt   6$ Mobs´ Enslin-Payne, 2009, September 23 and ³7roXbling data show effects of recession to last´ Wanneburg, 2009, June 19) confirm the reality of economic instability in South Africa. Conger, Conger, Elder, Lorenz, Simons and Whitbeck (1992) mention that the increase in economic instability causes economic pressXres which ³bring bXdgetary matters to the fore, enhancing preoccupation with financial issues that, in many families generate frXstration anger and general demorali]ation´ p 2) which can bring about severe consequences for families. Manual (2008, November 20) as well as Baker (2012) also state that families are under greater strain than ever. Walsh (2003) as well as Zinn and Eitzen (2005) agree that deteriorating economic conditions can have a devastating impact on family stability and well-being. The family systems theory (Broderick, 1993; Chibucos, Leite & Weis, 2005), bio- ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Oswaldt, 2008; Russell, 2011), as well as the field theory (Woldt & Toman, 2005; Yontef, 1993) accentuate that changes within the environment will have an impact on the individual. It can therefore be motivated that the economic climate can have an impact on children within the family. During recent research (Janse van Rensburg, 2010), it was indicated that families are affected by economic instability which portray daily challenges on parents which has a substantial impact on their children. Research conducted by Blair (2012), Chiteji (2011) as well as Reed (2012) and Science Daily (2011) confirm - 3 - the findings of Janse van Rensburg (2010) in stating the undeniable impact of the global recession on families. In reference to the ecological systems theory and gestalt field theory, it can be argued that the impact of the economic unstable conditions will affect parents and therefore children and adolescents in the household. Fritz (2009), Kennedy (2012) as well as Sandas and Siegel (2011) confirm this as it is stated that stressed parents Xnintentionally stress their children &ondon in &%6 1ews  posits that ³along with the direct impact of the decline in families' economic well-being, children suffer from a range of indirect effects of the recession´ para. 4). ³&hildren’s cognitive immaturity, lack of worldly experience, and dependency on their parents make them vulnerable by amplifying their parents’ concerns resXlting in emotional distress physical symptoms an[iety and behavioral difficXlties´ )rit]  p 2). Lovell and Isaacs (2010) as well as Rankin and Aytac (2009) note that while addressing the economic causes and consequences of the economic downturn, the impact the economy has on children, should be recognised. The above mentioned study (Janse van Rensburg, 2010) mainly focused on e[actly this ? the child’s e[perience of these changing financial conditions within the family. The research was conducted within a socio economically advantaged school (measured as a combination of education, income and occupation of the community according to the American Psychological Association, n.d) and the aim was to determine children’s e[perience of economic instability within a middle class family (middle class defined by Merriam-:ebster dictionary as ³the class occXpying the position between the upper class and the lower class´  7he TXalitative data generated from this study indicated that economic change within the family due to economic instability impact children in various aspects of their lives. - 4 - It was found that children become aware of daily changes with regards to expenditure patterns in the family. This is confirmed by Barbaro, Dash, Chapman, Goodman and Maag (2008) as well as Karraker and Grochowski (2006) as they note that economic hardship and financial difficulty cause limitations in expenses which bring about a forced adjustment in the lifestyle of families. Firstly participants (Janse van Rensburg, 2010) revealed that fewer indulgences were allowed at home which caused them to have emotional reactions. This in turn created ineffective coping mechanisms as a means of self-regulation which is confirmed by Smith (2009). The latter can be identified as low morale, poor motivation and manifestations of poor behavior. Secondly participants noted that they became aware of an increase in parental conflict (confirmed by Papp, Cummings & Goeke-Morey, 2009) which caused the children to experience emotional reactions such as sadness, anger and guilt. Special mention was made that they had a need to be informed by parents as to the nature or extent of their parents’ financial situation, as an alternative to only overhearing conversations and arguments. Finally, respondents noted that a reduction in pocket money caused embarrassment and withdrawal from their peers as they did not know how to handle these situations (Janse van Rensburg, 2010). Parents from the participants, in the mentioned study, indicated that they also became aware of the effects that a financial crisis within the family can have on children. The distressing financial situation in which parents find themselves, affect their children (Kennedy, 2012, Louw, Van Ede & Louw, 1998; Walsh, 2003; Zuehlke, 2009) and it can be stated that children as authentic role players in families and societies become contaminated with the implications for which they are not prepared. - 5 - The above mentioned study (Janse van Rensburg, 2010) arrived at a crucial view that an economic crisis affects children from a socio economically advantaged setting as well. These families are not deprived of basic needs such as food or shelter, but from needs which enable self actualisation which Abraham Maslow views as part of the hierarchy of human needs (Maslow, 1943; Zurawicki & Braidot,   Ma[ 1eef  adds to this as he states that ³needs not only indicate deprivations but also, and at the same time, individual and collective human potential. Satisfiers are individual or collective forms of Being, Having, Doing and Interacting in order to actualise needs´ p 24). Poverty is a relative concept, according to Max Neef (1991) and he adds that ³,f everyone aroXnd yoX has similar circumstances, the notion of poverty and wealth is vague. Poverty or wealth only exists in relationship to known TXantities or e[pectation´ p 1). He continues that economic goods are items which affect the effectiveness of a satisfier, thus altering the threshold of actualisation of a need (Max Neef, 1991). The notion can be posed that middle class families are deprived of such needs due to the global economic instability. Families who are not deprived from basic needs (such as food and shelter) but from needs which prevent self-actualisation are also affected to a great extent by change in the economic climate, although existing research fail to portray this (Max Neef, 1991). Deteriorating economic conditions impact many families, yet most research has examined its impact on those already considered poor. This is confirmed by Iversen, Furstenberg and Napolitano (2011) who state that the global economic crisis affects middle-income families, whose experiences with economic challenge are seldom investigated 7hese aXthors define these families as ³the new poor´ ³the missing middle´ and ³families in the middle´ ,versen )Xrstenberg - 6 - Napolitano, 2011). Anderson (2010) and Weller (2001) state in addition that middle class families are increasingly more vulnerable to the effects of the economic downturn. Unfortunately, the recession and the drastic change in economic conditions globally, were not a singular occurrence. Economists are predicting another recession (Barth, 2011; Shedlock, 2011; United Nations, 2011; Weisenthal, 2010) and Rogers (2011) e[plicitly warns that ³the global economy is MXst two years away from another recession, but remains ill-prepared to cope with the after-effects´ ,t can therefore be argued that another economic downturn can be expected which brings the same realities, as was discussed, for the family. Again, highlighting the challenges that parents will have to deal with in managing these financial changes with their children. With this research, the aim was to assist parents to help their children as well as adolescents in dealing with the effects of economic instability within the family. For the purpose of this research, the term middle childhood will refer to children between the ages of 6 and 12 years (Jellesma & Vingerhoets, 2012) and adolescents refer to the ages between 13 and 17 years (Berk, 2012). The problem statement of this research will be discussed accordingly. 1.2 Problem statement Most researchers have examined the global financial crisis and its impact on those already considered poor or near poor, not recognising the increasing number of families in the ³middle´ when referring to socio economic statXs Donovan, Duncan & Sebelius, 2012; Iversen, Furstenberg & Napolitano, 2011). This confirms that a certain population (families who are not deprived from basic needs, but from luxuries) is neglected when viewing the effects of the global economic instability. - 7 - The aim of this study was to intercept this lacuna with the design of a website with multimedia features which can assist parents of ³families in the middle´ to facilitate the possible effects of economic instability with their children and adolescents. This website consists of guidelines and activities for parents to utilise with their children and adolescents. To secure cost effectiveness and accessibility of this assistance for parents, the activities and guidelines were designed in digital form as oppose to a hard copy book form. It can be postulated that a problem exists as parents are not equipped with practical aids to assist children and adolescents in coping with the effects of economic instability within the family system. In the absence of this, the well-being of a crXcial part of the popXlation’s children will be neglected and not cared for. Web based intervention is a cost effective means of equipping and empowering parents to do so. 1.3 Aims and objectives 1.3.1 Aim Intervention research was used to design a website for parents, in order to assist children and adolescents in coping with the effects of economic instability within the family system. The aim of this study therefore was to provide parents with age-specific practical activities and guidelines (such as stories, coloring pictures, games etc.) in website format, to utilise in facilitating the effects of family economic instability with their children and adolescents. The research objectives of this study will be discussed accordingly. - 8 - 1.3.2 Objectives In order to attain the above mentioned aim, the research objectives which were part of the research procedures, included the following: 1. To provide a theoretical foundation as motivation for the development of assistance in the form of a website for parents. 2. To develop a website with multimedia features which serves as assistance to parents in helping their children and adolescents deal with the effects of economic instability within the family. 3. To evaluate the website with feedback from parents of children and adolescents and adapt the website accordingly. 4. To explore the value of the adapted website with parents of children and adolescents. 5. To make recommendations for further amendments and application. 1.4 Central theoretical argument Specific theories such as the family systems theory (Broderick, 1993; Chibucos, Leite & Weis, 2005), bio-ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Oswaldt, 2008; Russell, 2011), as well as the field theory (Woldt & Toman, 2005; Yontef, 1993) underline the person-environment interaction, emphasising the influence that change in the environment can have on the individual. These theories emphasise that changes in the macro system (for example, economic instability) will possibly have an effect on the functioning of the family as well as on children within that family. These theories also present the notion that - 9 - changes within any part of the family system will affect its other parts and members of the family can therefore not go untouched by major changes in the system. This notion underlines the importance of the influence that an economic crisis within the family can have on children. It was anticipated that if parents are equipped to help children by means of a cost effective web-based assistance in coping with the effects of economic instability, the well-being of children and adolescents will be cared for. 1.5 Research question The research question of this study was: How can parents assist children and adolescents in coping with the effects of economic instability in the family? 1.6 Method of investigation 1.6.1 Analysis of literature All available information that had relevance to the topic in this research was investigated. Existing sources of information, studying natural examples and the identification of functional elements of successful models were included and will be discussed accordingly. 1.6.2 Using existing sources of information To ensure a goal orientated investigation, search engines such as EBSCO HOST, Academic Search Premier and Psych Lit were used. Topics that were focused on included the following: the global economy, the impact of the instability in the global economy on South Africa, the impact of economic instability on families and children, gestalt theory, existing support for parents to assist children in coping - 10 - with financial changes within the family, website design, the use of multimedia as well as developmental theory on middle childhood and adolescence. 1.6.3 Studying natural examples Conversations were conducted with parents, educators and experts in order to gain insight into which existing interventions were successful or not. The purpose thereof was also to determine how members of the community are currently addressing the problem of economic instability within the family and in which areas assistance is required. 1.6.4 Identifying functional elements of successful models Information was gathered on existing programmes and interventions which have been utilised to assist parents to help their children and adolescents deal with financial strain within the family. Conversations with educators, experts and the study of literature, aided this process. 1.7 Empirical investigation 1.7.1 Research design A schematic representation of the chosen research design can be seen below: - 11 - STAGE IN INTERVENTION PROCESS AS PROPOSED BY DE VOS AND STRYDOM (2011, p. 476) APPLICATION TO THIS RESEARCH STAGE 1: PROBLEM ANALYSIS 1.1 Identifying and involving clients 1.2 Gaining entry and cooperation from settings 1.3 Identifying concerns of the population 1.4 Analysing concerns or problems identified 1.5 Setting goals and objectives ? Parents from four randomly selected schools in the northern suburbs of Cape Town were randomly invited to take part in the research. ? Questionnaires were distributed at the schools after which the volunteers provided consent for participation in the research. It was ensured that the sample was representative of middle childhood and adolescence. ? Parents were provided with a questionnaire as a means of gathering their concerns or problems with regards to the effects of economic instability within the family. ? Conversations were conducted with - 12 - educators and experts as a means of obtaining information on the matter. STAGE 2: INFORMATION GATHERING 2.1 Using existing information sources 2.2 Studying natural examples 2.3 Identifying functional elements of successful models ? The gathered information was analysed and goals and objectives were set. ? This was followed by a thorough literature study during which information of existing and similar successful and unsuccessful interventions were obtained. ? In addition, natural examples were studied of how community members attempted to cope with economic instability within the family. STAGE 3: DESIGN 3.1 Designing an observational system 3.2 Specifying procedural elements for intervention ? Design and specification of procedural elements for intervention was obtained from the problem analysis. - 13 - STAGE 4: EARLY DEVELOPMENT AND PILOT TESTING 4.1 Developing a prototype or preliminary intervention 4.2 Conducting a pilot study 4.3 Applying design criteria to the preliminary intervention concept ? A prototype guide was designed in the form of a website, which consisted of age-specific activities for parents to utilise in order to support children and adolescents in coping with the effects of economic instability in the family. ? A pilot study was conducted during which parents were asked to access the website and apply the guide by utilising the provided activities and guidelines with children in middle childhood and adolescence. Four focus groups were conducted (two groups with parents of children in middle childhood and two groups with parents of adolescent children). STAGE 5: EVALUATION AND ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT 5.1 Selecting an experimental design ? The data from the pilot study were analysed and the recommended amendments to the website were made. ? Finally, another group of parents were contacted and asked to make - 14 - 5.2 Collecting and analysing data 5.3 Replicating the intervention under field conditions 5.4 Refining the intervention use of the website. Eight focus groups were conducted in order to receive feedback and suggestions. Four focus groups were conducted with parents of children in middle childhood and four focus groups were conducted with parents of adolescents. ? Data from the focus groups were analysed and amendments were be made before completing the website. STAGE 6: DISSEMINATION ? The finished product is marketable. Further dissemination possibilities have not yet been investigated. This dissertation is the product of dissemination. Intervention research, as a research design, was summarised in the section above. Intervention research is a mixed method design, hence quantitative and qualitative means of data collection were employed. - 15 - The section to follow will provide an explanation of the participants used, the measuring instruments as well as the procedures that were followed. 1.7.2 Participants The universe of this study included parents in Cape Town, whereas the population of the study were parents from families in the northern suburbs of Cape Town. The sample included parents in the Durbanville area in Cape Town. Parents were selected by die use of probability sampling. Random sampling was used to ensure that no person felt victimised or exposed in any way. Criteria for inclusion in the parent sample were as follows: The participant had to be a parent of a child in middle childhood or adolescence respectively. The participant could be of any age (adult) and had to have a child or adolescent in a government school within the quintile 5 area (to be defined in Chapter 5) in the northern suburbs in Cape Town. The participant could be of any gender and could be English or Afrikaans speaking. 1.7.3 Measuring instruments Questionnaires were used as a quantitative method of data collection whereas focus group interviews were conducted as a means of collecting qualitative data. The procedures that were followed will be discussed in the section below. 1.7.4 Procedures Parents from four randomly selected schools in the northern suburbs of Cape Town were randomly invited to take part in the research. Questionnaires were - 16 - distributed at these schools, after which the volunteers provided consent for participation in the research. Research was conducted at two primary schools and two high schools. It was ensured that the sample was representative of middle childhood and adolescence. Parents were provided with a questionnaire as a means of gathering their concerns or problems with regards to the effects of economic instability within the family. Informal conversations were conducted with educators and experts to ensure validity and reliability by means of triangulation. The gathered information was analysed and goals and objectives were set. This was followed by a thorough literature study during which information of existing and similar successful and unsuccessful interventions was obtained. In addition, natural examples of how community members attempt to cope with economic instability within the family were studied. A prototype website was then designed, which consisted of age-specific activities and guidelines for parents to utilise in order to support children and adolescents in coping with the effects of economic instability in the family. A pilot study was conducted by requesting parents to access the website and provided activities for children in middle childhood and adolescence. During the pilot study four focus groups were held (two with parents of children in middle childhood and two groups with parents of adolescents). Feedback from the pilot study was analysed and the necessary amendments were made. Another group of parents were then contacted and asked to utilise the website after which eight focus groups were conducted as a means of gathering parents’ feedback and suggestions. Four groups were held with parents of children in middle childhood and four groups were held with parents of adolescents. - 17 - Data from the focus groups were analysed and amendments were made before completing the website. The ethical considerations of this study will be explained in the section to follow. 1.8 Ethical considerations This research was conducted after ethical approval by the North West University (Potchefstroom) under the number: NWU-00060-12-S1. 1.8.1 Confidentiality and anonymity Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout the research as no names were mentioned or published. Any information that was obtained in this study will remain confidential and anonymous. 