RADITLADI'S USE OF METAPHOR 
IN SELECTED POEMS 
Kebabaletswe Puleng Naomi Manyaapelo 
Hons B.A. 
RADITLADI'S USE OF METAPHOR 
IN SELECTED POEMS 
Kebabaletswe Puleng Naomi Manyaapelo 
Hons B.A. 
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree Magister Artium in Tswana of the Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir 
Christilike Hoer Onderwys. 
Supervisor : Prof. Heilna du Plooy 
Co-Supervisor: Dr. R. S. Pretorius 
POTCHEFSTROOM 
1998 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
ABSTRACT 
OPSOMMING 
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Aims and objectives 
1.2 Thesis statement 
1.3 Method 
1.4 Chapter outline of the study 
CHAPTER 2. THEORY OF METAPHOR 
2.1 Basic theoretical concepts 
2.1. 1 Definitions of metaphor 
2.1.2 Uses of metaphor 
2.2 A discussion of metaphor and its relation to culture, 
symbolism and myth 
2.2.1 Metaphor and Culture 
2.2.2 Metaphor and Symbolism 
2.2.3 Metaphor and Myths 
CHAPTER 3. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE FEATURES 
OF THE POEMS: "BOSIELA", "LOSO" AND "MOTLHABANI" 
3.1 Space 
3.2 Rhythm 
3.3 Parallelism 
3.4 Sound 
3.5 Metaphor 
ii 
iii 
1 
3 
4 
4 
4 
6 
6 
9 
10 
10 
13 
14 
16 
16 
18 
20 
24 
29 
CHAPTER 4. METAPHOR IN THE POEMS: "BOSIELAu, "LOSO" 
AND "MOTLHABANI" 33 
4.1 Bosiela 33 , 
4.2 Loso 44 
4. 3 Motlhabani 56 
CHAPTER 5. METAPHOR AND MYTH IN THESE POEMS OF 
RADITLADI 
5.1 Introduction 
5.2 Metaphor and Symbols 
5.2.1 The symbols in the poem "Bosiela" 
5.2.2 The symbols in the poem "Loso" 
5.2.3 The symbols in the poem "Motlhabani" 
CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 
6.1 Chapter summaries 
6.2 Relevance of the metaphor to contemporary society and 
culture 
6.3 Recommendations 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
63 
63 
64 
66 
70 
73 
75 
75 
76 
78 
79 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 
1 wish to express my deep gratitude and praises to the Almighty for giving 
me a patient and extremely supportive team in: 
(1) Prof. C. B. Swanepoel who inducted me in the theory underpinning 
this study; 
(2) Dr. R.S. Pretorius for tutoring me in the rudiments of poetry analysis; 
(3) Prof. Heilna du Plooy whose invaluable guidance led me from . the 
inception of this study up to its conclusion; and 
(4) Prof. A.M. de Lange for his thorough editing of the draft of this study. 
My heart and spirit know no bounds in the joy the team have brought to me 
and my family. 
ii 
ABSTRACT 
This study focuses on the use of metaphor in three poems by Raditladi. 
The three poems have a common theme, namely, death. The presence 
and function of imagery in the poetry of Raditladi have been investigated 
in other studies. However, no extensive discussion of metaphor has been 
undertaken in these studies. The study of metaphor in the three poems 
reveals the role metaphor plays in connecting seemingly unrelated 
experiences of our lives. The metaphors in the three poems form a 
coherent system with the most fundamental concepts in culture. The 
dissertation proides a description of how metaphor is constructed in 
several ways, using language and elements drawn from our perceptions 
and experiences of what happens and exists in society. There is a strong 
link between the metaphors and symbolism found in the three poems. The 
symbolism revealed is mainly universal and partly traditional and limited. 
A partial comprehension of the reality of death and its effects results from 
the study of metaphor in the poems, and it is concluded that the metaphors 
in the poems may have relevance to contemporary society and culture. 
iii 
OPSOMMING 
1 n hierdie skripsie word die metafore in drie gedigte van Raditladi 
bestudeer. Die drie gedigte sluit by mekaar aan deur die 
ooreenstemmende tema, naamlik die dood. Die voorkoms en funksie van 
beeldspraak in die poesie van Raditladi is al deur ander navorsers 
nagegaan, maar 'n uitgebreide ontleding van die metafore is nog nie 
gedoen nie. Die bestudering van die metafore in die drie gedigte toon aan 
hoe daar 'n verband bestaan tussen oenskynlik onverwante aspekte van 
mense se lewens. Die metafore skakel in by 'n samehangde stelsel van 
fundamentele konsepte in kultuur. Die skripsie beskryf hoe metafore op 
verskillende maniere saamgestel word deur die gebruik van taal en ander 
elemente wat voortkom uit ons persepsies en ervaring van wat in die 
gemeenskap gebeur. Daar is 'n duidelike verband tussen die metafore en 
die simboliek wat gebruik word, terwyl die simboliek hoofsaaklik universeel 
en slegs gedeeltelik tradisioneel en lokaal van aard is. Dit is moontlik om 
insig te verkry, al is dit beperk, in die werklikheid van die dood en die 
uitwerking van die dood op mense deur die bestudering van die metafore 
in die gedigte en daar word tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die metafore 
relevant is vir die kontempor~re gemeenskap en kultuur. 
1 
CHAPTER 1 
INTRODUCTION 
This study was motivated by Van Staden's (1985) study of imagery in 
Raditladi's poetry. His study focuses on the techniques that Raditladi uses 
· to create images from apparently disconnected words. The use of 
metaphoric language is one of the aspects to be taken into account when 
determining the imagery in Raditladi's poetry (Van Staden, 1985). 
However, the specific use of metaphor in the three poems "Bosiela", 
"Lose" and ''Motlhabani" has not been analysed in depth. 
Raditladi's works have gained prominence in the academic world through 
studies on different aspects of some of his published poems. One such 
study is the analysis of syntactic foregrounding in his poetry by Mothoagae 
(1993). Mothoagae (1993:60) indicates that there is a dynamic four 
dimensional relationship in the poetry, viz.: 
(a) the sentence; 
(b) the verse; 
(c) the stanza; and 
(d) the whole poem. 
Mothoagae (1993:60) concludes that a significant contribution towards 
finding meaning in Raditladi's poems, is obtained by studying the 
interaction between these various elements. 