1.8.2 Informed consent Prior to the commencement of the proposed research, consent was obtained from the Western Cape Education Department (refer to Appendix 1). A copy of the protocol containing all the relevant information of the study was included. Questionnaires were randomly distributed to parents who possessed the relevant criteria of the population, as a means of inviting individuals to take part in the research should they wish to do so. Participants were then informed of the details of this study by means of an information sheet accompanying the questionnaire (refer to Appendix 2). - 18 - 1.8.3 Voluntary participation Voluntary participation was ensured as questionnaires were randomly distributed which explained the proposed research in detail and gave parents the opportunity to take part in the proposed research should they wish to do so. Participants were under no obligation to participate in this research. All participants were able to withdraw and discontinue from participation in this study without consequences of any kind. 1.8.4 Potential harm and risk to respondents Participants who experienced discomfort during any part of the research due to a possible trigger of emotions, were referred for emotional support to Serahni Symington (coXnsellor ? private practice). 1.8.5 Safe-keeping of data Information that was collected (during focus groups and questionnaires) was stored electronically and only the promoter as well as the external scribe had access to the information. The scribe completed a form which obligated her to adhere to handling the information confidentially (refer to Appendix 3). Data that was recorded is stored safely and will be kept for a period of five years. Findings and conclusions were published in the form of this dissertation and names of respondents will not be made public. 1.8.6 Selection of participants Participants were randomly selected to ensure that each individual had an equal chance of representing the population. The motivation for the selection of this - 19 - method of sampling was to prevent stigmatisation of respondents and for ethical purposes. 1.8.7 Triangulation In this study the methods that were used (semi-structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews) made it possible to measure and reflect on the aim of the study. This enabled the study to portray trustworthiness as proposed by Strydom (2011) who states that the conducted research will reflect the truth. 1.8.8 Payment Participants who decided to take part in the research did not receive any payment, incentive or financial compensation for participation and were at liberty to withdraw from the research at any stage. 1.8.9. Competence of researcher In this research process, professionalism as well as good work ethic was maintained throughout the collection, interpretation and presentation of data. The researcher effects that were mentioned above were controlled due to the fact that the researcher conducted all the various interviews which kept the interviewer constant. 1.9 Data analysis Completed quantitative questionnaires were collected during the first phase of the intervention research process. This data were used for the design and compilation of the website. After development and design of the website, parents were asked to use the activities on the website with children and adolescents of different age - 20 - groups (middle childhood and adolescence) after which focus groups were conducted in order to obtain feedback. Qualitative data from the focus groups were transcribed and critically reviewed until themes became clear. This information was utilised to make the necessary amendments to the website. 1.10 Chapter layout Chapter 1 General introduction and layout of the study. Chapter 2 The financial crisis and the family. Chapter 3 Middle Childhood and Adolescence: the developmental journey. Chapter 4 Concepts in the development of web based assistance for parents. Chapter 5 Research methodology. Chapter 6 Presentation of data. Chapter 7 Conclusions, limitations and recommendations. 1.11. Conclusion This study aimed to equip parents in helping children and adolescents to deal with the effects of economic instability in the familty system. The study arrived at a point where parents were provided with practical tools to help them to facilitate finances with their children. In the absence of the above-mentioned, children and adolescents could be misunderstood and neglected during a critical worldwide reality.The aim is to hereby equip and empower significant roleplayers, such as - 21 - parents and teachers, to understand and support their children in a changing world. In this chapter, the reader was provided with an overview of the completed research. The chapter to follow will serve as the first contribution to the literature review where economic instability, as a worldwide phenomenon, will be discussed as a means of illustrating the immence impact finances can have on the well-being of children within the family. - 22 - CHAPTER 2 THE FINANCIAL CRISIS AND THE FAMILY 2.1 Introduction Financial crises and unstable economic conditions have become a global occurrence. These occurrences have a significant impact on the functioning of various sectors of society and especially on the daily lives of families and children. Financial difficulty has become an actuality in many living rooms. Although the focus of this research will be on managing the impact of these financial conditions on families, it can be argued that in order to understand the true impact of the global financial situation, it is important to have some insight into its possible causes and origin. The chapter to follow aims to provide a brief summary of the process which resulted in the global financial crisis causing these unstable financial conditions. This will serve as a backdrop in motivating the effect this crisis has on families, globally and in South Africa. Finally, theories such as the ecological systems theory, the family systems theory and the gestalt field theory will be discussed and integrated with the economic conditions. This serves as a means of stressing the impact of economic crises on families. 2.2 Origin and cause of economic instability Literature suggests different views on the exact causes of financial crises. Leo 7olstoy 6Xmmers  famoXsly noted that ³Every happy family is the same. Every unhappy family is miserable in its own way. Every financial crisis is different and involves its own distinctive elements´ p 3). - 23 - Nevertheless, it remains the general opinion that until August 2007, strong economic performances were prominent (Mishkin, 2011 a; Obstfeldt & Rogoff, 2009). ³(conomic growth was generally robXst inflation generally low international trade and especially financial flows expanded; the emerging and developing world experienced widespread progress as well as a notable absence of crises´ 2bstfeldt & Rogoff, 2009, p. 2). Unfortunately, this changed and the global financial crisis emerged. Allen and School (2011), Brunnermeier (2009) as well as Jickling (2010) suggest that the financial crisis which began in 2007 spread and reached its peak in 2008 despite efforts of banks and regulators to restore the equilibrium. By early 2009, financial systems and the global economy appeared to be fixed in a downward spiral, and the main focus of policy became the prevention of a prolonged downturn to attempt to prevent a repetition of the Great Depression (Hatton & Thomas, 2012). According to Foster and Magdoff (2009), Hosseini (2011) as well as Reinardt (2012), it is universally recognised as the worst economic downfall since the Great 'epression in the ’s It can be stated that in order to completely comprehend the cause of the global financial crisis, a limited understanding of the working of a business cycle is necessary. Business cycles are defined by Akinboade and Makinda (2009), as well as Calitz (2009) and 5einardt  as ³recXrring patterns of recession economic decline) and recovery (economic growth). An economy recurrently experiences periods of expansion and contraction and the length of these cycles are usually irregXlar ´(p. 2). A brief summary of a business cycle is presented accordingly in order to put the section to follow into perspective. Graphically depicted below in Figure 1, is a typical economic cycle as proposed by Wallstreet Survivor (2012). - 24 - Figure 1 Typical business cycle phases (Wallstreet Survivor, 2012) The diagram illustrates that during times of economic growth, the economy is secure and people are employed, earning salaries. This causes an increase in the demand for goods which causes the supplier not being able to supply in the amplified need. Companies are required to employ more people in order to keep up with the increased demand, which then translates into a rise in prices of items. This price increase causes a need for an increase in salaries in order to stay intact with the price increase. The increase in prices of goods and services causes consumers to become more careful with their money, which causes a change in spending patterns. This decrease in demand causes declining prices, which means the economy falls into a recession (Wallstreet Survivor, 2012). Recession is defined as the negative growth in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over a period of two or more consecutive quarters which caused the global financial crisis (Hong, Lee & Tang, 2009; Nalewaik, 2012). - 25 - Lipsey (2012) as well as Schneider and Kirchgassner (2009) agree and state that the world’s leading economies sXch as &hina the United States of America, India, Japan and Britain) are in recession which was caused, amongst others, by the consumer spending boom during 2002-2007 which caused growth in the economy. The figure below serves as an illustration of economic growth. Figure 2 Economic growth 1949-2011 (Economics help, 2012) Figure 2 illustrates the economic growth between 1949 and 2011. It clearly indicates the growth in the economy and the sudden trough. The question remains – ³+ow did something that appeared in mid 2008 to be a significant but fairly mild financial disruption transform into a full-fledged global financial crisis"´ Mishkin a, p. 50). As was mentioned previously, literature (Jickling, 2010; Tridico, 2012; Verick & Islam, 2010) suggests different causes of the financial crisis which are the root of - 26 - the global economic unstable conditions. The global ³tsXnami´ which flattened economic activity caused these economic unstable conditions (Mishkin, 2011b). According to Berg, Gerwin and Mitlid (2012) as well as Schinasi (2004), financial stability can be defined in terms of its ³ability to facilitate and enhance economic processes, manage risks, and absorb shocks. Moreover, financial stability is considered a continuum: changeable over time and consistent with multiple combinations of the constitXent elements of finance´ p 1). Obstfeldt and Rogoff (2009) also state that the economic stable conditions were disturbed by three unsustainable tendencies. The first tendency was that the value of property increased in a number of countries around the world. These countries also had high account deficits which were continuously increasing. The third tendency was that the leverage in many sectors, around the world, was extremely high. Consumers in the USA and Britain were particularly affected. Bezemer (2011) and Pettinger (2009, para. 3) on the other hand, suggest that economic instability can take a number of forms such as inflation, asset bubbles, confidence, labour unrest, banking systems and boom and busts. These concepts will be explained in the following section: ? Inflation refers to a time frame when prices increase at a sudden speed. Consumers become uncertain about future costs, causing a change in spending and a hesitancy to invest (Pettinger, 2009, para. 3; Wanningen, 2007). ? Asset bubbles: The effect on the world economy, particularly the recent credit crunch, was a consequence of asset bubbles and busts. Consumer spending is spurred on by rising asset prices, as properties are re-mortgaged. As - 27 - property prices come down, so does prosperity vanish (Bertaut, DeMarco, Kamin & Tryon, 2011; &rowe 'ell’$riccia, Igan & Rabanal, 2012; European Central Bank, 2007; Pettinger, 2009, para. 4). Three prevalent issues have been pointed out by Carmassi, Gros and Micossi (2009) based on examining historic bubbles. The first issue is that the availability of money in world capital markets is dependent on payment imbalances between the important nations. A temporary increase in financial activity is caused by these imbalances. The second is the leveraging that occurred on the back of increasing mortgage prices, prompting more loans from banks. The third issue is the increased risk appetite of the banks, based on the premise that assets will increase in value. ? Confidence : Confidence is paramount with regards to the economy. If the economy appears to become unstable, risk aversion increases (Danielsson, Shin & Zigrand, 2011, Sobotka, Skirbekk & Philipov   ³7ypically when people worry over the future, they save a higher percentage of their income. This higher saving rate can cause a larger fall in output and more instability. It is known as the parado[ of thrift´ 3ettinger  para.5). ? Booms and Busts: Periods of strong economic growth followed by recession and diminished production, potentially causing increased unemployment (Agnello & Schuknecht, 2009, p. 11; Crowe, 'ell’$riccia ,gan 5abanal 2012; Pettinger, 2009, para.8). ? Banking system: The financial crisis and the decrease in interbank transactions highlighted the economy’s dependence on the banking sector (Bertaut, DeMarco, Kamin & Tryon, 2011; Pettinger, 2009, p. 7). - 28 - ? Labor unrest : A decrease in production and diminishing public services are some of the direct consequences of strikes (Pettinger, 2009, para.6). These forms of economic instability were caused by the global financial crisis and Leclaire, Jo and Knodell (2011) as well as Mishkin (2011a) suggest the financial crisis can be divided into two distinct phases. The first phase is described as the period from August 2007 to August 2008. However, only a mild recession was forecasted, based on the fact that the GDP continued to rise in the second quarter of 2008. By mid-September the crisis had substantially worsened. 7he literatXre in the paragraph above makes mention of a ³mild´ recession followed by a more severe change in the financial markets which caused difficulties. $n opposing comment can be made in stating that althoXgh it refers to a ³mild´ recession, it should not disguise the fact that it remains a recession. Regardless of the severity, the impact therefore should still be viewed as significant. The section to follow will provide the reader with a global perspective on the impact of the financial crisis. 2.3 Impact of the recession: global perspective 5ichardson  sXggests that in referring to the recession as a ‘crisis’ indicates the level of panic amongst those people who are trying to come to terms with the implications of the recession ³:hat makes it a crisis is that even in periods of relative calm, the underlying causes and conflicts which give rise to dramatic periods and decisive confrontations have not gone away´ 5ichardson  p 5). According to Judis (2011) - 29 - the recession does not merely resemble the Great Depression; it is to a real extent a recurrence of it. It has the same unique causes and the same initial trajectory. Both downturns were triggered by a financial crisis coming on top of, and then deepening, a slowdown in industrial production and employment that had begun earlier and that was caused in part by rapid technological innovation (p. 1). Imbs (2010), Kates (2011) as well the United Nations (2010) agree that the financial crisis have had unmatched global consequences. The recession of 2007- 2009 had effects worldwide and it is hard to phantom the extent to which the recession’s effects will reach 7he global fina cial crisis, which originated in the advanced economies, has impacted the rest of the world strongly; with some developing countries being particularly affected (Berkmen, Gelos, Rennhack & Walsh, 2009; Kates, 2011; Martin, 2010). However, the impact on economic activity has varied widely across countries. In June 2010, the Pew Research Center (Torres, 2012) conducted a study to examine the USA after the recession. Birdsall and Fukuyama (2011) confirm the following key findings: ? A weakening in the employment market; ? The average $merican hoXsehold’s wealth was battered by an estimated 20%, due to the bursting of the housing and stock market bubbles; ? 48% of adults indicated they are in a worse financial position than before the recession; ? A third of adults, age 62 and older, have already delayed their retirement (Torres, 2012). - 30 - In addition to the list above, Research Summary (2008) provides a thorough explanation of the effects of the recession. The information was compiled into the table below: Table 1 Effects of recession and those at risk (Research Summary, 2008) IMPACT AT RISK Decrease in standards of living – the impact of rising costs. Rising food, fuel and energy prices means that the only option is to spend less on the fundamentals as opposed to reducing expenditure elsewhere. Those on low incomes which could include those reliant on welfare, pensions or fixed incomes and also those that are relatively well-paid but unable to cope with rising costs as they are already spreading it thin. Financial hardship ? the impact of falling house prices. As house prices fall, credit becomes much less available. At greatest risk are those on low incomes and/or people without assets to borrow against. )inancial hardship ? the impact of a falling stock market. Investments that rely on a buoyant stock market will become increasingly devalued. At greatest risk are those that rely on workplace pensions to sustain them through retirement, and - 31 - endowment policy holders who may find themselves unable to cover the value of the loan at the end of the mortgage term. More family break up. Even a mild recession will put more pressure on families. Those on low incomes and/or with no assets to borrow against. Poorer health As people are forced to economise and reduce their outgoings, many find they have little choice but to spend less on the fundamentals of food and heating. Those on low incomes, particularly the elderly but also those with young children and those with mental health problems. More crime, violence and anti-social behavior. There is a strong link between the background of a broken home and the likelihood to both engage in, and suffer from, criminal and violent activity. Those on low incomes are most likely to accumulate unsustainable levels of personal debt. Those most at risk are more likely to come from broken homes. (dXcation ? more children Poverty can have an impact on a child’s At greatest risk are those from families on low - 32 - under-achieving at school. willingness and ability to learn in many ways. It may be particularly significant for those from poorer backgrounds who attend school in an otherwise more affluent area. incomes, who may both suffer from and take part in more bullying, for example. Children from minority groups may also suffer more bullying. Table 1 illustrates the impact of the recession as well as those who was impacted on the most. Falling standards of living costs due to rises in prices, family break up, poorer health, more crime and violence and underachievement of scholars prove to be the main areas that have been affected by the recession. In addition to the study above (Research Summary, 2008), two studies commissioned by UNICEF, the Financial and Fiscal Commission of South Africa and the Department of Social Development (UNICEF, 2011) confirmed the above mentioned effects of the recession. The findings of the studies confirmed that the financial strain caused by the recession forced families to reduce luxurious expenditure, which caused a decrease in the standards of living. The studies (UNICEF, 2011) also confirmed the significant impact the recession has on interpersonal relationships, which may lead to family break up. Finally the studies concluded that the recession has caused families to fail to pay for medical treatment which impacted negatively on the well-being of people and families who suffer job loss and often remove children from school as a means of saving money ? proving the undeniable effect of the recession on families. - 33 - This section provided the reader with an overview of the impact of the recession globally. The section to follow will provide the reader with a comprehensive view of the effect of the financially unstable conditions on South Africa. 