2 
This study will focus on Raditladi's use of metaphor in the three poems 
mentioned earlier. Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, that is, in 
thought and action (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:3) . It follows that our 
conceptual system is intrinsically metaphoric. Metaphorical concepts are 
embedded in linguistic expressions and these concepts provide us with a 
partial understanding of literary communication. Because the metaphorical 
concepts extend beyond ordinary ways of communication, they abide in the 
world of fanciful and colourful thought which we call the figurative. 
When talking about metaphor it is important to note that direct and indirect 
references are included in figurative language. The three traditional figures 
of speech: simile, synecdoche and metonymy, can be seen as versions of 
metaphor (Hawkes, 1972:3-4), 
It is also important to note that the use of metaphor is linked to the value 
system of the user of the language, in this case the poet. Full or partial 
acceptance of values is partly a matter of the subculture one lives in, and 
partly a matter of personal values (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:23). Raditladi 
uses traditionally accepted Setswana values in the Setswana culture to 
build metaphorical structures, sometimes in a systematic, and sometimes 
in an idiosyncratic way (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:55). It is an underlying 
premise of this dissertation that a study of Raditladi's poetry focusing on 
metaphor and the relation of metaphor to the underlying value system, will 
yield insight not only into the working of metaphor but also into the nature 
of Raditladi's poetry. 
To understand the deep abstract nature of metaphor in this study it may 
3 
prove useful to keep in mind the distinction made by MacCormac 
(1985:227), viz., that metaphoric structure has three hierarchical levels, 
namely, 
(a) surface language (level 1); 
(b) semantics (level2); and 
(c) cognition (level 3). 
In this study Raditladi's use of metaphor will be investigated by addressing 
the following central questions: 
(a) How can the metaphors used by Raditladi be identified and 
described? 
(b) What is the relation of these metaphors to the system of . 
symbols which is linked to the traditional Setswana value 
system? 
(c) Does the use of metaphor create some form of mythology 
which could be meaningful to a contemporary reader? 
1.1 Aims and objectives. 
The main objectives of this study are: 
(a) To identify and describe metaphors used by Raditladi. 
(b) To discuss the relation of these metaphors to the system of 
symbols which is linked to the traditional Setswana value 
system. 
(c) To determine whether the use of metaphor such as that of 
4 
Raditladi creates a mythology which could be meaningful to a 
contemporary reader. 
1.2 Thesis statement. 
I will argue in this study that Raditladi's use of metaphor links up with a 
system of symbols which has its roots in traditional Setswana culture. 
However, the use of metaphor contributes to the development of a 
mythology which is still meaningful to modern readers. 
1.3 Method. 
Before attempting any analysis of Raditladi's use of metaphor in the poems 
"Bosiela", "Loso" and "Motlhabani", the study will examine metaphor in its 
literary context. Because of the complex and varied nature of metaphor, 
brief discussions of the following aspects will be undertaken: 
(a) the nature and structure of metaphor; 
(b) the conceptual structure of metaphor; 
(c) metaphor and cultural coherence: and 
(d) metaphor and myth. 
The praxis of this dissertation will consist of an in-depth analysis of 
metaphor in Raditladi's three poems. The significance of Raditladi's use of 
metaphor for a contemporary reader will also be traced, and a conclusion 
will be drawn as to whether Raditladi's use of metaphor leads its reader to 
many new insights. 
5 
1.4 Chapter outline of the study. 
The study is divided into chapters which clearly indicate the aspects 
discussed. Within a chapter subheadings are introduced wherever 
necessary. The first chapter includes the aims, objectives, a thesis 
statement and a brief outline of the method of study to be followed. An 
outline of subsequent chapters is included in this chapter. 
In the second chapter a discussion of basic theoretical concepts of 
metaphor is undertaken. This is followed by a description of different 
structural types of metaphor. To conclude the chapter the study focuses 
on a theoretical discussion of metaphor and related issues such as symbol 
and myth. 
The third chapter gives a general discussion of features of the selected 
poems: "Bosiela", "Loso" and "Motlhabani" with specific reference to the 
concepts 
(a) space 
(d) sound 
{g) characters. 
(b) rhythm 
(e) rhyme 
(c) parallelism 
(f) imagery 
Chapter four presents an· analysis of metaphor in the poems: "Bosiela", 
"Loso" and "Motlhabani", while the fifth chapter outlines the interaction 
between the metaphor, myth and symbols in the three poems. A 
conclusion to the study, found in chapter six, attempts to answer the 
question: ~~oo these poems have some contemporary relevance"? 
6 
CHAPTER 2. 
THEORY OF METAPHOR. 
2.1 BASIC THEORETICAL CONCEPTS. 
2.1.1 Definitions of metaphor. 
I 
The word metaphor originated from the Greek word metaphora derived 
from meta ("over") and pherein ("to carry'') (Hawkes, 1972: 1 ). It points to 
an idea of meaning carried over from one word or concept or idea to 
another. Contemporary thought has revealed a great interest in metaphor 
resulting in a variety of definitions. Morris (1946:136) states that: 
A sign is metaphorical if in a particular instance of its 
occurrence it is used to denote an object which it does not 
literally denote in virtue of its signification, but which has some 
of the properties which its genuine denotata have. 
' 
Another definition of metaphor is proposed by Ogden and Richards 
(1960:213) who say: 
Metaphor in the most general sense, is the use of one 
reference to a group of things between which given relation 
holds, for the purpose of facilitating the discrimination of an 
analogous relation in another group. 
7 
While this definition of metaphor propounded by Ogden and Richards 
(1960) seems to echo the traditional view originating from Aristotle that: 
Metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to 
something else .. . , 
they also argue that a different description of metaphor may be brought to 
the fore. According to this viewpoint, when metaphor is regarded as poetic 
metaphor, it does not function for purposes of name giving (that is, 
referentially) and symbolism but it only serves to awaken emotions. This 
viewpoint of metaphor restricts metaphor to being ornamental (Hester, 
1967:15) 
Richards (1925) also developed another view that metaphor is an 
interaction of tenor (the original idea or principal subject) and vehicle (the 
borrowed idea or what the subject resembles). According to him, the 
interactions vary from cognitive similarity to emotional disparity (Hester, 
1967:16). 