2.4 Impact of the recession: South African perspective In South Africa, the South African Reserve Bank (SARB) announced evidence of a recession towards the end of May 2009. This announcement featured results from the end of 2008, the period during which economic activity declined rapidly (Malefane & Khalo, 2010; Singleton, 2012). The global financial crisis of 2008-2009 has deeply impacted South Africa due to its financial and trade links with the rest of the world. $s a conseTXence $frica’s largest economy fell into recession late in 2008 (Verick, 2012). $s 6oXth $frica is $frica’s leading economy and by far the most integrated into the global economy, it implicates that South Africa was one of the first African countries to be affected by the global financial hurricane which originated in the USA (Chuma, 2008). In contradiction to this, some sources state that it was thought that Africa would not be affected to such a great extent, due to its low integration in the world economy ? later developments have shown that Africa has indeed been affected to a large extent (United Nations, 2009). Literature (Eyisi, 2009; Padayachee, n.d.), states various areas that were mainly affected by the recession. According to Eyisi (2009), there are five key areas in which South Africa was affected by the recession: - 34 - ? Decrease of value of commodities: Unfortunately the reduced demand led to a decrease in the value of commodities. This in turn meant less revenue for Government and a disruption in capital projects. A government deficit was therefore very likely and external financing was needed to fill that void. Commodities like coffee, cocoa and cotton also experienced declines in prices. This might have caused less spending by consumers and affected jobs in the public sector as Government was not able to settle the bills (supported by Bernard, Semmler & Schron, 2011). ? Downshift in demand for African products: The second area in which Africa and South Africa were affected was the downshift in demand for African products. The reason for this is that about 60% of South African exports are destined for the EU (European Union) and USA markets and these are the areas most affected by the recession. Due to the recession the agriculture and other industries suffered job losses and revenue. The tourism sector in countries like Egypt, Kenya and Tanzania, for example, plummeted since 2007/2008 (Elwell, 2012; Eyisi, 2009). ? Decline in remittance from the African Diaspora : a much needed income to individuals and households in poverty stricken Africa. This further contributed to less consumer spending and job losses across the African continent (United Nations, 2012, Eyisi, 2009). ? Flow of foreign capital , or lack thereof because of the recession. Investors rather supported operations in the West and therefore withdrew money from Africa. Nigeria is a good example as it suffered a big reduction in capital flow. - 35 - Ghana is another example as the higher food and oil prices caused their account deficit to increase to problematic levels (Bhatt, 2011). ? Fluctuation of currencies is dependent on the markets. Due to the fact that South Africa operates with a non-fixed currency, ranging from pegged to free floating, the value fluctuated on the markets. The decrease in capital and exports caused the foreign exchange reserves to become affected as the depreciating cXrrencies coXldn’t be increased (yisi   From the financial sector perspective, the effects on banks across the region can best be described as marginal. There was limited or no exposure to complex financial instruments. South Africa had the largest exposure (Allen & Giovannetti, 2011; Eyisi, 2009; Van den Heever, 2010) emphasising 6oXth $frica’s e[posXre to the financial crisis as well. In addition to this, an excerpt from a governmental document is presented, supporting the notion that South Africa was not spared from the impact of the financial crisis. This clearly indicates the nature of the impact of the recession on South Africa. A governmental document, )ramework for 6oXth $frica’s response to the international economic crises (2009), states that the world is affected by the worst economic crisis in 80 years: Due to the fact that South Africa is so strongly integrated in the world economy, the impact of the crisis has been significant which causes communities to collaborate in facing adversity. In the difficult circumstances that we face, we can utilize our strengths, in fiscal space, the financial regulatory framework, and the resourcefulness of our people and institutions, to develop a response to the crisis and to commit to work together in addressing its impact on South Africa. - 36 - We need social solidarity between all South Africans to ensure that the crisis does not damage the fabric of our society. Those with greater means have a responsibility to those without such means. Our collective responsibility is to work together to withstand the crisis and ensure that the poor and the most vulnerable are protected as far as possible from its impact. We must also ensure that the economy is ready to take advantage of the next upturn and that the benefits of such growth are shared by all our people. (Framework for 6oXth $frica’s response to the international economic crises  p 3) The excerpt above exemplifies the impact of the financial crisis in such a manner that it focXses mainly on the ³poor´ and ³those withoXt means´ 7he e[cerpt states that those who have been less affected by the financial crisis, should shield those who have been affected to a greater extent. In disagreement, it can be argued that those who are referred to as ³those with greater means´ can be viewed as the neglected population. Although some are affected in a lesser way, in comparison to others, they are still affected. In viewing this matter from a field perspective, it cannot be ignored that any change within the field causes an effect (to be discussed in the section to follow). The field perspective within the Gestalt paradigm states that a field encompasses a web of relations/systems which are all interrelated (Yontef, 1993). As mentioned, a change in one system/field causes change in the other. The field of those with ³more´ and the field of those with ³less´ differ bXt the change the financial crisis caused, will still have an impact on the field. Therefore, a strong opinion is voiced that those who are affected in a ³lesser way´ are also affected to an e[tent which should not be ignored. - 37 - The same train of thought can be followed when arguing that the effect that the financial crisis had on countries and their societies, will impact on families who can be viewed as part of the field. This impact will be discussed in the section to follow. 2.5 Impact of recession on families As a means of viewing the impact of the current recession, a study that was conducted by the Social Issues Research Centre (2009), investigated the impact of the previous recession in the 1900’s compared to the recent recession. The figure below portrays the responses of respondents when asked if they were impacted on during the previous recession: Figure 3 Impact of the previous recession (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) Figure 3 depicts the responses from participants who were old enough to remember the previous recession. One of the main findings of this mentioned research; was - 38 - that when comparing the recession of the 1900’s to the recent recession, this one ³feels´ different (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009). This sense that the current economic climate feels different even if life, in most respects, proceeds as normal was evident in focus group discussions about how moods and feelings had changed over the past year. Nobody had escaped the gloomy media coverage and the warnings that, despite one or two recent claims that the economic tide is turning back to prosperity, even tougher times might lay ahead (Social Issue Research Centre, 2009, p. 7). In response to the abovementioned, it is postulated that although there might exist some similarities that can be drawn between the effects of the current financial climate and the impact of previous financial crises, each occurrence should be viewed as unique with its own particular traits. It can therefore never be assumed that the principals of one crisis can be applied to the next which makes the recent recession unique in its own way. The notion is put forward that the impact that the recession has on families can be viewed from a field as well as an ecological systems perspective. As was briefly mentioned in the previous section, it is clear that countries and societies were not spared of the consequences of the financial crisis. It can therefore be argued that families were affected and subsequently children were also impacted on. An elaboration on the impact of the recession on families is presented at the end of the chapter. The ecological systems theory and gestalt field theory will be discussed accordingly as a means of integrating the economic phenomenon with the theoretical framework of this study. This serves as an emphasis that change within the economy can affect families. - 39 - The ecological systems theory (renamed the bio ecological systems theory) of Bronfenbrenner (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Greenfield, 2011) suggests that the ecological environment, in which humans exist and function, is compiled of consecutive levels. These levels are graphically depicted below: Figure 4 Ecological systems theory (MSN Fall 2011 Instructor) The levels of the ecological environment, as illustrated above, depicts the different parts, which according to Bronfenbrenner (1977, p. 514), is the setting in which an individual grows and develops. The levels are as follows: ? The micro system encompasses the immediate setting in which the individual exists. This involves the family, school and work place. - 40 - ? The meso system consists of a system of micro systems and refers to the interaction between these micro systems. In other words, this involves the interactions between the family, school, peer groups etc. ? As an extension of the meso system, the exo sys tem involves formal and informal social structures. They encompass, among other structures, the world of work, the neighborhood, the mass media, agencies, Government (local, state, and national), the distribution of goods and services, communication and transportation facilities, and informal social networks. ? The macro system refers to the social, legal, economic and political systems. All of these systems are interdependent and work together to form the whole in which an individual exists. In addition to this, the field theory within the Gestalt context according to Yontef (1993), is an approach defined as a ³totality of mXtXally inflXencing forces that together form a Xnified whole´ p294). He continues to note that the characteristics of fields are as follows: a field is a systemic web of relationships, continuous in space and time. Everything is of a field and one part has an effect on another part (Yontef, 1993, p. 259). Blom (2006) in addition states that it is not possible to view a person without taking the environment into account as an interdependence between the person and environment is present. All of the levels above encompass the environment in which an individual lives. When viewing the environment in which an individual exists, specifically through the lens of the ecological systems theory as well as the field theory, it is almost impossible to separate children from the unstable economic situation. - 41 - In comparing the ecological systems theory and the field theory, the following table illustrates the main concepts of these theories: Table 2 Ecological systems theory compared to the field theory (http://ncsss.cua.edu/res/docs/field/theories.pdf; Yontef & Jacobs2011, p. 343; Wheeler,1991, p. 27). 42 THEORY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR FOCUS OF THEORY MAIN CONCEPTS REGARDING: HUMAN BEHAVIOR SOME THEORISTS SOME PRACTICE APPLICATIONS SYSTEMS THEORY Includes: Ecological Systems [ Systems Perspective] Includes: Family Systems [ Systems Perspective] How persons interact with their environment. How the family system affects the individual and family functioning across the life-span. *Persons are in continual transaction with their environment. *Systems are interrelated parts or subsystems constituting an ordered whole. *Each subsystem impacts all other parts and whole systems. *Systems can have closed or open boundaries. *Systems tend toward equilibrium. *Individual functioning shapes family functioning and family systems can create pathology within the individual. *Boundaries, roles, communication and family structure influence family Parsons Merton Germain Gitterman Bowen Satir Minuchin Carter & McGoldrick Bronfenbrenner *Useful for developing holistic view of persons- in-environment. *Enhances understanding of interactions between micro-meso-macro levels of organisation. *Enriches contextual understanding of behaviour. *Useful for understanding family systems and life cycles over multiple generations 43 functioning. THEORY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR FOCUS OF THEORY MAIN CONCEPTS with regards to HUMAN BEHAVIOR SOME THEORISTS SOME PRACTICE APPLICATIONS FIELD THEORY Parlett (1991) states that the field theory demonstrates the holistic person’s inclXsion of the environment, the social world, organisations and culture. It as a relationship between an organism (person) and his environment (field). Individuals cannot exist or be understood without understanding their fields. The field is the context of a person’s life. (Yontef and Jacobs, 2011). The field is the context of a person’s life The field theory was not initially part of gestalt. The work of Kurt Lewin and his ideas of the field theory was introduced and his interpretation of human interactions was incorporated in gestalt as the field theory (Parlett, 2005). Yontef Perls Hefferline Goodman Holistic view of the person and interaction between organism and field. Behavior stems from interaction with the field. 44 In viewing the table above (the principles of the ecological systems theory and the field theory), it can be noted that changes taking place within the field or any of the ecological systems will have an impact on families and therefore on children. Literature endorses this notion and states that the human consequences of the global financial crisis for the developing world are presumed to be severe (Coleman, Glenn & Mitcheson, 2010; Friedman & Schady, 2009; Fukuda-Parr, 2008) and the impact of the recession on families is profound, extensive and grim (Mishkin, 2011a; Warner, 2010). When viewing the impact of the recent recession, literature suggests various areas in family life that has been impacted on by the recession and unstable economic climate. Amongst others, Cho and Newhouse (2011), Glenn and Coleman (2009) as well as Gray, Edwards, Hayes and Baxter (2009) suggest numerous mechanisms by which a recession may affect families. The main ones are a decline in productivity and a decrease in labor demand resulting in a reduction of working hours and retrenchment, shrinking asset values, the inability to maintain living expenses and debt, amplified uncertainty and fear about the future. In addition to the above, Adrian and Coontz (2010) suggest that there are three main areas, within families, which are especially affected by the recession: household spending, employment and stress in family relationships. During the studying of various literature, a figure was compiled as a means of understanding the effects of unstable finances on families with the views of Luke (2012) as foundation: 45 Figure 5 Effect of recession on families It can be stated that due to the recession, unemployment has become a reality in many families. This causes a change in spending patterns, which eventually causes change in the way families socialise. These occurrences cause change within the family which can possibly disturb the equilibrium and balance of the family, which in the end has an impact on the mental health of family members and especially children. In the section to follow, areas that featured in the studying of literature, will be presented. The aim is provide the reader with an overview of the effect of the recession on family life, globally and in South Africa. 2.5.1 Unemployment ³(mployment can provide an i dividual with benefits in terms of financial security, self-esteem and social engagement´ $Xstralian 6ocial 7rends  p 1) and the ³economic well-being of a family is largely determined by its income and 46 hoXsing circXmstances´ $Xstralian 6ocial 7rends, 2009, p. 2). Various different statistics are available from Statistics South Africa (www.statssa.gov.za) that portrays a grim picture of the rising rates in unemployment in South Africa. The figure below illustrates this: Figure 6 Unemployment rate per province This figure shows an increase in the unemployment rate in all the nine provinces from 2010 to 2011. The first quarter of 2011 (Q1:2011) is compared to the first and then the fourth quarter of 2010 (Q4:2010). The biggest increase in the unemployment rate was observed in the Northern Cape (7.0 percentage points), Limpopo (2.4 percentage points), Eastern Cape (2.2 percentage points) and Mpumalanga (2.1 percentage points) (http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02111stQuarter2011.pdf). Verick (2012) supports these findings. 47 Amato and Beattie (2011) as well as Glenn and Coleman (2009) state that unemployment is the cause of stress in many families which in turn cause strain on mental health and a possible increase in conflict between family members and an increase in substance abuse. Kalil (2005), Murakami (2012) as well as Uchitelle (2011) also notes that the impact of unemployment has never been more relevant than in the current economic climate when stating that reduction in food expenditure, relocation and reliance on public assistance have become apparent. All of which is proved to have a detrimental effect on the mental health of family members (Kalil, 2005, p. 3, World Health Organisation, 2011). The policy statement of The Society for the Psychological Study of Social ,ssXes makes note of the following ³7he 3sychological Consequences of 8nemployment´ 7he stress of unemployment can lead to a decline in individual and family well-being (Belle & Bullock, 2011; Wanberg, 2012). It can also be noted that the load of unemployment also affect children. The practices of parents are negatively influenced by unemployment which results in more distress for children (American Psychology Association, n.d.). The distress children and adolescents experience due to parenting practices can lead to depression which can then give way to academic problems, substance abuse, high-risk sexual behavior, physical health problems, impaired social relationships and increased risk of suicide (American Psychology Association, n.d.; Chen & Paterson, 2006; Voon & Voon, 2011). Families are faced with realities such as unemployment of a parent or parents which poses certain challenges and consequences to the well-being and functioning of families and its members. Bell and Blanchflower (2010, p. 8) suggest that the following are consequences of unemployment: 48 ? In the case where workers have been exposed to lengthy periods of unemployment, the possibility exists that their acquired skills can be lost causing loss of human capital. ? Unemployment is a stressful life event which increases vulnerability to illness, mental stress, loss of self-esteem and possible depression. ? There exists a relationship between unemployment and suicide. The unemployed appear to have a higher predisposition to commit suicide. ? Those who are unemployed for a lengthy period of time seem to be at a certain disadvantage in attempting to find work. The morale diminishes as the duration of unemployment lengthens. ? As unemployment rates increase, crime rates tend to rise. It is clear from the above listed, that unemployment has a significant impact on mental health of the unemployed and it can be argued that the longer the duration of unemployment, the greater the negative impact upon mental health (Gray et al., 2009). Benevolent Society (2010) as well as Gray, Taylor and Edwards (2011) support this notion and add that unemployment has negative effects on economic well-being and on the mental as well as physical health of the unemployed. Isaacs (2011) adds that unemployment causes a decrease in income which causes psychological distress of parents which causes a diminishing parenting capacity and in some cases even abuse (Morton & Reese, 2011). The above literature notes that unemployment has a significant impact on the well-being of individuals. It seems like a logical presumption to state that in viewing the occurrence of unemployment from a field and ecological systemic perspective, 49 the impact of unemployment cannot escape children (American Psychological Association, n.d.; Lovell & Isaacs, 2010). Gray, Taylor and Edwards (2011) support the opinion when stating that clear evidence exists of effects that flow-on to other family members. Due to the fact that income within the family has been reduced, families are not able to maintain a lifestyle filled with luxuries anymore. They are forced to prioritise whether or not certain items or outings are a necessity or not which give way to a change in patterns of spending. 2.5.2 Changing patterns of spending and socialising According to a study conducted by the Office for National Statistics UK (Luke, 2012) as well as Rothwell and Han (2012), patterns in spending changed significantly over the past few years due to the recession. Analysing the volume of goods and services bought by households by essential and non-essential purchases indicates how the recession has changed the nature of household spending. This particular study summarizes the findings as follows: ? Spending in current prices on food and non-alcoholic beverages showed steady growth throughout the recession. Between quarter one 2008 and quarter two 2009, the value of households spending increased by 4.5 percent. However, the volume (amount) of food purchased fell over the same period by 5.6 percent, and then remained relatively stable (Luke, 2012, p. 5). ? Restaurants and hotels spending showed a reduction in both value and volume terms during the recession. Between quarter one 2008 and quarter two 2009 the value of households spending fell by around 8 percent, while volume fell by around 11 percent (Luke, 2012, p. 7). 