Black (1948:111-126) discards the emotive view put forward by Richards 
and argues that metaphorical elements are interactive (Hester, 1967: 16) 
in the sense that even as they retain their distinctiveness, the metaphorical 
statements extract and highlight certain implications while hiding other 
irrelevant qualities. 
Wheelwright (Hester, 1967: 16) perceives metaphor as exhibiting two 
. I 
complementary tendencies, namely, epiphor and diaphor. Epiphor means 
8 
that metaphors tend to involve a limitless number of contexts in their 
semantic abundance of meaning. Diaphor is a type of an internal side by 
side positioning of qualities which give the poem the status of a presented 
object. Strong metaphors draw their power from the tension between the 
epiphor, and from the diaphor as the two get fused together. 
Berggren (Hester, 1967:17) states that metaphor involves both dual (or 
more) references which are separated by recognized type boundary {tenor 
and vehicle) and a textual principle of transference which transgresses 
both but does not erase the boundary. What gets transferred when 
metaphor is used, are the attributes of one object to a second object. The 
latter is then spoken of as if it were the first {Hawkes, 1972:1). An object 
I 
can be a 'context , {Brooks, 1976:206}, or 'an action~. or a aprocesss 
{Brooks, 1976:581). 
Within the framework formed by combining the descriptions of metaphor by 
expression theorists (for example, Berggren) and tension theorists (such 
as Black, Richard, and Foss}, several types of metaphor will be discussed 
and used in this study, viz.: 
(a) the isolated pictorial; 
(b) the structural; and 
(c) the textual metaphor. 
This study notes that in its analysis for metaphor, by having a dialogue 
between the meaning of theories and examples of metaphor from the 
poems, two problems still remain unresolved. These are: 
9 
(a) what is meant by a "theory of meaning" (such a theory is 
needed to find the meaning of poetic metaphor); and 
(b) a clear way of selecting examples to illustrate what metaphor 
is (Hester, 1967:25). 
2.1.2 Uses of Metaphor. 
Metaphor is used as a device to find patterns in seemingly unrelated 
experiences of our daily living (Brooks, 1967:581). The language artist, 
that is, the poet, communicates with the reader by means of metaphoric 
linguistic expressions. The expressions are based on a conceptual system 
that has great influence on the way the author (poet) describes reality. The 
conceptual' system prescribes the way the author (poet) perceives the 
world and the way he relates to other people (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:3). 
Most of the author's (poet's) conceptual system is the result of apparently 
unconnected experiences. The resulting pattern makes the conceptual 
metaphorical in nature. 
The way that a particular concept (for example, death) is perceived in a 
particular culture, systematically influences the way the concept is talked 
about or dealt within literary genre such as poetry. The systematicality is 
detected in the language an author (poet) employs to communicate with a 
reader about the concept. The author forms a single (or coherent) system 
of metaphorical concepts and expressions that have some form of 
relationship (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:19). 
The metaphorical concepts used in a discourse partially structure the 
10 
concept under discussion. That is, the metaphors allow the author (poet) 
to bring to the fore (or highlight) certain aspects of the concept (Lakoff and 
Johnson, 1980:1 0). However, as some aspects of the concept come into 
focus, other aspects of the concept my become hidden. This means that 
the metaphorical structuring of a concept leads to partial understanding of 
the concept itself (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:12). 
Metaphors have the following purposes: 
(a) referring; 
(b) quantifying; 
(c) identifying aspects; 
(d) identifying causes; and 
(e) setting goals and motivating actions 
(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:26-27). 
The above discussion has focused on structural metaphors: that is, cases 
where a concept is created metaphorically from other concepts. 
2.2 A DISCUSSION OF METAPHOR AND ITS RELATION TO 
CULTURE, SYMBOLISM AND MYTH. 
2.2.1 Metaphor and Culture. 
Lakoff and Johnson (1980:22) assert that the most fundamental (or 
entrenched) values in a culture form a unified (or coherent) system with the 
metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in the culture. 
This means that the values embedded in that culture have metaphors 
11 
associated with them. 1 Such values are generally acceptable in the 
mainstream culture. 
Conflicts sometimes arise among values, leading to conflicts within th~ 
metaphors related to them. The conflict most often arises from the priority 
the values and the related metaphors acquire partly from the subculture 
I 
that uses them, and partly from the personal values of the author or the 
reader (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:23). 
Experiences with physical objects (especially our own bodies) provide a 
basis for extensive ways of conceptualizing events, actions (or activities) 
and states of the mind (or emotions) as entities and substances existing in 
culture. From this variety of experiences, metaphors can be created to 
structure a concept. These are the so-called ontological metaphors. 
Ontological metaphors are generally natural and commonplace in our; 
' 
thought. They are an integral part of mental form or model (of the concept) 
found in a culture (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:29). 
The ways in which we conceptualize social problems determine both the 
kinds of purposes and values we seek to realize, and the directions in 
which we seek solutions. We conceptualize social problems through the 
; 
stories we tell (Schon, 1979:268). The intention of problem-setting is to 
reflect on social phenomena, to make sense of experience, different 
meanings and values (Schon, 1979:268). As Schon (1979:264) points out, 
each story constructs a very different view of reality by placing features of 
a (social phenomenon) it has selected within a particular context. The; 
features selected are drawn for attention and named in such a way as to 
12 
fit the frame constructed. Each story therefore constructs its view of social 
reality through a process of naming and framing. It is this continuous 
inquiry into social problems that yields culture. 
The naming and framing of the features of a social phenomenon in stories 
proceed through a "carrying over'' of one frame or perspective of the 
problems. This process frequently depends upon underlying metaphors 
found in the story. Schon (1979:254) calls this type of metaphor the 
generative metaphor. The special function of metaphor as creating new 
perspectiv.es on the world leads to metaphor making significant 
contributions to the understanding of culture. Schon (1979:254) asserts 
that metaphor is pivotal to the function of accounting for our perspectives 
on the world: how we look at things or make sense of reality. 
Generative metaphors are ordinarily tacit and their influence on our 
perception and understanding of social (or cultural) situations can be 
missed through our unawareness of their presence. A better 
understanding of generative metaphors is gained through the presence of 
several different and conflicting stories about the situation. To bring 
generative metaphors to the level of reflective and critical awareness, we 
must construct them. That is, in our story we should be able to see 
phenomenon A as phenomenon B. This leads to an exploration and 
reflection upon similarities and differences between A and B. In this kind 
of inquiry, cognitive work is involved as many different features and 
relations of a social phenomenon are mixed and combined to provide an 
information-richness to our social interaction or our culture (Schon, 
1979:270). 
13 
Cognitive work or education plays a dominant role in the sustenance of a 
culture. Petrie (1979:440) states that metaphor has a positive pedagogical 
value and does on occasion play an epistemic role of rendering the 
acquisition of new knowledge intelligible. Petrie (1979:440) asserts that 
when a metaphor has effected a cognitive structure, such a metaphor may 
be called an educational metaphor. An educational metaphor provides a 
mechanism for changing our modes of representing the world in thought 
' 
and language. This viewpoint has also been adopted by Janecke (1995f 
2.2.2 Metaphor and Symbolism. 
All metaphor uses symbols, since most words stand for their objects 
(physically or merely mentally) by linguistic convention (Haley, 1988: 14). 
Metaphor and symbo.l represent ways in which an author uses a particular 
concept of an experience - an object or action or a process - to add a 
further meaning to that experience. Both are useful in the process of 
discovering patterns in the varied experiences of life. Symbol and 
metaphor have their own individual characteristics although they often 
overlap. 
Hester (1967:69) states that symbolism involves subject, symbol, 
conception and object. Through conception, a symbol leads to an object 
that may be absent. Symbols are subdivided into discursive and 
presentational symbols. The discursive symbol has a vocabulary and a 
syntax while a presentational symbol is a direct presentation of an object. 
Adopting a similar viewpoint de Man (1979:24) describes symbols as 
objects of reason (Vemunft) through which an understanding of similarity 
is created between the symbol and the thing symbolized. 
14 
An author's aim is to transform the practical and normal language into 
language that is emotional and evocative, resulting in a literary text that 
presents an appearance of life or an image of life. Hester (1967:71) states 
that several critics such as Langer (1953), Ogden and Richards (1 960) and 
Wheelwright (1959) agree that a poem is a presentation of an experience. 
A poem is therefore unquestionably a presentational symbol. 
Although symbols can be manipulated - or even created - by the poet or 
transformed from fixed meanings to new meanings, a lot of symbolism has 
"basic connections to the world we live in" (Brooks, 1976:580). Several 
symbols are deeply rooted in human experience to such an extent that they 
have become typical examples of something. For instance, the colour 
black has connotations of an unhappy event which could involve death or 
sorrow or anger or evil, as examples. The rare occasion in which black is 
associated with positive feelings of joy, is in accounting practices where the 
expression "the company is in black" indicates that it is a well-off business 
concern. 
2.2.3 Metaphor and Myths. 
Lakoff and Johnson (198:186) assert that all cultures have myths grounded 
in them. Each myth originates from real concerns. The concerns are 
basically the constraints placed on us as we interact with our cultural and 
physical environment. Myths provide ways of comprehending experience. 
Arguments have been put forward as to whether myths are objective or 
subjective (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:186-188). However, objectivism and 
subjectivism are a binary opposition; each defines itself in opposition to the 
15 
other but they need each other (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:189). 
Metaphor is characterised by its ability to make possible partial 
comprehension of feelings, aesthetic experiences, moral practices and 
I 
spiritual awareness (objective issues). By adopting an experientialist 
approach to myth through metaphor, the gap between objectivism and 
subjectivism in myths may be narrowed. This approach emphasizes a 
construction of coherence via experience gestalts leading to the provision 
of an account of what it means for an experience {say a poem) to be 
significant or not to the reader (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:189). 
16 
CHAPTER 3. 
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF SOME FEATURES OF THE POEMS: 
"BOSIELA", "LOSO" AND "MOTLHABANI" . 
INTRODUCTION. 
Poetry consists primarily of language devices that differentiate it from other 
genres such as prose and drama. It is through an artistic usage of 
language that a poet creates concepts or ideas that are peculiar to poetry. 
The concepts interact in such a manner that the poet's message to the 
reader comes to life. · In this chapter some of these concepts will be 
investigated with an emphasis on how they contribute to metaphor in the 
three selected poems. 
3.1 SPACE. 
A poem is not created in a void. The message created by the words of the 
poem carries information about some true-to-life event or experience. The 
reader gets drawn into an imagined space where the actions stated in the 
poem are supposed to be occurring. This simple description of space (in 
poetry) has been suggested by Pretorius (1989: 13). Two types of space 
prevail in poetry: physical space (places where events take place, for 
example, a battle field, a home, the human body) and psychical space (an 
atmosphere in which events are supposed to be unfolding, for example 
revenge, hatred, pride, sorrow, desolation). The application of the 
techniques that create either type of space in a poem leads to the creation 
of the poem's artistic or symbolic space. The importance of space in the 
context of this study is that it contributes to an understanding of metaphor 
17 
that create an atmosphere or mood. In several instances the space is 
created through referential words such as here, there, up and on, phrases 
that refer to known parts of the human body, or places in the environment. 
In the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood) the space varies from stanza to 
stanza. In stanza one, the poet focuses on a human body to show how 
! 
orphanhood makes itself permanent. In stanza two a veld or countryside 
strewn with rotten carcasses paints the pain of orphanhood. Stanza three 
uses torrential rain to emphasize the widespread presence of orphanhood. 
In stanza four the space referred to is physical - it is a house. Stanza five 
uses reference to a human or animal body. 
The poem "Loso" (Death) develops space by referring to the physical 
characteristics of human beings when faced with the reality of death in 
stanza one. An extension of the space is made by alluding to inanimate 
creation in stanza two, line three. Stanzas three and four then refer to 
space above and below the earth. 
In the poem "Motlhabani" (The Wanior) the poet creates an atmosphere of 
the wilderness where desolation engulfs the burial of a fallen warrior. 
Stanza one draws the reader into experiencing the eerie silence when the 
warrior's corpse is laid to rest in the grave. Stanza two describes the 
desperate means of digging a grave and burying the warrior amid the 
silence of those present. A tragic atmosphere is created. In stanza three 
the fear that gripped those who had to face the deceased warrior before 
his death, becomes tangible. 
18 
In all three poems the poet uses references to the self (1, you, they, us), 
nature (animals, plants) and natural phenomena (fear, weeping) to give 
insight into the intensity of the physical and mental pain suffered by the 
bereaved. 
While analysing for artistic space in a poem, it is important to look for the 
interaction of idealism and reality. 