50 ? Current price spending on audio-visual equipment fell around 6 percent between quarter one 2008 and quarter two 2009 and has been broadly stable since. However, volume continued to grow sharply, increasing by 27 percent since the end of the recession. These estimates show that consumers increased the volume of their purchases without having to increase the value of their spending. This suggests either a fall in prices in the sector or the purchase of cheaper alternatives (Luke, 2012, p. 8). ? Purchases of new vehicles fell sharply in both value and volume terms from the start of the recession. Between quarter one 2008 and quarter one 2009 spending fell by around 25 percent in both value and volume (Luke, 2012, p. 9). ? In current price terms, household spending on clothing and footwear fell 2 percent between quarter one 2008 and quarter two 2009, while the volume of purchases increased by 9.5 percent over the same period. The fall in current price and increase in volume suggests households were purchasing at lower prices (Luke, 2012, p. 10). From the above mentioned it is clear that the recession obliged families to make certain changes within their households. Luxurious items are not permitted anymore, and only the bare essentials are utilised. A reduced income leads to a reduction in entertainment, dining, and extracurricular activity expenses (Kamakura & Du, 2012). Families are forced to reduce their extras during a recession and make drastic changes to their pre-recession lifestyle which children are affected by as they become aware of these changes. 51 The figure below presents the reader with an overview of the extent to which the spending patterns of families have changed. Figure 7 Areas of economising (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) This figure illustrates how families are not able to spend their money on luxuries. Due to the fact that people are not able to spend what they used to on luxuries and recreation, the way in which they socialise will also change. Cowen (2009) suggests that entertainment and ways of socialising has changed due to the impact of the recession. Due to the fact that a lack of / decrease in income exists, families are forced to adapt their socialisation patterns. A study (Cowen, 2009) has shown that in the case where risky employment is profitable, families spend more time on self-improvement and relatively inexpensive pleasures and means of socializing. 52 It can be assumed that due to the fact that people are less able to spend their money on luxuries, the manner in which they socialise can also be affected, as the following illustration presents: Figure 8 Changing patterns of socialisation (Social Issues Research Centre, 2009) The changing patterns of socialisation in addition to the change in spending patterns and the possibility of unemployment are all external stressors which can cause stress within the family setting. From an ecological systems (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) and field theory (Yontef, 1993) perspective, children cannot escape any of these stressors. This statement can be motivated by presenting a study that was conducted in Australia during 2010. This study aimed at determining the impact of living in a jobless family on the likelihood that children aged 4 to 5 years to 8 to 9 53 years of age will experience a range of behavioral or emotional problems (Research Snapshot, 2010). The study indicated that living in a jobless family increased the likelihood that children and adolescents would experience a range of behavioral or emotional problems by 7 to 13 percent, specifically: Conduct problems such as lying and fighting increased by 13.4 percent, peer problems such as not forming positive relationships with peers, being bullied increased by 7.6 percent. Emotional problems such as worrying and nervousness increased by 7.5 percent while hyperactivity behavior such as being restless and easily distracted increased by 7.2 percent. It is clear from the above mentioned that children cannot escape the effects of the financial crisis and the impact thereof on the family is apparent. The impact of stress on the family system will be discussed accordingly. 2.5.3 Stress and family relationships Rothwell and Han ( define a stressor as a ‘‘demand placed on the family that produces, or has the potential to produce changes in the family system ´(p. 397). Guin, Jakes and Roper (2010) define economic stress as ³the emotional distress experienced in response to circumstances, such as job loss, that create a situation in which essential material resources cannot be maintained and essential financial obligations cannot be met´ p 1). As was discussed earlier in this chapter, economic pressure can place a lot of strain on the relationships within a family (Gray et al., 2009) and Selye (1975) states that the same stressor can provoke different effects in different individuals. The foundations of the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), family systems theory (Chibucos, Leite & Weis, 2005) as well as the field theory (Yontef, 1993) support this, as change in one part of an 54 individXal’s fieldsystem will have an effct on the other parts. It can therefore be emphasised that the unstable economic conditions will have an impact on parents causing an effect on the rest of the family and especially the children. An example of this is presented by Adrian and Coontz (2010) as they confirm that: Parents who are worried about their financial stability often do not have the patience to reason with their children or respond to misbehavior appropriately. Feeling frustrated at the seeming ineffectiveness of their first attempt at discipline, they tend to discipline repeatedly, with increasing harshness and in the heat of the moment, which escalates and prolongs parent-child conflict. Stein et al. (2011) add that research has shown the psychological effects of economic hardship on family relationships, suggesting that economic pressure can negatively impact relationships parents have with their children. It can be noted that the effects of the recession (such as unemployment, change in spending patterns etc.) can be viewed as external stressors to the family. Callen (2009) and Stein et al. (2011) suggest that there are three major stressors associated with the recession: the pressure of financial debt, unemployment, and lastly fear (loss of housing, for example). The impacts of these stressors vary according to gender, personality, etc., and Callen (2009) generalises them as: ? Increased inter-personal conflict caused by an increase in irritability of parents. ? Males in particular experience depressive moods. 55 ? Poorer parenting – notably a shift to more dictatorial and less affectionate behavior. ? A tendency to work longer hours to relieve economic pressures, depriving the spouse and children of quality time and involvement. ? The reality of unemployment affects the structure within the family, often resulting in less structured lives and the re-adjustment of roles which causes even further stress. ? Changes in physical health and even life expectancy. In light of the mentioned impact of these stressors, it can be noted that in order to gain a good understanding of the effect of stress on families, existing models can be applied. Literature (Ahmed, 2005; Young & Schieman, 2011) suggests various models and theoretical frameworks which conceptualises stress within the family caused by economic pressures. The Family Stress Theory (Southwick, Litz, Charney, Friedman, 2011; Ahmed, 2005), as well as the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model (FAAR) (Rothwell & Han, 2010 ) are among some of the proposed models when viewing stress in the family context. These will be discussed accordingly in the section to follow. 2.5.3.1 the FAAR model. The Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model (FAAR Model) is used to explain how families react to and manage change. This model according to Rothwell and Han (2010) proposes that families engage in processes to balance family demands with family capabilities all the while being influenced by family 56 meanings to produce family-level adjustment or adaptation. The three primary concepts in the FAAR Model include demands, meanings, and capabilities. ? Demands are those factors which disturb the equilibrium of the family. Families are different in the ways they interpret these demands that were introduced to them. ? Meanings the family gives to these demands. ? Capabilities encompass different resources and existing coping behaviors. The FAAR Model posits that family functioning is at optimal performance when there is equilibrium between demands and capabilities. Figure 9 The Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model – FAAR Model (McDonald, Kysela, Drummond, Martin & Wiles, 24 February, n.d.) The figure illustrates how demands/stressors affect family adaptation through the coping processes of the family. These processes involve the utilisation of 57 personal and social supports and are directed by the specific appraisal of their situation. The family’s ability to cope can be seen as the process dXring which the support and appraisals are used to reduce the effects of demands and stressors on family functioning and successive adaptation (McDonald, Kysela, Drummond, Martin & Wiles, 2012). Another model that is also used to understand the impact of stress is the Family Stress Model. 2.5.3.2 family stress model. The framework used for understanding what is taking place in families is the Family Stress Model. The Family Stress Model (Ahmed, 2005) proposes that economic pressure is one of the more important factors that can put severe strains on spousal relationships, bring about feelings of depression and increasing family dysfunction. Figure 10 The Family Stress Model of Economic Hardship (Ahmed, 2005, p. 2) 58 The figure above illustrates that according to the Family Stress Model family contributes to emotional distress and a dysfunctional family system (Hilferty, Redmond & Katz, 2010). The distress a family experiences has an effect on family relationships as it strains the relationships between the adults as well as the relationship parents have with their children (Crosnoe, 2012). According to Ahmed (2005): Family distress causes problems in the relationship between adults that are, in turn, linked to less effective parenting – a complex notion that involves insXfficient sXrveillance lack of control over the child’s behavior lack of warmth and support, inconsistency, and displays of aggression or hostility by parents or older siblings (p. 1). McClelland (as cited in Ahmed, 2005, p. 2) suggests that economic strain can impact families in the following three areas: 1. Hardship and stress: The financial hardship that parents experience causes stress which trickles down to the children. For children, the impact of stress and Xnhappiness may be direct and indirect throXgh the parents’ e[periences and behavior. 2. Isolation and exclusion: The fact that parents are not able to attend to the needs of their children, due to financial strain, can cause feelings of isolation because of a lack of their parents’ attention 3. Longer -term impacts as adults: It can be stated that the impact economic strain had on an individual as a child, can cause difficulties at a later stage of the life span. 59 In viewing the different models above, the stress that families experience and the impact thereof on children cannot be overlooked. It is also apparent from the section above that the effect individuals in the family experience can have long term effects as well. Isaacs (2011) states that although the effects of the recession on families can be evident, the effects the recession has on children can be hard to observe and this emphasises the importance of assisting children with their experience of the effects of the recession as a means of not overlooking their well- being. 2.6 Conclusion This chapter has been dedicated to provide the reader with an understanding of the cause of the global unstable economic climate as well as the impact it has on families and children. The integration of literature and the theoretical framework of this study offer the reader with an understanding of the undeniable impact the financial unstable conditions can have on families, with special reference to the impact on the mental health and psychological wellness of parents. It was also clear that the mental health and emotional wellness of parents have an irrefutable impact on the function of children. Unfortunately, the media portrays a gloomy view as economists predict the possible occurrence of another recession. This emphasises the need to assist parents in facilitating the effects of the unstable economy as a means of preserving the mental health and overall wellness of children. The chapter to follow will provide the reader with an overview of the developmental theory of middle childhood and adolescence. The chapter will discuss 60 how children and adolescents experience financial changes within the family in a unique manner. 61 CHAPTER 3 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE: THE DEVELOPMENTAL JOURNEY 3.1 Introduction The previous chapter provided the reader with an overview of the global and South African perspective on economic instability caused by the financial crisis, as well as the effects thereof on families and children. This discussion was presented through the lens of gestalt field theory and the ecological systems theory. The focus of this research is on equipping parents to assist their children and adolescents in dealing with these effects of economic instability. The preliminary study and needs analysis that were conducted prior to this study indicated that children in middle childhood and adolescence are mostly affected by the impact of economic instability in the family. During these developmental stages children and adolescents experience economic instability in a distinctive way, as will be illustrated in the following section. This will provide a holistic view of each phase in order to completely understand the true impact of economic instability on children and adolescents. Finally, 1) the developmental theory of middle childhood and adolescence, 2) the theoretical framework of this study as well as the 3) global economic situation were integrated. This is presented in the form of a model compiled at the end of the chapter. 62 3.2 What is human development? Eggen and Kauchak (2007), Meece and Daniels (2008), Newman and Newman (2012) as well as Santrock (2008) define human development as the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span as a result of a combination of experience, learning and maturation. Berger (2006) and Bukatko and Daehler (2012) state that the science of human development seeks to understand how and why people evolve or remain the same over time. Human development, according to Keenan (2002), Santrock (2008) and Smith, Cowie and Blades (2011), can be characterised by interplay between processes such as biological processes (physical changes), cognitive processes (changes in intellect, thought and language) as well as socio-emotional processes (changes in relationships and personality). Changes that take place during the course of development can therefore be viewed as an interaction between these mentioned processes. In addition to the above mentioned, Berger (2006, p. 7) as well as Smith, Cowie and Blades (2011) suggest that there are principles which are beneficial in viewing development at any stage: ? Multidi rectional: Change can occur in any manner as growth is unpredictable and unexpected transformations can take place. ? Multicontextual : Humans exist in historical, economic and cultural contexts which influence development. ? Multicultural : Culture should be recognised in viewing development as each culture consists of different values, traditions and tools for living, which can influence development. 63 ? Multidisciplinary : Various academic fields (psychology, education, biology, economics, etc.) contribute data to the science of development. ? Plasticity : Development is not rigid and is therefore on-going. It can be altered at any point in the life span. These above discussed principles emphasise that development can be influenced by culture and context, in addition to its plasticity. These principles indicate that development cannot be viewed in a rigid manner as there are various influences that can affect and alter development. Meece and Daniels (2008) as well as Smith, Cowie and Blades (2011) suggest the basic core issues of development to be the following: Nature versus nurture (the extent to which development is a result of biological processes or the influence of external environmental influences), stability versus plasticity (the critical periods in which children should have mastered certain developmental tasks as opposed to the malleability of the process of development), continuity versus discontinuity (the continuous process of development that occurs progressively or the series of discrete stages that represent major sudden transformations in functioning), passive versus active (the role of children in their own development as passive organisms or active agents who control, shape and direct development) as well as endpoint versus no endpoint (the universal sequence that children follow in the process of development) (Click & Parker, 2006; Goodman & Scott, 2012; Meece & Daniels, 2008). In light of the above statements the notion exists that development cannot be viewed as a static universal process, but should be seen as a fluid and dynamic process that can be influenced and affected by several variables regardless of the fact that developmental theories suggest firm fundamentals. Various theories 64 suggest various fundamentals of development and each theory emphasises different causal factors (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010; Meece & Daniels, 2008) which will be discussed throughout the course of this chapter. The section to follow will provide the reader with an overview of middle childhood and adolescence as the focus of this research, sketching the distinctive manner in which youth experience financial changes within the family setting. 3.3. Middle childhood and adolescence as developmental phases In middle and late childhood (adolescence) children are on a different plane, belonging to a generation and feeling all their own. It is the wisdom of the human life span that at no time are children more ready to learn than during the period of expansive imagination at the end of early childhood. Children develop a sense of wanting to make things – and not to just make them, but to make them well and even perfectly. They seek to know and to understand. They are remarkable for their intelligence and for their curiosity. Their parents continue to be important influences in their lives, but their growth is also shaped by their peers and friends. They do not think much about the future or about the past, but they enjoy the present moment (Santrock, 2008, p. 352). Middle childhood can be described as the stage of development between the ages of six and twelve and is viewed as a unique stage of development (Meyer, Mayer, Anasi & Clark, 2006; Collins, 1984; Jellesma & Vingerhoets, 2012). Middle childhood is recognised as a crucial phase in the development of human cognition, emotion, and social behavior (Charlesworth, Wood & Viggiani, 2007; Colle & Giudice, 2010; Newman & Newman, 2012) and depictions of middle childhood often include children who are physically active and intellectually curious, making new 65 friends and learning new things (Briggs & Hansen, 2012; Charlesworth, Wood & Viggiani, 2007). Adolescence, conversely, is often defined as the bridge between childhood and adulthood (Burnett et al., 2011; Geldard & Geldard, 2004). Although it is not regarded as a distinct period of the life span due to the vagueness of the demarcation (Meltzer & Harris, 2011; UNICEF, 2011), a number of common psychological traits are apparent in this stage of development which causes this to be referred to as a stormy phase (Barbot & Hunter, 2012; Lerner, 2002; Louw & Louw, 2007) as illustrated below: Adolescents try on one face after another, seeking to find a face of their own. Their generation of young people is the fragile cable by which the best and the worst of their parents’ generation is transmitted to the present. In the end, there are only two lasting bequests parents can leave youth – one being roots, the other wings (Santrock, 2008, p. 462). According to Gouws, Kruger and Burger (2008) as well as Laufer and Laufer (2011), the most important developmental tasks of adolescents include socialising, adhering to the norms of society, obtainment of interpersonal skills, developing and understanding of personal and cultural differences and developing self-confidence. Adolescence and middle childhood are both inimitable stages within the lifespan of human development. Each of these stages of development encompasses different characteristics, traits and changes which form part of the journey to adulthood. The physical, cognitive, personal, identity, social and moral development of children and adolescents will be discussed accordingly in the section to follow, as it can be argued that individuals are holistic beings and should be better understood and 66 viewed in their totality. The relevance of a discussion on the different facets of each developmental stage lies in the illustration of the impact economic instability can have on each age group. In each section, middle childhood will be discussed first, followed by adolescence. 3.3.1 Physical development Click and Parker (2006), Doherty and Hughes (2009) as well as StateUniversity (2010) agree that middle childhood is the period during which children grow at a slower pace than in early childhood. The variations in physical growth and development of children in middle childhood are influenced by heredity, culture, gender and nutrition (Croft, 2008). According to Berk (2012) and Louw and Louw (2007, p.215) the following can be viewed as characteristics of physical development during middle childhood: ? Rapid growth of arms and legs in comparison to the torso. ? Slower growth rate in comparison to early childhood. ? The milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth, which is largely completed by the end of middle childhood. ? The elasticity of lungs increase and breathing becomes deeper and slower. ? The size of the heart is five-fold since birth and the circular system develops slower. ? The brain reaches adult size and weight. 