3.2 RHYTHM. 
As already stated, space is important in the atmosphere of a poem. A 
specific atmosphere can be enhanced by using rhythm (slow or fast 
rhythm) and parallelism. 
Each space has its own rhythm and this is because of the mood that 
prevails by that time. According to Reeves (1975: 113) the word rhythm is 
derived from a Greek word meaning flow. This view is endorsed by Scott 
(1979:247) who explains rhythm as: 
The measured flow of word and phrases in verse or prose. 
There is the rhythm achieved by the ordinary arrangements of 
stressed and unstressed syllables, producing something more 
or less mechanical. 
Pretorius (1989:14) explains rhythm as being determined by "a metrical 
pattern resulting from the arrangement of rhythm into or within a verse." 
Leech (1980:104) on the other hand explains this definition of rhythm by 
19 
stating that: 
I 
Underlying any talk of 'rhythm' is the notion of a regular periodic 
beat. 
Rhythm may be employed by the poet to reveal his/her feelings in the 
poem. The poet creates rhythm by using stressed and unstressed 
syllables to indicate the mood in which the events described in the poem 
occur. This viewpoint is emphasised by Pretorius and Swart (1988:38) 
when they state that: 
Rhythm creates atmosphere in the poem. A fast rhythm can 
at times be used to create an effect of 'hot-temperedness' and 
I 
'anger whilst a slower rhythm can perhaps create an 
atmosphere of sadness. 
Note, for example, how Raditladi (1984: 1 0) uses rhythm to good effect in 
the fourth stanza of the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood): 
Bo tsena fela le fa ntlo e ageletswe", 
It enters even when a house is fortified 
Bo bo bo senye lokgapho lwa ntlo e feetswe. 
And even spoil the decor of the swept house 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The poet uses a slow rhythm to describe the sad effect of orphanhood on 
I 
20 
even the most secure of lives (from the phrase ''ntlo e ageletswe') and 
orderly lives (represented by the phrase "ntlo e feetswe"). 
It is apparent that rhythm in a poem must flow. This flow reveals the poet's 
feelings, enabling the reader and the poet to have an emotional bond that 
may be of mutual attraction or rejection. 
3.3 PARALLELISM. 
Parallelism is a typical structural device that has been used extensively in 
Tswana poetry to create aesthetic effects but also to bring metaphor to the 
fore. Parallelism in poetry is regarded by Pretorius (1989:18) as a 
description of linguistic similarities found between certain successive poetic 
lines. Scott (1979:209) describes parallelism as: 
The similarity of construction or meaning of phrases placed 
side by side. 
Parallelism contributes to a regular rhythm in Tswana poetry. As a 
structural device, parallelism is revealed in several ways in the poems 
selected for this study. 
In the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood), the second stanza (lines three and 
I 
four) we observe that parallelism (and hence the rhythm) has been created 
by repetition of the same words or phrases in a single line or successive 
lines. 
21 
Go sale bo/ota go sale botlhoko, 
Then remains swelling then remains pain 
Go sale sebodu se tlhokang dipheko. 
Then remains rotten remnants that need traditional herbs 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The poet creates a metaphor of permanency of bad swelling through the 
phrase "go sale bolota" (then remains swelling) and its mental association 
in the phrase "go sale botlhoko" (then remains pain). The stench of a 
corpse as described in "sebodu se tlhokang dipheko" (the rotten remnants 
that need traditional herbs) becomes real to the reader. The metaphor is 
strengthened by the parallelism created by the words "go sale ... " 
In lines five and six of the third stanza of the poem "Loso" (Death) a 
metaphor of supremacy of orphanhood is generated by the parallelism 
created through the initial linking of phrases of successive lines: 
Loso to rena pakeng tsotlhe tsa ngwaga, 
Death reigns through all seasons of the year 
Lo rena, to buse, to rene serena, 
It reigns, it rules, reigning king/ike, 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The first two lines of stanza three of the poem "Motlhabani" (The Warrior) 
22 
reveal another type of parallelism - the oblique line repetition pattern 
linking. Here, one part of a poetic line is repeated in the next line, but with 
the part occupying a different syntactic position in the latter line (Pretorious, 
1989:20): 
Batho Tebele bane ba ba lela, 
Zulu people wept, 
Ba lela a lekola semelamela 
Weeping as one examining a strong smelling herb 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The parallels exhibited in the above lines create a metaphor of intense grief 
and weeping. 
Parallelism may also contribute to the emphasis of central ideas and 
rhythm of a poem. In the context of this study, there is also a gradual 
release of more information that casts more light on some metaphors of the 
poem. In the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood), stanza three, this type of 
parallelism occurs in the lines quoted: 
Bosiela ke pula ya kgogolamoko 
Orphanhood is a rain that washes everything away 
Ke mosetlho o sa rwalelweng ditlhako 
lt is thorns against which no shoes can be wom 
. 
23 
Bo go kolobetsa bo sa go rapele 
It wets you not pleading with you 
So go tlhaba dinao, ditfhako o di rwefe" 
Piercing your feet, with your shoes on 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
A metaphor that emphasizes the overwhelming might (as deduced from ke 
pula ya kgogolammoko - it is a rain that washes everything away) and its 
penetrative power (as observed from the phrase ke mosetlho- it is thorns) 
is contained in the parallelism of the lines. 
Parallelism is often used to add lyrical features to the poem. This is 
illustrated in the poem "Loso" (Death) stanza three line six which at the 
same time draws the reader's attention to the metaphor of sovereignty of 
orphanhhood: 
Lorena, lo buse, lorene serena, 
It reigns, it rules, reigning kingfike, 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
or in the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood) stanza one, line three which 
focuses on the metaphor of orphanhood as dirt on the human body: 
A bo phimola a bo tlhapela bodibeng 
Wiping it washing it away in a fake 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
24 
3.4 SOUND. 
Poetry is distinguished from prose mainly because of the usage of sound 
devices in poetry. The sound patterns a poem may be used to create 
atmosphere, to imitate, to stress, and to contribute to meaning due to that 
sound's suggestive features and so on (Pretorius, 1989:22). 
Different sound devices are used in poetry, and Raditladi uses sounp 
devices abundantly and in such a unique way that the poetic quality of his 
works is enhanced. 
One of the most popular poetic devices is called alliteration. In alliteration 
consonants are repeated, especially at the beginning of successive words 
(Pretorius, 1989:24; Cuddon, 1991 :25), yielding impressive sound effects. 