67 The fact that the brain reaches adult size by the age of seven activates the development of complex language, logic, memory and spatial areas (Leigh, 2012; Meece & Daniels, 2008). Berger (2006) explains that selective attention and automatisation are two aspects of brain development that become evident in this stage. Automatisation is the process in which an arrangement of thoughts and actions are repeated which makes the sequence routine so that it no longer requires conscious thought (Berger, 2006; Kurland, 2011). Automatisation therefore enables the brain to be available for more advanced reading, computation and writing due to the fact that some actions occur automatically due to the maturation of the brain. Children are therefore also more able to concentrate on one stimulus and exclude another (selective attention ) (Berger, 2006; Kurland, 2011) which enables children to concentrate on for example, the instruction of a teacher, whilst writing without being distracted by the noise outside. During middle childhood, children are also able to modify certain behaviors such as emotional outbursts, perseveration, inattention and insistence on routines and motor skills. According to Swaiman (2009) the most obvious evidence of neurological maturation is the motor skills of children as each skill requires numerous individual abilities, all of which improve during middle childhood. Motor development of children between the ages of six and twelve become smoother and more coordinated than in early childhood. This, according to Louw and Louw (2007) is one of the most prominent developmental characteristics of middle childhood. In viewing the physical development during adolescence as opposed to middle childhood, entering the phase of adolescence causes a growth spurt and sexual maturation (Alberga et al., 2012; American Psychological Association, 2002). The process of sexual maturation which prepares the body for sexual reproduction in 68 adulthood is defined as puberty (Arnett, 2007; Berk, 2012) which causes distinctive changes to the body. These significant changes in physical appearance that take place during puberty, cause concern among adolescents as they have a paramount need to fit in with their peer group, whilst at the same time, trying to portray their individualism. The most significant changes in physical appearance of adolescents briefly include the following as presented by Arnett (2007, p. 44), Dutta (2011) and Louw and Louw (2007, p. 283): Table 3 Physical changes during adolescence (Arnett, 2007, p. 44, Berk, 2012) PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE Both sexes Males only Females only Pubic and underarm hair Facial, arm and leg hair Rougher skin (especially thighs and upper arms) Oilier skin, stronger body odor Harder bones Lower voice Growth spurt Sperm production Wider shoulders and chest Increased proportion of muscle to fat Chest hair Shoulder and back hair Ovulation / menstruation Breast development Broader hips / pelvis Increased proportion of fat to muscle 69 Larger forehead Wider mouth and fuller lips More prominent chin, ears, nose The physical changes presented in the table above portray the significant physical changes that take place during the phase of adolescence. Literature (Arnett, 2007; Dutta, 2011; Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2006) states that these physical changes prove to have a significant impact on the psychological experience of individuals, as they find it difficult accepting these changes as some of these physical appearances can cause them to differ from their peers. Dumontheil and Blakemore (2012) as well as Morgan and Huebner (2009) suggest that the physical changes that take place during adolescence include: increased brain development, the development of secondary sexual traits as well as a rapid gain in weight and height. These authors continue to state that the above mentioned physical changes can possibly cause any of the following: change in sleep patterns (adolescents sleep longer and more frequent), due to growth spurts they become clumsy, over sensitiveness is caused by an increase in weight, awkwardness may be experienced in showing affection towards the opposite sex and more direct enquiries with regards to sexual development is apparent (Morgan & Huebner, 2009). In linking the relevance of physical development to economic instability, it can be noted that the physical development of children and adolescents can be affected 70 by a lack of finances. In the case where a family is experiencing extreme economic turmoil, luxuries such as additional vitamins, supplements, quality of food etc. may be compromised. Closely linked to physical development are cognitive changes that also become apparent. The cognitive development of children in middle childhood and adolescence will be discussed in the section to follow. 3.3.2 Cognitive development Middle childhood and adolescence are development stages that prove significant cognitive development. Development in middle childhood and adolescence is described and explained by theorists such as Piaget (Piaget, 1972) who view cognitive development in stages with specific characteristics. The stages are presented in the following table: Table 4 Stages of development according to Piaget (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 37) STAGE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE Sensorimotor (0-2) Goal orientated behavior. Object permanence (represents objects in memory). Makes jack-in-the-box pop up. Searches for object behind parent’s back. Preoperational (2-7) Rapid increase in language ability with over ³:e goed to the store´ Points out car window and 71 generalised language. Symbolic thought. Dominated by perception. says ³7rXck´ Concludes that all the water in a sink came out of the faucet. Concrete operational ( 7-11) Operates logically with concrete materials. Concludes that two objects on a ³balanced´ balance have the same mass even though one is larger than the other. Formal operational (11-adult) Classifies and serial order. Solves abstract and hypothetical problems. Thinks combinatorial. Orders containers according to decreasing volume. Systematically determines how many different sandwiches can be made from three different kinds of meat, cheese and bread. The table above indicates the age ranges and is intended to serve as a rough guideline for the cognitive development of humans. In reference to this, the cognitive development of children in middle childhood usually enters the stage of concrete operations and adolescents are classified in the stage of formal operations. 72 Cognitive development in middle childhood occurs during the concrete operational stage and is characterised by the increased ability to think logically about concrete objects (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007; Slater & Bremner, 2011) and children in this phase of development use mental operations to solve problems and reason (Louw & Louw, 2007; Newman & Newman, 2012). Belsky (2007), Click and Parker (2006) as well as Hook, Watts and Cockroft (2002) agree that children during this stage of development have a realistic understanding of their world and are only able to process information that is presented concretely. In addition to this, Papalia et al. (2006) and Eggen and Kauchak (2007) suggest that seriation and classification are the two logical operations that develop during middle childhood. Classification is defined as ³the process of groXping obMects on the basis of a common characteristic´ (ggen .aXchak  p. 39) whereas seriation refers to the ³ability to order obMects according to increasing or decreasing length weight or volXme´ 3apalia et al  p 346). It is stated that in addition to seriation and classification, spatial thinking, cause and effect, inductive and transitive reasoning, conservation and the development of number and mathematical concepts develop (Papalia et al., 2006, p. 346). All of which form part of the cognitive development during middle childhood. In viewing the development of cognition in middle childhood, there are merely small aspects of change compared to the numerous changes adolescents undergo. Transitions that take place in the lives of adolescents are viewed as equally dramatic. The changes in how adolescents think, reason, and understand can be even more dramatic than their obvious physical changes. From the concrete, black- 73 and-white thinkers they appear to be one day, rather suddenly it seems, adolescents become able to think abstractly and in shades of gray. They are now able to analyse situations logically in terms of cause and effect and to entertain hypothetical situations and use symbols, such as in metaphors, imaginatively (American Psychology Association, 2002, p. 11). The American Psychological Association (2002) and Blanton et al. (2012) suggest that due to their cognitive development it can be viewed as ³normal´ when adolescents often argue for the sake of arguing (caused by an increase in their reasoning abilities), when they make ungrounded conclusions, when they are self- centered, when they question the position of adults and when they present themselves in an overly dramatic fashion. The excerpt above makes reference to the cognitive development of adolescents which Piaget (Piaget, 1972) classifies as the formal operational phase. This phase is characterised by Louw and Louw (2007, p. 299) as the following: ? Hypothetico - deductive reasoning (adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop alternative ways to solve problems). ? Propositional thinking (adolescents can evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real world circumstances). Combinatorial analysis (the ability to organise different possible combinations inherent in a problem). ? Relativistic thinking (adolescents are able to recognise the subjective construction of knowledge and the possibility of differences in the interpretation of the same facts). 74 As presented above, the cognitive development of adolescents and children in middle childhood is viewed and discussed by various theorists. Piaget assigns the development of cognition per age group and specific stage and views developing children as individuals who explore and test their world and construct their own knowledge. As opposed to the views of Piaget, the Sociocultural theory of development by Vygotsky (1978) provides an alternative view that emphasises the social and cultural influences on the developing mind (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007; Slater & Bremner, 2011  9ygotsky’s theory 9ygotsky  stresses the notion that development cannot be understood separate from an understanding of the culture and society. The theory also states that cognitive patterns are a combination and product of inherent factors as well as cultural and societal influences. Thomas (n.d.) compares the views of Vygotsky and Piaget in the following table: Table 5 Comparison between the theoretical views of Piaget and Vygotsky (Thomas, n.d.) PIAGET VYGOTSKY -Relied upon clinical method, using probing questions to uncover what children understood. -Concerned with historical and social aspects of human behavior that make human nature unique. -He was interested in errors children made and the possibility that these were not random. -Social and cultural factors are important in the development of intelligence. 75 -Systematic pattern in the production of children’s errors was searched for. _Speech carries culture. It stores the history of social experience and is a ³tool´ for thoXght. -He worked towards logical, internal and consistent explanations for children’s errors. -People are different from animals because they use tools to create artefacts that change the conditions of life. -How knowledge is acquired was studied and developed as the theory of ³genetic epistemology .´ -There is a close link between the acquisition of language and development of thinking. -He studied thought and language in pre- schoolers and early school-age children. -There is a close link between the acquisition of language and development of thinking. -Piaget believed that intelligence arises progressively in the baby’s repetitive activities. -Gave prominence to the importance of social interaction in development as it influences language and thought. -He described how concepts of space, time, causes, and physical objects arise in development. Does not deal with fixed stages of development bXt describes ³leading activities´ typical of certain age periods around which intellectual development is organised. 76 - The beginnings of fantasy and symbolism in infancy were investigated. - A theory was outlined that states that the precursors of thinking and language lie in the elementary actions, perceptions, and imitations of babies. -3iaget’s theory was inflXenced by the evolutionary theory: children have to ‘adapt’ to the environment by altering cognitive structures. The table above illustrates the differences between the views of Piaget and Vygotsky as a presentation of the views on cognitive development of children. &ritiTXe against these theories is hereby voiced 3iaget’s theory implicates that development occXrs in stages and 9ygotsky’s theory emphasises the inflXence of the environment. It can be postulated that development should encompass both of the main concepts of both the discussed theories. Development should be viewed as a combination of self-exploration of the world in conjunction with social and cultural influences. The researcher is in agreement with the views of both theorists but would like to argue the notion that development should be viewed as a combination of both theories. It can be theorised that culture and environmental influences as well as the self-construction of knowledge by the individual results in development. It should be mentioned that these guidelines should merely serve as a framework as humans 77 develop uniquely and their own pace. Although each stage forms the foundation for the next, individuals develop to the following stage at an individual pace. It can be suggested that a lack of finance, or change in finance, can possibly have an impact on the cognitive development of children and adolescents. When finance is not available for additional cognitive stimulation (educational toys, educational outings, study courses etc.), additional cognitive stimulation might be compromised. The section to follow will be dedicated to the affective development of children in middle childhood and adolescence. 3.3.3 Emotional and personal development Eggen and Kauchak (2007) use the term personal development when describing the ³growth of endXring personality traits that influence the way individuals interact with their physical and social environments´ p 62). According to these authors (Bukatko & Daehler, 2012; Eggen & Kauchak, 2007), the primary causes of personal development are heredity and environmental influences. This implies that inherited characteristics (temperament) influence the way in which people respond to external stimuli in conjunction with influences from the environment (Bukatko & Daehler, 2012; Eggen & Kauchak, 2007; Shaffer, 2008). 78 Figure 11 Influences on personal development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 62) The figure above illustrates how the environment as well as hereditary characteristics can shape the personal development of children. It can be proposed that changes such as the unstable economy (and the influence it has on parents as was discussed in Chapter 2) in conjunction with the temperament of children will determine the extent to which children are affected by financial changes within the family as well as the emotional development of children. In viewing emotional development during middle childhood, this phase is viewed as a critical phase in the development of emotional competence in children (Colle & Giudice, 2010). Emotional competence is referred to as the way in which children are able to respond emotionally yet concXrrently ³apply their knowledge about emotions and their expression to relationships with others, so that they can negotiate interpersonal exchanges and regulate their emotional e[periences´ (Denham, et al. 2003, p. 238). Emotional change should be especially pronounced in two areas: the understanding of complex social emotions (e.g., shame, pride, embarrassment) and the deliberate, self-aware employment of emotion regulation strategies (Colle & Giudice, 2010). Charlsworth, Wood and Viggiani (2007) suggest Influences on personal development Heredity Environment Parents and other adults Peers 79 that during middle childhood children become increasingly able to regulate, control and manage these emotions. Literature (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010; Louw & Louw, 2007, Meece & Daniels, 2008; Santrock, 2008) proposes the following emotional developmental changes that occur during middle childhood: ? Emotions such as shame and pride are increasingly better understood and more integrated than in early childhood. ? Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced simultaneously in one particular situation. ? Improved tendency to take events and situations into account that lead to emotional reactions. ? Improvement in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional responses. ? The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. ? Capacity for sincere empathy. It is clear from the above mentioned that children in middle childhood are increasingly able to assess their world and react towards it, which motivates the argument that children during this phase of development are more able to react in various ways and on various levels to economic changes within the family. When viewing emotional development during adolescence, literature (Arnett, 2007; Zirpoli, 2008) states that it is important to note that individuals of this age are confronted with the understanding and management of emotions. 80 For more than a century, scientists have debated whether adolescence is by definition a time of emotional ³storm and stress´ There is considerable evidence that on average adolescents experience more extreme affect (both positive and negative) and more variable mood states in their everyday lives than do their adult counterparts (Silvers et al, 2012, p. 1). Adolescence is often depicted as a time of emotional turmoil as emotional fluctuations increase due to significant hormonal changes in puberty (Zirpoli, 2008; Santrock, 2008). Burnett, Bird, Moll, Frith and Blakemore (2011) state that during adolescence, profound changes take place. Hormonal changes specifically during this period are proved to cause emotional fluctuations (Santrock, 2008). It is noted that adolescents experience wide fluctuations in their daily emotional conditions and assisting them to manage these emotions is vital to the successful fulfilment of adulthood (Larson & Brown, 2007). It is important to note that these emotional fluctuations are normal, as they aid individuals in the development of competent adults (Santrock, 2008). As adolescents move into adulthood, emotional fluctuations decrease which reflects an adaptation to hormone levels (Santrock, 2008; Slater & Bremner, 2011). $merican $cademy of &hild and $dolescent’s )acts for )amilies  sXggests that during early adolescence (specifically ages 11-13) feelings of awkwardness in their bodies are experienced which caXse a sense of worry aboXt being ³normal´ which lead to moodiness. Feelings of love and compassion also become apparent during this stage of development and intense self-involvement and change between high expectations and poor self-concept are proven to be true (American Academy of &hild and $dolescent’s )acts for )amilies   81 The development of identity and self-concept in children and adolescents aids in the manner and distinct way in which they will perceive and react to day-to-day challenges. 3.3.4 Self-concept and identity development Self -concept can be defined as an ³individXals’ cognitive assessment of their physical social and academic competence´ whereas identity is defined as ³individXals’ sense of self who they are what their e[istence means and what they want in life´ (ggen .aXchak  p 70). Zimmerman and Cleary (2006) also agree with this statement. The development of both of these entities in middle childhood and adolescence are of utmost importance in becoming a well-adapted and functioning adult. The development of self-concept and identity cannot be separated from the theories of (rik (rikson (rikson   (rikson’s theory of the eight stages of psychosocial development reflects the particular challenges that individuals face during a specific age of development, as illustrated below (Louw & Louw, 2007): Table 6 (rikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development (rikson  /oXw /oXw 2007, p. 20) PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE AGE CHALLENGE Basic trust versus mistrust Birth to one year To develop a sense that the world is a safe and good place. 82 Autonomy versus shame and doubt One to three years To realise that one is an independent person who can make decisions. Initiative versus guilt Three to six years To develop a willingness to try new things and to handle failure. Industry versus inferiority Six years to adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with others. Identity versus identity confusion Adolescence To develop a lasting, integrated sense of self. Intimacy versus isolation Young adulthood To commit to another in a loving relationship. Generativity versus stagnation Middle adulthood To contribute to younger people, through child rearing, child care or other productive work. Integrity versus despair Later life 7o view one’s life as satisfactory and worth living. The table above presents the psychosocial development throughout the lifespan, and puts forward the notion that each developmental stage has its own unique challenge or crisis. During middle childhood, the crisis of industry versus 83 inferiority is apparent. Erikson (1968, p. 123) defines a sense of industry as children’s ³sense of being able to make things and make them well and even perfectly´ and continXes to define sense of inferiority as ³children’s estrangement from themselves and from their developmental task which may be caused by and insXfficient resolXtion of the preceding conflict´ (rikson  p 124). In this stage of development (middle childhood), children are attempting to acquire a belief in their own competence, although at times the task at hand might still be too difficult which give way to feelings of incompetence. During middle childhood, children are increasingly able to describe themselves in reference to their specific traits and characteristics. According to Boyd and Bee (2008, p. 280) the development of self-concept between the ages of six and twelve include two processes namely a psychological self and a valued self. The psychological self , according to Boyd and Bee (2008, p. 280), is the understanding of persons of their enduring psychological qualities whereas although persons can have an accurate view of their personality traits, they may still fail to view them as individuals (valued self ) as a result of the view of others. As children enter middle childhood, they receive more feedback, views and responses from others (due to the fact that they are in formal structures of school) and are therefore now able to create a realistic view of themselves 7he view and others’ MXdgements of others and one’s feelings aboXt these MXdgements are defined as self- esteem (Crawford, 2009). Doherty and Hughes (2009) state that self-esteem is concerned with a comparison between the self and others. Berk (2008) states that children in middle childhood form mainly four separate self-esteems: academic competence, social competence, physical competence and physical appearance, as illustrated in the figure below. 84 Figure 12 Self-esteem (Berk, 2008, p. 484) The figure graphically depicts the various settings that can affect the self- esteem of children. It can be argued that for some children in middle childhood, academic competence is of more importance than for example social competence, all of which forms part of a child’s perception of other’s perception which aids in the formation of identity. In viewing the phase of adolescence, the confrontation of the proposed crisis of identity versus identity c onfusion (Berns, 2007, p. 44; Jones et al. 2012; Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2006, p. 460) is the central developmental task. During this phase of development, the process of identity formation involves the process of evaluating and reflecting on one’s traits, interests and abilities. The resolution of this proposed crisis should end in the development of identity. Marcia (Santrock, 2008; Eggen & Kauchak, 2007) addresses these supposed crises as viewed by Erikson and state that adolescence does not consist of identity resolution or identity confusion, but rather the degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains (Kroger & Marcia, 2011; Eggen & General self-esteem Academic competence Social competence Physical /athletic competence Physical appearance Language arts Mathematics Other school subjects Relationship with peers Relationship with parents Outdoor games Various sports 85 Kauchak, 2007). Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argXes that crises and commitment form the two integral parts of the development of adolescents’ identities. Marcia (Marcia, 1966) defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being re-examined. The end outcome of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value. According to James Marcia (Socialscientist.us, 2012) each state is determined by two factors: 1. Is the adolescent committed to an identity? , and 2. Is the individual searching for his/her true identity? In reference to the mentioned identity formation, the following states in identity development are suggested: Table 7 States of identity development (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 73) STATE DESCRIPTION Identity diffusion The status in which adolescents do not have a sense of having choices; they have not yet made (nor are attempting/willing to make) a commitment. Identity foreclosure The status in which adolescents seem willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not 86 experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e.g. allowing parents to determine career directions) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options. Identity moratorium The status in which adolescents are currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and are ready to make choices, but have not made a commitment to these choices yet. Identity achievement The status in which adolescents have gone through an identity crisis and have made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that they have chosen. From the table above, it can be derived that identity plays an integral role during the development through adolescence in order to progress to well-adjusted adulthood. In viewing the facts that were presented in this section, it is of importance to note the emphasis on how the views of others can shape children. In viewing this from an ecological systems perspective, as well as a field perspective, the possibility exists that finances can have an impact on the development of children and adolescents’ self-concept and identity development. Due to financial strain, social 87 encounters (parties etc.) can reduce, and parents are not able to provide their children with the latest trends in toys and clothing. This can have a significant influence on children’s and adolescents’ perception by peers which constitutes self- worth and identity formation. The self-esteem of children and adolescents can be affected and impacted on which can have an impact on the social development of children and adolescents. 3.3.5 Social development Social development is defined by Eggen and Kauchak (2007) as “the advances people make in their ability to interact and get along with others, and it affects both learning and satisfaction with learning experiences” (p. 63). During middle childhood and adolescence, peer interaction become of increased importance as the amount of time they spend among peers are increased due to the attendance of an educational institute and peer relations seem to be more egalitarian and balanced than relationships with parents (Gifford-Smith & Brownell, 2003, Meece & Daniels, 2008). Although the role of peers differs during middle childhood and adolescence, the interaction within a peer group serves the following general functions according to Louw and Louw (2007): ? It provides comradeship as it offers support, love and affection; ? The group provides the individual with a space where new behaviors can be practised; ? It serves as a platform for the transference of knowledge and information; ? Peer groups facilitate the teaching of rules and boundaries. The violation of rules of the peer group may have negative consequences; 88 ? The reinforcement of gender roles takes place as children become aware of the differences between boys and girls; ? Due to the strengthening of a bond with peers, the bond children have with parents, becomes weaker; ? Peer groups provide members with an experience of relationships in which they can compete with others on equal footing (p. 257). Keenan (2002) as well as Keenan and Evans (2009) suggest the following milestones in social development of children: Table 8 Milestones in children’s social development M,/E6T21E6 ,1 &+,/'5E1’6 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Age Milestones Birth to six months Aware of other infants. Increase in rates of vocalisation. 6-12 months Infants show interest in their peers. Display emotional expression towards peers. 12-24 months Social interactions increase in length and complexity and involve the use of language. Understanding of social rules. Three years Begin to engage in cooperative play and empathy as prosocial behavior becomes evident. Four years Engage in associative play and conflict between peers become observable. Six years Increase in time spent with peers and the settings of interaction are less under control of adults. Seven to nine years The goal of friendship is to gain peer acceptance. 89 Early adolescence Friendships are centred on intimacy and self-disclosure. Late adolescence Friends are increasingly seen as a source of emotional and social support. Adolescent egotism declines. The table above presents the social development milestones of children. During middle childhood, children become more inclined to interact with other children as they now associate more with their peers than at a younger age (Gifford- Smith & Brownell, 2003, p. 235), causing children at this age to become increasingly less dependent on their parents. Due to this independency, children are able to understand human interactions and are able to be reflective and articulate in their engagement with others which enable them to understand themselves and others. Berger (2006, p. 400) refers to this as social cognition . In view of the fact that children at this age are more aware of others and their interactions are less egocentric, peer group interaction takes place and meaningful friendships can be cultivated. Within peer relations, popularity also becomes of increased importance, especially in middle childhood. According to Papalia, Olds and Feldman (2006, p. 392) popularity can be measured in two ways: sociometric popularity (by asking children which peers they like most and least) and perceived popularity (by asking children which children are best liked by their peers) which contribute to social development. In viewing the social development of adolescents, adolescence is seen as a critical period in social development as peer networks expand, close friendships become of increased importance and romantic relationships emerge (La Greca & Harrison, 2005). The American Psychological Association (2002) suggests that the 90 social development of adolescents is best considered in the contexts in which it occurs; that is, relating to peers, family, school, work, and community. Adolescence is also referred to as a period of development and consolidation of identity and understanding of the self in relation to the social world (Choudhury, Blakemore & Charman, 2006). In addition to this, Sebastian, Burnett and Blakemore (2008, p. 441) posit the notion that there are two main sources of information that is used to build up a self-concept: Direct appraisals (derived from reactions to past events and experiences) and reflected appraisals (beliefs of the views of others). It is stated that during adolescence, adolescents are more likely to compare themselves with others and to understand the judgement of others. According to Meece and Daniels (2008), significant changes occur in peer relations during adolescence as adolescents develop a need for closer relationships and intimacy with friends. Due to this need, adolescents also conform to the majority in order to fit in, which can lead to the adherence to peer pressure. Being popular and accepted by peers was the main theme of the previous section on social development and proves to have increased priority among children of middle childhood as well as adolescence, which can be mirrored in the possible effects of financial difficulty within the family. Moral development will be discussed next. 3.3.6 Moral development Morality is defined as ³principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavioXr´ 2[ford Dictionaries, 2012). Santrock (2008) defines moral development as the process through which children acquire the 91 principles which guide their behavior in relation to acceptable societal norms. The development of pro-social behaviors and traits such as honesty, fairness, and respect for others enable children to become responsible, well-adjusted adults (Eggan & Kauchak, 2007; Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2011). Eisenberg (2000) suggests that some emotions (such as guilt, shame and empathy) play a fundamental role in morality. Both Piaget and Kohlberg theorised about moral development as part of human development. Piaget (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2011; Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p. 80) suggested that children’s responses to moral difficXlties can be divided into two broad stages, namely external morality (a stage of moral development in which individuals view rules as boxed and permanent and enforced by authority figures) and autonomous morality (a stage characterised by the belief that fairness and justice is a reciprocal process of treating others as they would want to be treated (Eggen & Kauchak, 2007, p.   ,n comparison to 3iaget’s views it can be stated that .ohlberg’s stages of moral development .ohlberg  cannot be separated from any discussion of moral development. He proposes that the development of moral thinking takes place in three levels, each of which is characterised by two stages, as illustrated below: 92 Figure 13 .ohlberg’s three levels and si[ stages on moral development 6antrock, 2008, p. 433, Kohlberg, 1971, p. 1-2) The figure above illustrates the different levels of moral development. According to Papalia, Olds and Feldman (2006) and Boeree (2003) the moral development of children in middle childhood can be characterised by the pre- LEVEL 1 PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL NO INTERNALISATION Stage 1 Heteronymous morality Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment. Stage 2 Individualism, purpose and exchange Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange. LEVEL 2 CONVENTIONAL LEVEL INTERMEDIATE INTERNALISATION Stage 3 Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity Individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgements. Stage 4 Social systems morality Moral judgements are based on the understanding of social order, law, justice, and duty. LEVEL 3 POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL FULL INTERNALISATION Stage 5 Social contract or utility and individual rights Stage 6 Universal ethical principles The person has developed moral judgements that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed. 93 conventional level. During this phase, children have not yet developed the complete understanding that rules are social concords and they accept and adapt rules from significant others, without considering the origin of the rule (Louw & Louw, 2007; Slater & Bremner, 2011) which is more established in adolescence. This implies that children are not always able to conform to the realities of the situation in the family caused by a lack of or change in finances. In addition to the stages of moral development as proposed by Kohlberg (1971), Barnett and Moore (n.d.) conceptualize stages of moral development as moral internalisation, moral construction and self-control: ? During the stage of moral internalisation, toddlers learn to model various pro- social actions which are internalised at the age between three and six when feelings such as guilt follow misdeeds. Basic societal standards become internalised between seven and eleven after which adolescent years are consumed by moral dilemmas and the need for moral thought and action (Barnett & Moore, n.d.). ? Moral construction starts occurring between three and six when children are able to make moral judgements. After the age of seven, responses to moral dilemmas focus more on rewards and punishment after which adolescent years are involved with moral thoughts and actions become integrated (Barnett & Moore, n.d). ? Self -control during the age between one and one and two years takes place through the learning of the delay of gratification. Self-control improves with age and during middle childhood self-control as well as cognitive and social 94 strategies are effective. Moral self-regulation continues to improve from the age of twelve through adulthood (Barnett & Moore, n.d). In viewing the moral development of adolescents, it can be viewed in the postconventional level of full internalisation within .ohlberg’s model as adolescents view moral rules as relevant to a particular group and rules are entities that should be followed. Adolescence is filled with moral dilemmas, decisions and experiences and adolescents should rely on moral construction, moral internalisation and self- control in order to make good decisions (Barnett & Moore, n.d.). Hart and Carlo (2005) state that moral development in adolescence has become a popular research topic in recent years due to the following reasons: ? Adolescence is the foundation for adulthood – the shaping of adult moral character commences during adolescence, which emphasises the importance of the regulation of influences on adolescents; ? Adolescence has qualities that distinguish it distinctly from childhood – due to the distinct nature of adolescence as a developmental phase, moral character is formed between childhood and adulthood; ? Adolescence is a stage of development which brings forth distinctive contexts and experiences as well as skills – it is stated that skills related to a moral life are more developed in adolescence than in childhood (Hart & Carlo, 2005, p. 223-225). In reference to the above mentioned discussion of moral development, Raaijmakers, Engels and Van Hoof (2005) make a distinction between moral judgement (includes the content of arguments in making concrete moral decisions such as moral beliefs) and moral reasoning (the structure underlying these arguments). Moral beliefs of adolescents are assumed to have developed from an 95 egocentric orientation to a more complex social orientation (Bar-Tal & Nissim, 2011; Raaijmakers, Engels & Van Hoof, 2005). Barnett and Moore (n.d.) as well as Morris, Eisenberg and Houtlberg (2011) continue and propose that moral development of adolescents consist of three components, namely the emotional, behavioral and emotional components. These components encourage the development of empathy and social understanding which can contribute to adolescents’ understanding of the family’s financial dilemma The section above illustrated how children and adolescents develop morally as part of their growth process through life. An integral part of the growth process of children and adolescents is the role and function of the family. It is argued that the stage of development in which children or adolescents is, plays a role in children’s experience of the importance of the family, which in the end forms an integral part of children’s or adolescents e[perience of the family’s financial realities 3.3.7 The role of the family during middle childhood and adolescence A family serves various functions in order to meet the needs of its members. For children in middle childhood, the family provides food, clothing and shelter, assists in the mastering of academic and social skills, aids in the development of self-respect, the nurturing of friendships and the provision of harmony and stability (Berger, 2006). Although the family has the above mentioned functions for children in middle childhood, the role of the family has a different purpose (meaning) for adolescents.. Children in middle childhood start to spend less time within the family setting and more time away from home in the company of peers (Meece & Daniels, 2008). The relationship between parents and children in middle childhood can be seen as a 96 process of co-regulation (the process by which parents shift control from the adult to the child) which prepares children for adolescence by allowing them to conduct their own decision making (Berk, 2012; Louw & Louw, 2007; Maccoby, 1984). During adolescence, on the contrary, the family practices change, as adolescents strive towards autonomy and independence which, at times, can give way to conflict (Louw & Louw, 2007). According to Louw and Louw (2007) the reasons for the change in interactional patterns between parents and adolescents are related to the following: ? The physical changes caused by hormonal secretions which cause mood swings; ? Cognitive changes, which cause an increase in questioning, idealism and proneness to argumentativeness; ? Development of own identity; ? Increased independence due to development of identity; ? The onset of adolescence overlaps with parents’ own development in midlife where hormonal changes are also involved (p. 326). Even though children in middle childhood and adolescence have different needs of the function of a family, the basic characteristics are the same. Callaghan and Minuchin (as cited in http://pages.towson.edu/anemerof/family_functions.htm) suggest the functions and characteristics of healthy families as opposed to the characteristics of dysfunctional families. A comparison between healthy and dysfunctional families is presented below: 97 Table 9 Healthy and dysfunctional families (Callaghan & Minuchin, n.d.) HEALTHY FAMILIES DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILIES Clearly identified hierarchy. Well-defined parental roles. Flexibility & adaptability ? Can respond to situational & maturational crises. Consistent, clear rules & expectations. Consistent affection. Consistent limit-setting. Open bi-directional communication. Increased degree of support nurturance and acceptance of family members. 