Both agree that alliteration is: 
a figure of speech in which consonants especially at the 
beginning of words or stressed syllables are repeated 
(Cuddon, 1991 :2q). 
Alliteration may contribute to metaphor as evidenced in the poem "Loso" 
(Death) stanza four, line nine. The repetition of the consonant m gives a 
muffled sound effect that is appropriate to a grave: 
Marapo mairwa maje le makgabana 
Bones made into stones and lumpy soil 
[My emphasis, P.M]. 
25 
A second type of poetic sound device often used is called assonance. It 
may be described as the repetition of similar or closely similar vowel 
I 
sounds usually close together. Pretorius (1989:24) calls it vocalic rhyme. 
Raditladi, for example, uses assonance to create a metaphor of whispering 
by repeating the syllables sa and se in lines five and six of stanza one of 
"Loso" (Death): 
Sengwe sa seba pelong khubidu ya me 
Something whispered in my red heart 
Sa re: "Se lele, ke thata ya Modimo!" 
It said: 11Do not cry, it is God's will" 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
Another sound device used by Raditladi is known as onomatopoeia. It is 
a sound device in which words are formed and used to imitate sound. 
Pretorius (1989:25) describes it is a figure of speech in which the sound 
reflects the sense. In the following quotation from "Bosiela" (Orphanhood) 
stanza five line four, a metaphor of the vicious grunting of a pride lions 
tearing away at a victim is created by usage of the guttural g in the first two 
words of: 
Go garolakwa ke ditau tsa lengobo 
To be tom to pieces by a pride of lions 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
26 
An additional sound device that Raditladi uses effectively is rhyme. A 
generally accepted definition of rhyme is that it is the repetition of identical 
or closely similar sounds arranged at regular intervals (Pretorius, 1989:25). 
This definition suggests that alliteration and assonance are forms of rhyme. 
Grove (1984:47) offers the following definition of rhyme: 
Met rym in die poesie word bedoef die herhafing, gereefd of 
ongereefd, van een of meer kfanke. 
Rhyme may occur at the end of a line of a verse, and is then labelled as 
end-rhyme. Sometimes rhyme is found when two or more words rhyme 
within a single line of verse, and is then called internal rhyme (Pretorius, 
1989:25). In Tswana poetry the rhyme element may have to be extended 
to at least both consonants and vowels of the last two syllables concerned. 
Although Tswana poetry does not rely on the use of rhyme, several forms 
of rhyme may be identified in some stanzas of Tswana poems. Raditladi 
uses various sound patterns and variations of rhyme patterns which 
contribute to the poetic structure of his poems. 
One sound device employs a technique where the last syllables of 
successive lines end the same way. It is known as a couplet. The poem 
"Bosiela" (Orphanhood) has the form that each stanza has the last 
syllables of the lines ending in a pattern. For example, stanza one has the 
following last words ending in a patter: 
Bosiela ga bo phimoge sekalobadi 
Orphanhood cannot be wiped off. It is scarfike. 
27 
Ga bo na motho a bo tlhapa ka mosidl 
It has no person washing it with soot 
A bo phimola a bo tlhapela bodibeng 
Wiping it washing it away in a lake 
Go tswa maswe, jane bo salele nameng 
Dirt comes off, it [orphanhood] remains on the flesh 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The bold syllables show the rhyme to be a a b b. In this example th~ 
endings of the last two lines have a nasal sound ( -"ng") that creates a 
metaphor of forceful containment of something that wants to escape. 
Another sound device occurs when the syllables ending the first and third 
lines of a poem end in the same way; and the two lines are separated by 
a line whose ending syllable is different. Such a sound pattern is known as 
a cross-rhyme. The grouping of the first three lines of stanza one, in the 
poem "Loso" (Death) illustrates this. The lines end with the syllables 
written in bold: 
E rile ke ut/wa bare o sule ka tshoga 
When I heard the saying you are dead I got frightened 
Ka nyeramoko, ka rothisa keledi 
I melted ma"ow I dropped a tear 
28 
Lefatshe Ia ntshofala, Ia dikologa 
The earth darkened, it spun 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
I 
The lines have a rhyme pattern of a b a and in this instance it enhances 
the sense of shock on learning about the death of an associate. This may 
be deduced by noting the open mouth expression that accompanies the 
saying of the syllable "ga,.. 
Rhyme may also be found within a single line of a poem. The poem 
"Motlhabani" (The Wanior) has such an example in line two of stanza 
three: 
Sa lela a leko/a seme/ame/a 
Weeping as one examining a strong smelling herb 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
The bold syllables heighten the feeling of crying out loudly that the poet 
communicates in the quoted line. The saying of the syllables is loud. 
The importance of rhyme in poetry is indicated by Grove (1984:52) who 
states that 
Rym is in die eerste plek 'n baie belangrike vormelement. 
From the above examples it is apparent that Raditladi has used rhyme 
aaccording to some functions outlined by Pretorius (1989:28). The rhyme 
29 
has allowed for the determination of specific units and this assists in the 
differentiation between sentence, line and the verse. The rhyme binds the. 
stanza into a technical and satisfactory mental entity. Most importantly for 
this study, the sound effects create a mood of the poem through the varied 
metaphors it brings into the poems. 
3.5 METAPHOR. 
Metaphor in poetry Is created through the use of language to represent 
actions, emotions, any sensory and extrasensory experiences. Particular 
figures of speech are significant in metaphor and worth focusing on when 
analysing a poem for perceptual and conceptual types of metaphor 
(Pretorius, 1989:31). Three figures of speech are briefly outlined below. 
The outline is not a discussion but an attempt at giving features that 
distinguish each type of figure of speech. 
Traditionally metaphor may be defined as an implied comparison (Pretorius, 
1989:32) which is aimed at extracting a deeper meaning from the recipient. 
An example is found in the poem "Bosiela" (Orphanhood) stanza three line 
one: 
Bosiela ke pula ya kgogolamoko, 
Orphanhood is rain that washes away everything. 
An association has been established between the subject ("Bosiela'' and 
the complement ("pula ya kgogolamoko") by the copula ( "ke "). The 
subject, the copula and the complement are known as the copulative word 
30 
group. The idea contained in the line is that "Bosiela" (Orphanhood) is as 
devastating as "pula ya kgogolamoko" (the torrential downpour that washes 
away everything). 
The above line may also be analysed by using different terminology. The 
general flow of thought about the subject of the metaphor is called the 
tenor, and the image compared with the subject is the vehicle. In the above 
example the scheme of things when using the tenor - vehicle terminology 
will look like this 
Bosiela 
Tenor 
ke pula 
Vehicle 
ya kgogolamoko. 
Qualificative 
The relationship between the tenor and vehicle is quite difficult to deduce 
in traditional poetry. Knowing only the literal meaning of the tenor and the 
vehicle does not necessarily lead to a meaningful interpretation. 
Metaphor may also be derived through an explicit comparison which is 
characterised by a figurative meaning. In such a case the comparison is 
called a simile. The objects compared may differ in all respects except a 
particular feature that is common (Pretorius, 1989:37). Most traditional, 
poets use phrases such as "e kete", " jaaka " and "tshwana le" to create 
similes. An extract from the poem "Motlhabani" (The Warrior) stanza one, 
lines seven and eight illustrates this: 
Ra mo latsa jaaka motlhabani, 
We laid him down like a warrior 
31 
A ladiwa legaeng le thobane 
He was laid at home with a knobkerrie. 
The deceased was buried the way a warrior gets buried at home (that is, 
I 
according to normal burial rites - a knobkerrie being one of the utensils put 
in the grave with him). 
In creating metaphor, Raditladi effectively uses figure of speech that 
contain exaggeration for emphasis. Cuddon (1980:316) defines such 
figures of speech as hyperbole. Hyperbole may be used to ridicule or 
extend an idea. In the poem "Loso" (Death) the poet emphasizes the 
unexpected nature of death in stanza three, lines three and four: 
Leru Ia /o~o le tla nako nngwe fela, 
The cloud of death comes once only 
Gale phatshime, gale dume setladi. 
It does not flash, it does not roar lightning/ike. 
The hawklike accuracy of death and its unpredictability are metaphorically 
contained in the quoted lines. 
To bring life to his communication on the subjects of his poems, Raditladi 
effectively uses certain objects (material and abstract), animals, plants, 
and nature to express the message of the poems. These objects are given 
human attributes. The transference of human attributes to non-humar 
objects invariably leads to metaphor being created. An example may be 
32 
found in the poem "Bosiela., (Orphanhood) where the poet talks to Bosiela 
(Orphanhood) in stanza six, line four by saying: 
Ke ba ke re, Bosiela, tsamaya , o a ntshosa! 
And then say, Orphanhood, go, you scare me! 
The poet addresses orphanhood (Bosie/a) as though it is a person who has 
the ability to respond to what is being said. 
In the poem "Loso" (Death). the poet gives death attributes of a king ruling 
with no hesitation. The attributes are observed in stanza three, line six: 
Lo rena, to buse, to rene serena, 
It reigns, it rules, it reigns sovereignty. 
From the above review of some aspects of poetry, it seems poetic devices 
may be used to enhance appreciation of metaphor. 
33 
CHAPTER 4. 
METAPHOR IN THE POEMS: BOSIELA, LOSO AND MOTLHABANI 
INTRODUCTION. 
Since the main thrust of this study is to trace the use and function of 
metaphor in the selected poems, an analysis of each poem will be 
undertaken. Every line of each poem will be searched for metaphors in the 
words, phrases or complete sentences found in the poem. The poems are 
analysed in the sequence "Bosiela", "Loso" and "Motlhabani". 
4.1 BOSIELA. 
In this poem, the poet leads the reader in imagining the emotions 
experienced by an orphan. In the opening line of the poem, 
Bosiela ga bo phimoge sekalobadi, 
Orphanhood cannot be wiped off scar/ike 
the poet states that orphanhood cannot be removed; it is scarlike 
(seka/obadJ). A scar (lobad1) is on an individual's body and its creation is 
accompanied by great pain. The positioning of the quality of permanency 
through the phrases "ga bo phimoge" and "sekalobadi" are an illustration 
of the diaphor. 
The idea of the difficulty of removing orphanhood is earned in line two of 
the first stanza: 
34 
Ga bo na motho a bo tlhapa ka mos/dl 
It has no person washing it with soot. 
Soot (mosidl) is black and dirty. In Tswana tradition herbs and medicines 
get burnt and the soot is used for whatever ritual. As part of cleansing 
(tlhapa) the bereaved, such burnt herbs often get smeared on their bodies 
and heads. 
In the third and fourth lines of stanza one, the poet emphasizes how 
irremovable orphanhood is from an individual's life: 
A bo phimola a bo tlhape/a bodibeng 
Wiping it washing it away in a lake 
Go tswa maswe, jone bo sale nameng. 
Dirt comes off, it [orphanhood] remains on the flesh 
[My emphasis, P.M.]. 
After application of the black and sometimes greasy soot, the herbs have 
to be wiped off. Having a bath follows this (tlhape/a) with large amounts 
of water which can be found at a lake (bodibeng). The dirt comes off (go 
tswa maswe), but it (orphanhood) remains on the flesh ( bo sale nameng). 
The actions described are found in the Setswana culture as a ritual 
associated with bereavement. Using natural objects creates a metaphor: 
bodibeng (at a lake) and nameng (on the flesh). The metaphor is 
ontological. 
35 
In the second stanza, line one the poet says 
Ke Jedimo le jang batho le matlhape, 
It is an ogre that devours people and livestock. 
An ogre (ledimo) is a man-eating giant in folklore or a terrifying person. 
Livestock (matlhape) is associated with prosperity within a society or 
among people (batho). Orphans often find themselves with no material 
prosperity. The line describes the dispossession caused by orphanhood 
as an ogre that devours (ke ledimo le jang). 
In the line 
Mose/esele o sadisang le makape, 
The thorny tree that leaves behind its poisonous barbs 
orphanhood is compared to a thorny tree (moselesele). Moselesele is a 
tree with thick thorns. As parts of the tree fall to the ground, poisonous 
barbs (makape) remain. The metaphor created emphasizes that every 
aspect of life associated with orphanhood is hurtful. 
The line 
Go sale bolota go sale botlhoko, 
Then remains swelling then remains pain. 
carries over the effects of barbs in one's flesh. The flesh swells badly and 
there is pain. The pain seems similar to that caused by orphanhood. 