5igidity ? lack of flexibility. /ack of individXation ? enmeshment / loss of autonomy. Extreme detachment. Scape-goating of family members (often children) who are the object of displaced conflict / criticism. 7riangXlation ? Detouring conflict between two people by involving a third person, thereby stabilising the relationship between the original pair. Faulty problem solving skills. Conflict avoidance. Inconsistent application of affection / discipline. Low levels of support / nurturance / 98 acceptance. Increased degree of expressed hostility towards each other / other family members. In viewing the table above, it can be noted that the impact of financial difficulty can cause families to move from healthy families to dysfunctional families. Extreme detachment, faulty problem solving skills, conflict between people, inconsistent application of affection and discipline as well as low levels of support and nurturing can all be possible causes of parents who suffer from stress due to the effects of an unstable economy, for example, unemployment or the lack of income. The section to follow aims to integrate the above discussed developmental theory with its relevance to economic instability as well as the theories that form the theoretical underpinning of this study. 3.4 The integration of human development, theories and the economy This chapter is focused on the development of children and adolescents respectively. The motivation for discussing these developmental aspects was of importance, since it serves as a backdrop to truly understand the way in which children and adolescents function within themselves and the world. As the focus of this research is on the effects of economic instability, the integration of the developmental theory of children and adolescents, ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), field theory (Yontef, 1993) as well as the occurrence of financial instability is fundamental. 99 During the study of literature it was derived that the dynamics of human development as well as the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) and field theory (Yontef, 1993), as theoretical underpinning of this study, are interlinked and cannot be separated and should be viewed as an integrated approach. Theories on development indicate that humans move through life in accordance to developmental stages. These stages are highlighted by the developmental theory which provides insight into understanding individuals and the world surrounding them. Developmental theories further postulates that the course of the development of individuals is not static and is influenced and affected by external factors/systems, like family, peer relations etc. It is argued that this statement is echoed in gestalt field theory, as individuals cannot be viewed in isolation and external fields (systems) cannot be disregarded. Individuals are therefore understood through interactions with the environment as an interrelated relationship between individuals and the environment exists. This resonates with the ecological systems theory, as it can be argued that systems interact with the environment and that there is a mutual correspondence between the two. The environment has an influence on systems and systems have an influence on the environment. Should a change within the environment occur, like economic instability, the assumption can be made that individuals will be affected to some extent. Since individuals are influenced by their interactions with other systems, fields, environments, they do not function in isolation but as a summation of all the aspects to comprise one unified whole. 100 As a means of graphically depicting the argument above, a model was compiled for viewing the impact of economic instability on individuals as holistic beings. Below is an illustration of the connectedness between these various ideologies: Figure 14 The ecological developmental model for understanding the effects of economic instability on individuals The model above can be explained as follows: 101 Area 1: The micro system (gender, age, health etc.), is the system in which individuals function directly. It can be seen as the field or system in which physical and cognitive development of individuals take place. This area of the system is directly related to individuals. In integrating this with an economic unstable perspective it can be argXed that individXals’ cognitive development and physical development can be affected due to a lack of finance. During middle childhood, as well as adolescence, significant changes in physical and cognitive development take place which can easily be affected by a lack of or change in finance. For example, if parents are not able to afford appropriate education and extracurricular activities it is to the detriment of the children’s development Area 2: Within the meso system, peers and family can be viewed as an integral role in the development of identity of individuals’ development. The fact that economic instability places stress on the functioning of the family as well as the fact that due to a decrease in finance, parents are not able to provide children with the latest trends (games, clothing etc.) effecting their interaction among peers, which has an influence on individuals. Especially during adolescence the development of identity is significant which stresses the influence that a lack of finance can possibly have on adolescents. Area 3 : The exo system views the wider community as a part of social development of children and adolescents. Children and adolescents develop through interaction with the wider society. Evidently, it can be argued that the unstable economic climate impacts this system, as explained in Chapter 2. The fact that families are possibly not able to socialise to the extent they used to, proves to have an impact on the social development of children. It is also true that children and 102 adolescents are not able to attend all the social gatherings (parties) offered by peers due to the fact that parents are possibly not able to afford numerous gifts. Area 4: The global economic crisis impacts on the broader ideologies of the larger society which not only affects selected groups, but the world, as was discussed in Chapter 2. The macro system is impacted on by the economic unstable situation, which proves to have an impact on employment security, which lastly has an impact on the social and moral development of children. In viewing all four areas, it is encompassed in an overall field which consists of various intertwined fields which affect and impact on each other. All of these different fields form part of the overall field in which individuals function which is supported by the notion of holism within the Gestalt paradigm. 3.5 Conclusion In this chapter, areas of development have been discussed as it pertains to understanding the impact of economic instability on children and adolescents. Specific aspects on middle childhood and adolescence were presented to exemplify their inimitability. The integration with the theoretical framework of this model (figure 14) illustrated and underlined the impact that change in the economy can have on families and especially children. The interconnectedness of the concepts of the ecological systems theory, gestalt field theory, developmental theories and economic instability, was graphically depicted at the end of the chapter. This model illustrated the nature and extent to which financially unstable conditions can affect and infiltrate into the functioning of individuals and families. 103 The following chapter will provide the reader with the background of what was used to design assistance for parents to help children deal with the effects of economic instability within the family system. 104 CHAPTER 4 CONCEPTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASSISTANCE FOR PARENTS 4.1 Introduction The preceding chapter provided the reader with an overview of the development during middle childhood and adolescence as a means of illustrating the unique manner in which financial changes within the family affect children in middle childhood and adolescents. The aim of this research was to develop assistance for parents to help children and adolescents cope with the effects of financial changes within the family, hence this chapter will focus on gestalt theory and play therapy which served as the conceptual framework of this study. In this chapter to follow, the main concepts that form the underpinning of this study will be discussed. A discussion on play and play therapy as intervention medium will follow, after which Gestalt as chosen approach will be presented with specific focus on the relationship between parents and children. The theoretical background of websites and the use of multimedia features will be discussed. Finally, this chapter will conclude with a summary of the principles of these concepts that were used in the design of the website and activities. 4.2 Discussing financial matters in conversations ³)inance´ is often viewed as a difficXlt topic for parents to discXss with their children. A survey that was conducted (Tysiac, 2012) indicated that parents avoid having to talk to their children about their finances. The results from the study indicated that just 13 percent of parents surveyed talk daily with their children about 105 financial matters. It was indicated that parents prefer to talk to their children about: the importance of good manners (95 percent), the benefits of good eating habits (87 percent), importance of getting good grades (87 percent), the dangers of drugs and alcohol (84 percent) and the risks of smoking (82 percent). These findings clearly illustrate the difficulty parents experience in facilitating conversations about financial matters with their children. This notion is supported by Staff (2012) who states that parents would rather talk about bullying and smoking or drugs than about finances in the family. Carlozo (2012) as well as Kahan (2012) note the difficulty parents experience in discussing finances in the family. In addition to the section above, it is recommended and supported that it is advisable for parents to talk to their children and adolescents about finances in the family. Clark (2012) and Newman (2011) state that parents should portray that finance is not an unmentionable subject and children and adolescents need to be made aware that the financial situation is not due to a fault of their own and the financial situation should not be overstated (as this could cause a rise in anxiety levels of children and adolescents). In reference to the stated above, it is evident that a medium of support for parents is desired. This study intercepts this lacuna with the design of a website with multimedia features which offers parents practical guidelines and activities to use with their children and adolescents. The concepts that were used as backdrop in the design and compilation of this are presented accordingly after which a summary prior to the conclusion will be offered. 106 4.3 Play and play therapy as intervention medium ³&hildren mXst be approached and Xnderstood from a developmental perspective. They must not be viewed as miniature adults. Their world is one of concrete realities and their e[periences often are commXnicated throXgh play´ (Landreth, 2005, p. 9). Play is viewed as the activity which consumes an appreciable portion of children’s time 6mith Cowie & Blades, 2011; Smith, 2010) and play and activities are the mediXm which facilitates children’s e[pression and e[ploration of their world (Giddens, 2011; Landreth, 2005). There are various definitions of play, different forms of play, functions of play as well as the therapeutic value of play. Some definitions of which have been more investigated than others. In the subsequent section play as well as play therapy as motivation for this chosen modality will be explored. These concepts have been used in the design of assistance (website and activities) for parents to use with their children and adolescents as a means of dealing with the effects of economic instability in the family. Play is defined as a physical or mental leisure activity that is undertaken purely for enjoyment or amusement and is undertaken for own interest (Lindon, 2001; Play Therapy United Kingdom, 2012). It is also described as an antithesis of work as it should be freely chosen, intrinsically motivated, nonliteral, freely chosen and an active engagement (Lifter, Mason & Barton, 2011; 2’&onnor  p 3). For a significant part of life, parents are involved in the play of their children. Play is noted to serve various purposes and functions. The views of different theorists on types of play and their functions are presented in the successive table: 107 Table 10 Types of play and their functions BLOM (2006, p. 196-201) KEENAN (2002, p. 201) RUSS & NIEC (2011, p. 202) SMITH (2010, p. 8-9) Relaxation play: This serves the purpose of creating an atmosphere for therapeutic input. Assessment play: This form of play is utilised in order to observe the cognitive, perceptual, emotional and cultural background and motivation. Biblio -play: This includes the use of books, written word and audiovisual Cooperative play : The most complex form of play. It includes formal games, social pretend play and constructive play. Associative play: Occurs when children talk to each other and share the same materials in their play. Parallel play: Occurs when children play beside other children rather than with other Functional play: &hildren’s appropriate use of objects. Symbolic/ Pretend play: It requires the ability to manipulate objects to represent real- world interpretations. Social play: Less object focused, as it involves social interaction. Social contingency play: Games such as peek-a-boo where the enjoyment lies in the response of others. Sensorimotor play: Involves activities with objects that are based on the sensory properties of the object (banging blocks together). Object play: This involves play with objects such as Lego blocks, 108 utilities. Dramati sed play: This provides children with the opportunity to play out situations within a safe environment. Creative play: This includes aspects of art therapy, such as drawing, painting and clay work which provides children with the opportunity to express emotions. children. Onlooker: Children watch other children play but do not join in. Unoccupied play: Takes place when children do not play with anything but simply watch others. Solitary play: When children play by themselves in a way that is noticeably different from those around them. modelling clay etc. Language play: Children can play with noises, syllables, words and phrases. Physical activity play: This refers to gross bodily movements in the form of running, jumping etc. Fantasy or pretend play: This involves the nonliteral use of objects, actions and vocalisations such as role play, miming etc. The table above illustrates the different types of play and the functions these serve in the development of children and adolescents. In applying this to the age groups of the study, it is evident that children during middle childhood become increasingly more involved in concrete operations such as skills learning, self- 109 evaluation and more purposeful, productive play, whereas adolescents have an increased interest and involvement in socialisation (Newman & Newman, 2011). The activities that were designed in this research, were designed to such an extent that these activities suite and fit the description above. The designing of activities were embedded in the modality of play therapy. It is of vital importance to acknowledge that the aim of the website and activities is not to replace the role of therapists or to mould parents into therapists. The aim thereof is to empower parents by making them more aware of the impact of finance on children, and to equip them with activities to facilitate conversations with their children about difficult financial matters. Play Therapy , conversely, is contextualised as a ³variety of play and creative arts techniques to alleviate chronic, mild and moderate psychological and emotional conditions in children that are causing behavioral problems and/or are preventing children from realising their potential ´(Play Therapy United Kingdom, 2012, par. 1). Landreth (2012) agrees with this definition. It is important to make mention of the distinguishing characteristics and differences between play and play therapy. Play Therapy United Kingdom (2012) presents the following as contextual definitions and differences: 110 Table 11 Differences between play and play therapy LEVEL PLAY PLAY THERAPY VARIABLE Objectives (Level of functioning) Enjoyment Individual learning Self- development Normal Mental health & emotional well-being (Preventative and curative) Chronic mild, moderate and severe conditions Mild to moderate and severe conditions Impairment Description & role of provider(s) None )orm a therapeXtic relationship ? short to medium or long term (months/year). This relationship will normally be between the therapist and child but may also be between a therapeutic team and a child. Age range (Emotional) Any 3-14 years Play content 100% 80-90% Assessment Case management Outcome measurement Psychological theories None Intermediate 111 Type of intervention None (Self-help) Integrative play therapy techniques Safety Physical Physical Emotional & psychological safety Confidentiality Clinical supervision None Essential Quality management None Complex – multiple outcome measures The table above illustrates the significant differences between play and play therapy. One of the main differences between play and play therapy is presented as play therapy having to be clinically supervised and quality management thereof is essential. According to Kreitler, Oppenheim and Segev-Shoham (as cited in Kreitler, Ben-Arush & Martin, 2012) as well as Malchoidi (2005) different modalities of expressive therapy, as conducted by a qualified, registered professional within a therapeutic process (Ray, 2011), exists such as art therapy (use of art media, images, and the creative process), music therapy (music), drama therapy (systematic and intentional use of drama and theatre processes), dance/movement therapy, poetry and biblio therapy (use of various literature sources) as well as sand play therapy (use of sandbox and miniatures). 112 The motivation to make use of the foundations of play therapy lies in the notion that play therapy encompasses comprehensive forms of expression, as opposed to just focussing on, for example, drama or literature. The motivation for the use of play therapy is confirmed by the writings of Landreth (2012) as well as Ray (2011) who suggest the following uses of play therapy: Fun: The use of play provides children with an experience of enjoyment. This serves to lower children’s resistance which makes children more receptive; Symbolic expression: Feelings and thoughts of children can be symbolically expressed, as the views of Piaget (Piaget, 1972) and Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1978) confirm that children use symbols for the acquisition of language, cognition and the expression of emotion; Catharsis: Play allows children to work through issues of the greatest consequence to them; Social development: Play encourages the expression of children’s word and promotes communication between the self and others; Mastery: This enables children to take control over their world. They have the capability to take control over anything; Release of energy: Unused energy is freely expressed. Reddy, Files-Hall and Schaefer (2005) as well as Schaefer (2011) also note that the benefits of play therapy, as an expressive therapy, are endless. It is stated that it results in children becoming more responsible for behaviors and developing more successful strategies, new and creative solutions to problems are developed, respect and acceptance of self and others are learned and children learn to 113 experience and express emotion. This is also noted by Hall, Schaefer and Kaduson (2002) as well as Sheridan, Howard and Elderson (2011). Play therapy cultivates empathy and respect for thoughts and feelings of others whilst learning new social skills and relational skills with family. It develops children’s self-efficacy and thus a better assuredness about their abilities (Reddy, Files-Hall & Schaefer, 2005; Sheridan, Howard & Elderson 2011). As play therapy was chosen as the intervention medium in this research, approaches were investigated. There are various approaches to play therapy of which psychoanalytic, humanistic and cognitive behavioral tend to dominate literatXre and clinical practice 2’&onner   )or the pXrpose of backgroXnd information as well as the motivation for choosing gestalt as the approach in this research, psychoanalytic, objects relation therapy, cognitive behavioural, narrative and structured therapy (gestalt) will comprehensively be discussed. Note that the role of the therapist also differs in each of the following modalities: Psychoanalytic approach: &hildren’s play was seen to take place withoXt the analysis of an adult. The task of the therapist is to interpret the symbolic content of children’s play :ilson 5yan  ,n this approach therapists serve the purpose of an interpreter as they reflect on what children bring to the session and reflects it back to children to facilitate insight Malchiodi  2’&onner   Objects relation therapy: Play is viewed as a cardinal part in the therapeutic experience. The person-to-person relationship with the therapist is crucial. It is also stated that play is a means by which children manage the transition between the inner world of the psyche and outer reality and thus ³always on the theoretical line 114 between the subjective and that which is objectively perceived ´(Goldberg & Goldberg, 2012; Wilson & Ryan, 2008). Cognitive behavioral: This approach postulates the different aspects of an individXal’s internal fXnctioning 7he therapist and child work together to determine goals of intervention, which is based on positive reinforcement of positive behavior in order to illuminate negative behaviors (Kendall, 2012; Wilson & Ryan, 2008) Narrative therapy: 7he Xnderlying principle is that people’s lives are constituted by stories which they tell themselves. This enables the interpretation of lives through a frame of reference (Goldberg & Goldberg, 2012; Wilson & Ryan, 2008). The narrative therapist focuses upon narrative in the therapy. The narrative therapist is a collaborator with the client in the process of developing richer stories or narratives (Turner, 2011). Structured play therapy (Gestalt framework): In this type of therapy therapists use a variety of techniques to guide children directly or indirectly into areas of play. 6pecific areas of children’s e[perience are then worked with :ilson 5yan   In addition to the above mentioned, it is stated that the use of play therapy as modality in the design of the website and activities does not aim at facilitating a therapeutic process. The motivation therefore is that the designed activities create a platform to facilitate conversation between a parent and child in an attempt to facilitate awareness which will assist children and adolescents in dealing with their feelings caused by the unstable financial position of the family. The foundations of Gestalt are rooted within Play therapy. The section to follow will be dedicated to a discussion on the main concepts within the gestalt paradigm. 115 4.4. Gestalt as basis of play therapy as intervention Gestalt is a German term which generally refers to a pattern, form, shape or configuration which relates to a person in totality (Mann, 2010; Schaefer, 2011). A gestalt therefore represents a whole experience based on the satisfaction of a specific need (Mann, 2010). :ithin *estalt theory the central hXman activity is viewed as people’s need to give meaning to their perceptions, their experience and their existence. The Gestalt approach is therefore concerned with defining the nature of human lives in terms of meaningful wholes, whether these are biological or spiritual (Mann, 2010, p. 3). 7he three main foXndations of gestalt are referred to as the ³three pillars of *estalt´ which are the field theory phenomenology and dialogue according to Mann (2010). The first pillar, field theory, suggests that the context of persons determine their experience. The field perspective views all occurrences as part of an inextricably linked web of relations and interactions, called the field (Nevis, 2000). From this point of view, objects, humans and ideas exist by virtue of interplay among each other and in their relation to the field (Corsini & Wedding, 2010). A person cannot be separated from the field and everything that changes within the field, has an impact on the other part of the field. The views of Kurt Lewin (Lewin, 1967) and Gary Yontef (Yontef, 1993) can be summarised as follows: A field can be defined as a dynamic, interrelated system, where one part influences other parts in the system. It assumes that behavior and cognitive processes are part of a field that affect each other. A field is also continuous in space and time and everything is of a field which defines phenomena. Any change that 116 takes place in a part of a field affects everything else which emphasises the dynamic nature of the field. Finally, any change in one process changes the entire pattern which can exist at many levels. In viewing the above mentioned, economic instability and the effects thereof on the family, can be viewed from the field theory perspective. It can be argued that when economic changes occur, it can have a financial impact on the parents within the family system. This change in the field brings about change in the individual. If the economy causes change within the family, it can bring about change for the parents which will in turn affect the children. The above mentioned illustrates the dynamic nature of the field and the fact that the field determines phenomenology, which is also viewed as the second pillar of gestalt. The term phenomenology refers to the search for understanding of what is revealed instead of the interpreter’s observation (Mann, 2010). According to Yontef (1993), phenomenology is a discipline that enables people to separate residue from the past, from what is actually perceived. Blom (2006) adds that the phenomenological basis of gestalt implies that people create their own world in a distinctive manner. Phenomenology assists people to avoid the ordinary way of thinking, enabling them to distinguish between the actual perception, feelings and previous experience residue (Yontef, 1993). Gestalt phenomenological exploration is therefore aimed at awareness or insight. The concept of phenomenology will play a prominent role in viewing the effects that economic reality will have on children. Children’s preconceived view of money as well as receiving things of monetary value, will impact the ease with which children will accept financial change. In the case where children are not predisposed to having things, easily receiving luxuries, the sudden absence thereof will not have a dire effect. However, if children value 117 items of luxury to an extent where it is a necessity from the children’s phenomenology, the absence of a specific luxury will be more distressing. Van der Veen (2003) states that luxuries can be referred to as the non-essential nature of goods Xsing terms sXch as ³e[tra e[travagance indXlgence treat afflXence sXmptXoXsness and splendoXr´ p 406). All of which is in jeopardy for some families due to the impact of the economic climate. The above argument highlights the importance of assisting parents in facilitating these financial changes in the family with their children. The activities were designed in such a manner that dialogue becomes the vehicle for helping children deal with these changes in the house. Dialogue is regarded as the third pillar of gestalt and is concerned with what happens between two people within the relationship and what emerges from this relationship. The term refers to more than just the presence of speech (Joyce & Sills, 2001). Gestalt theory suggests the dialogic relationship which is described by Buber (as cited in Joyce & Sills, 2001) as an attitXde of ³genXinely feeling  sensing / experiencing other persons as a person (not an object or part–obMect  and a willingness to deeply ‘hear’ other persons’ experience without prejudgement … to hear what is not being spoken and to see what is not visible´ p 43). The relationship between two people and the existential dialogue that takes place is the vehicle for true healing. Existential dialogue, according to Yontef (as cited in Turner, 2011; Woldt & Toman 2005; Yontef, 1993) should include the following characteristics: Inclusion which refers to more than just an empathetic stance towards other persons. It implies the position of imagining oneself into the experience of other persons without losing the sense of self. The confirmation of the existence of people takes place by practicing inclusion and by accepting other 118 persons as separate beings (Bar & Levine, 2012; Yontef, 1993). Presence takes place when persons are authentically present as persons as opposed to ³seeming´ The key to understanding true existential dialogue, is meeting other persons in the present (Buber, 1947: xii; Joyce & Sills, 2001; Wollants, 2012). The two parties commit to the dialogue that takes place and construct the outcomes of the interaction themselves. Blom (2006) suggests that the relationship between two people and gestalt therapy can be: considered an existential, phenomenological and holistic approach, with the emphasis on awareness in the here and now in the interdependence between people and their environment. This improves organismic self-regulation in that people become aware of choices they can make in respect of their behavior and they can thus define significance of their life (p. 19). Relationships in Gestalt are viewed as an I-Thou relationship (Yontef, 1978). Relationships therefore, play an important role in Gestalt therapy and philosophy as such. Literature (Beisser, 1970; Perls, Hefferline & Goodman, 1951) posits various main concepts that underline the gestalt philosophy and approach to therapy. These concepts were used as foundation in the design and compilation of the website and activities to assist parents in helping children and adolescents cope with financial instability in the family. The designed activities serve as an instrument to create conversation between parents and children which aids and encourages awareness of feelings about financial realities which in the end aims at facilitating healing. 119 As the gestalt approach is such an extensive paradigm, underpinned by various concepts, only the concepts that are applicable to this research will be discussed in the section to follow: 4.4.1 Holism ³2ne of the most observable facts aboXt man is that he is a Xnified organism´ (Perls, 1973, p. 8). The individual called the self is a unitary concept encompassing physical, emotional, cognitive aspects (Woldt & Toman, 2005). This understanding of man regarding the physical aspects, the emotional aspects, thoughts, all mental events, are all expressions of a unified being; of each individual (Barlow, n.d). Holistically an adequate concept of self cannot be attained by merely adding individual parts of the self together – the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Holism asserts that humans are inherently self-regulating, that they are growth oriented, and that people and their symptoms cannot be understood apart from their environment. Holism and field theory are interrelated in Gestalt theory (Yontef & Jacobs, 2011). The concept of holism can be linked and integrated into the understanding of unstable economic conditions. This concept can also be linked with the ecological systems theory and field theory. The change within the economy takes place in a macro system/field which has an impact on the family (micro field/system) and therefore the parents within a family are affected which then in turn has an effect on children within the family. Children within the family system therefore cannot escape the effects thereof as they are part a unified whole. It is also important to note that children and adolescents as individual beings should be viewed as a whole, consisting of physical, emotional and spiritual aspects. Parents should take into 120 account that their children are holistic beings and that children have a process, personality, configuration of experiences, as well as a unique level of development. It can also be mentioned that the relationship between family members should be viewed as a holistic system/field, consisting of more than just the sum of the members and the relationship between them. 4.4.2 Relationship between parents and children ³1othing happens withoXt a thread of relationship´ 2aklander  p  Gestalt therapy focuses on the importance of the relationship as the vehicle for healing. The family setting and the relationship between parents and children or adolescents are the perfect vehicle for both parties to deal with the effects of financial difficulty within the family. At times, parents can find it difficult to talk to their children about financial difficulties as they are also faced with their own emotions. Relationship is the pre-requisite when facilitating emotion and emotional expression cannot take place outside the safety of a relationship. Within the context of this study, the parents must facilitate this process and must find assistance within the pre-established parent-child relationship. As the core features of play therapy is relationship, the relationship between parents and children is the perfect container for the process of healing, facilitated by the designed activities. Schaefer and Kaduson (2006) state that a secure-base relationship is one in which children experience a sense of safety to explore their feelings and deal with the relevant issues. It can also be argued that the capacity for a genuine and authentic relationship forms the cornerstone of the healing process and the fact that humans form relationships on a constant basis, emphasises the notion that humans are 121 inherently relational and this interhuman dimension manifests itself in dialogue between people as Hycner (1991) confirms. Hycner and Jacobs (1995) state that: between is not an auxiliary construction, but the real place and bearer of what happens between men; it has received no specific attention because in distinction from the individual soul and its context, it does not exhibit a smooth continuity, but is ever again re-constitXtes in accordance with men’s meeting with one another(p. 3). The notion can be put forward that the dialogical relationship should also be viewed from a holistic perspective as what happens in the ‘between’ is much more than just the sum of the two people engaging with one another. Mackewn (1997) recommends two stances of the dialogical relationship: I-it and I-thou. I-it describes a more objective style of relating which is a more task and outcome orientated style and includes functions such as analysis, judgement and reflection (Schultz, 2004). I- thou refers to a subjective attitude where persons address other persons as a person and they are open to meeting in mutual humanity, accepting and confirming the other as they are. Moments of I-thou have the greatest potential for healing (Schultz, 2004). Oaklander (2006) theorises that the relationship between two people within a safe environment has certain fundamentals which prove to be highly significant in the engagement with children. These fundamentals can be made applicable to the relationship between parents and children and/or adolescents, as previously mentioned, when engaging in the designed activities as a means of dealing with the difficulties caused by financial challenges in the family. Oaklander (2006) proposes the following fundamentals which can be applied to the family setting instead of the 122 therapeutic relationship between therapist and client. It is suggested that the relationship between parents and children and/or adolescents, when engaging in the financial issue at hand, should encompass the following: The parents and children and/or adolescents should meet each other as two separate individuals, one is not more superior than the other; parents are as authentic as they can be, the parents will not use a teacher’s voice, the parents will accept the children and/or adolescents as they are, without any expectations, the parents will respect the rhythm of the children and/or adolescents and will be present and make good contact. In this way, relationship flourish (Oaklander, 2006), which can give way to healing. Due to the dynamic nature of the dialogic relationship, and especially the nature of a relationship between parents and children, the above mentioned principles should be strived for to create a safe environment in which these activities can be applied. The contrary is also true as disruptions in the dialogic relationship can occur which can be resolved in the following manner as put forward by Woldt and Toman (2005): ? The experience of both parties is accepted as a valid phenomenological reality; ? Responsibility for the interaction is attributed to both participants and their interaction; ? The outcome that emerges from true dialogue is the best possible in the circumstances; ? True dialogue is the relational context used to explain the emerging contact and developmental and characterological themes as they arise (p.97). 123 All of the above mentioned are born from the contact which takes place between persons or between persons and their environment. The concept of contact will be discussed in the section to follow. 4.4.3 Contact Within gestalt theory, contact takes place as soon as the organism uses the environment to satisfy a need (Zinker, 1977) which is an integral part of experience, and therefore no experience can take place without contact (Blom, 2006). Nevis  defines contact as ³a TXality of awareness which involves the meeting of differences´ p 23). The process of contact takes place at the contact boundary with a process of contact and withdrawal in order to satisfy a need on the foreground. The cycle/experience of contact can best be described as the process of satisfying a particular need. Woldt and Toman (2005, p. 31) as well as Brownell (2003) posit the following four stages of contact: Fore -contact: This is the initial stage of contact during which a need emerges that initiates the figure background process. Contact: During this phase, the self expands towards the contact boundary with the environment in search of a means of satisfying the need. Final contact: The third phase is the stage during which contact with the environment takes place and the need is satisfied. Post contact: During the final stage, assimilation of the satisfied need takes place. 124 In contrary to the above mentioned Blom (2006, p. 26) posits five stages of the contact cycle and refers to it as the process of gestalt formation which involves the following: Awareness/sensation: Individuals experience a need or are disturbed by an environmental stimulus. Mobili sation/choice of relevant action: The awareness of the need is followed by an attempt to satisfy the need. Final contact/action: The action is chosen to satisfy the need and individuals are fully engaged in the process thereof. Post -contact: Once the need is met, homeostasis is reached. Withdrawal: During this stage individuals withdraw to a state of equilibrium which creates a fertile void for a new need to arise. Mann (2010, p. 40) suggests the following table in illustration of the gestalt cycle of experience/contact cycle with reference to an example of a need of the body compared to the experience of bereavement: Table 12 Gestalt Cycle (Mann, 2010, p. 40) THIRST BEREAVEMENT Sensation Dryness of mouth and throat emerges. A response of numbness and shock. 125 Awareness Sensation is interpreted and a need for water moves into awareness. Reality of the enormity of the loss begins to surface with associated emotional responses. Mobilisation Persons move to satisfy the emerging need, e.g. begin to mobilise themselves to get up to move towards tap. Begin to contact emotions in reaction to the loss – for example sadness/tears. Action Move towards the tap, turn on tap, fill glass, lift glass to their mouths. Move towards expressing the emotion, e.g. eyes begin to prick, breathing deepens, lips quiver. Final contact Drink water from the glass. Emotions are expressed fully. Cries, feel the hurt of the loss. Satisfaction Thirst is quenched. Organisms feel the force of the emotion expressed with associated response, e.g. relief, hopelessness. Withdrawal Move away from the activity, the need having been met. Organisms withdraw from the emotion. Void Leave space for further need to emerge. Space is left for the next need to emerge in the 126 grieving process. The above described process is illustrated in the figure below: Figure 15 The Gestalt Cycle of experience (http://www.nancyhine.co.uk/gestalt.shtml) The above figure and the table illustrate the process of contact making or the gestalt cycle of experience. The financial difficulties and instabilities that a family experience can be linked to the cycle of experience. Parents or children have a financial need, but due to a lack of or unstable finances, they are unable to meet such a need. Then the family or children make use of creative adjustment in order to maintain homeostasis although the need is not met. This then causes, at times, a presentation of ³inappropriate behavior´ whereas it is only the childrens’ means of satisfying a need that was not met. 127 The possibility also exists that a contact boundary disturbance can occur. This is defined by Yontef (1993) as the occurrence when the boundary between the self and the environment becomes unclear and it results in a disturbance of the distinction between self and boundary. Yontef (1993) as well as Blom (2006) suggest the following contact boundary disturbances: Introjection takes place when contents from the environment are absorbed without discrimination and criticism (Joyce & Sills, 2001; Simkin, 1976). This takes place when persons sacrifice their own opinions for that of others. The polarity of introjection is rejection (Joyce & Sills, 2001). Organism Environment Figure 16 Illustration of introjection Projection can be referred to as the tendency to hold the environment responsible for that which individuals are experiencing. This takes place when an individuals take a belief, opinion, assumption or feeling they have and impose it on to the environment (Korb, Gorrell & Van de Riet, 1989; Simkin, 1976). The polarity of projection, according to Joyce and Sills (2001) is ownership which entails individuals taking responsibility for themselves. 128 Organism Environment Figure 17 Illustration of projection Confluence or fusion, takes place when distinction between the self and the environment becomes unclear. This causes individuals’ beliefs, attitudes and feelings to merge with the surrounding environment (Zinker, 1977). The distinction between ³me´ and ³not me´ becomes Xnclear .orb et al., 1989). The polarity of confluence is withdrawal which refers to the process of moving between confluence and withdrawal (Joyce & Sills, 2001). Organism Environment Figure 18 Illustration of confluence Retroflection refers to a split within the self which causes individuals to do to themselves what they want to do to others $ccording to