36 
The swelling caused by the barbs may be so bad that the wound(s) could 
be septic. The following line suggests the idea 
Go sale sebodu se tlhokang dipheko 
Then remains rotten remnants that need traditional 
herbs. 
The word sebodu (a rotten remnant) suggests something dead giving off 
a reek (a foul smell). Dipheko (traditional herbs) are used for healing 
wounds and are in Setswana tradition the best of the lot. Dipheko 
(traditional herbs) are analogous to medicines of high schedule as used in 
Western pharmaceutics. The metaphor created shows the offensiveness 
of orphanhood and the intense efforts needed to manage it. 
In stanza three, the line 
Tenor 
Bosiela ke 
Vehicle 
pula ya kgogolamoko, 
Orphanhood is a rain that washes everything away 
introduces a comparison of orphanhood to rain. The rain (pula) alluded to 
falls after all the harvesting has been done. Usually it is the first spring 
rain. At this time in the seasons, the earth is littered with dead leaves~, 
grass, plants and some animals. In Setswana culture it is believed that the 
rain falls very strongly and it causes floods that sweep away the dead twigs 
and the dirt that are on the earth. Large parts of the ground get covered 
by water. 
37 
From the line 
Ke mosetlho o sa rwalelweng ditlhako; 
It is thorns against which no shoes can be wom, 
it is clear that the word mosetlho refers to a thorny plant that spreads itself 
widely on the ground. The phrase "o sa rwalelweng ditlhako" (against 
which no shoes can be worn) states that the thorns pierce the feet even 
when shoes are worn. The unavoidable pain caused by orphanhood in the 
walk of life is captured in the entire line. 
A sense of relentless drenching by rain is carried in the line 
Bo go kolobetsa bo sa go rapele, 
It wets you not pleading with you. 
The phrase "bo sa go rapele" (not pleading with you) brings to the fore the 
despotic nature of orphanhood. Orphanhood assumes some abhorrent 
human attribute. 
When the poet states that 
Bo go tlhabe dinao, ditlhako o di rwele. 
Piercing your feet, with your shoes on 
there is a repeated reference to the unavoidable and daily pain caused by 
orphanhood. The phrase "bo go tlhabe dinao" (piercing your feet) sketches 
a human walking on a thorny patch of ground and the person feeling pain 
38 
through his/her feet. The phrase "ditlhako o di rwele .. (with your shoes on) 
suggests the daily activities one gets engaged in. Shoes are usually put 
on to go about our different occupations. 
In stanza four, the first line states 
Tenor Vehicle 
Bosiela ruri ke /ese/amotlhaka 
Orphanhood is truly a stalk picker. 
Leselamotlhaka (a stalk picker) is some kind of bird that picks clean (se/a) 
stalks of grain (motlhaka). A stalk of grain is dry and insignificant in size 
compared with most objects on the ground. The bird searches and finds 
even a tiny object such as a stalk of grain. The comparison of orphanhood 
(bosiela) to this stalk picker (leselamotlhaka) gives orphanhood (bosiela) 
the attribute of a keen vision as it selects whom to touch. 
The stalk picker (lese/amotlhaka) is further described as a bird of prey in 
the line 
Le utswang dikoko, masogo le dikgaka 
That steals chicken, small birds and crows. 
Dikoko (chickens) live on the ground and are domestic birds. Masogo 
(small wild birds) spend most of their time searching for food on the ground 
and they are not high flying birds. Dikgaka (crows) are high flying birds and 
live high on tall trees and mountains. These two types of birds live at 
39 
different heights above the ground. Orphanhood is described as having 
the capability of stealing or robbing at these different heights. The birds 
may be representing the different people on earth and the different heights 
could be social classes. The metaphor points out that nobody, nor any 
social level is immune from orphanhood. 
From the line 
Bo tsena fe/a le fa ntlo e agaletswe 
It simply enters even when a house is fortified. 
two phrases stand out: tsena fela (simply enters) and ntlo e agaletswe (a 
fortified house). The first phrase depicts orphanhood as finding no 
difficulty in coming into contact with anybody. The second phrase paints 
a picture of a house strengthened physically to make entry for unwanted 
guests and burglars impossible. Despite the fortification, orphanhood 
enters the household without any difficulty. The overwhelming might of 
orphanhood is highlighted by the generative metaphor found in the line. 
After entering the house, orphanhood spoils everything as stated in 
Bo bo bo senye /okgapho twa ntlo e feetswe 
And even spoils the traditional decor of the swept house. 
Lokgapho (traditional decor) is a form of decoration found on the walls and 
floors of traditional houses. Damp cow dung mixed with wet soil is used to 
make patterns on the walls and the floors. In traditional homes, the chore 
40 
of decorating with the cow dung-soil mixture is preceded by the sweeping 
of the house. As the poet puts it, orphanhood simply enters (tsena tela) 
and even spoils (bo bo senye) the appreciation of the decor and 
cleanliness of the house. 
In stanza five, the line 
Bosiela ruri bo ka bo bo ltlhotlhorwa 
Orphanhood truly if it could be shaken off 
introduces a dust-like feature of orphanhood. The word "itlhotlhorwa" 
means shaking off from oneself. The metaphor created suggests human 
rejection and denial of involvement with orphanhood. The phrase "bo ka 
bo bo" (if it could be) expresses a wish. The phrase highlights the idealism 
of dusting orphanhood from an individual. 
In th~ following line, 
Nkoo ke bo tshwara ke bo gasetsa borwa 
I would grab it and throw it southwards 
three words are prominent, viz.: tshwara (grab), gasetsa (throw) and 
borwa (southward). The word tshwara (grab) suggests that orphanhood 
could be material enough to be held firmly, immobilised or suppressed. 
Thereafter, one could then throw it away (gasetsa) to be blown away, 
probably by the wind. The word borwa (southward) in Setswana cultur~ 
suggests bitter coldness. This may emanate from the climatic conditions 
41 
of the south tip of Southern Africa. The areas around the Cape Peninsula 
are generally wet and somewhat colder than the interior of the country. 
Through the metaphor created, orphanhood is perceived as being tactile 
enough to be grabbed and cast to the cold and furthermost part of the land. 
The imagined act emphasizes the bitterness with which orphanhood is 
rejected in human life. 
When coming to the line, 
Ke bo Jatlha jaaka mokgatha wa kobo 
Throw it away like an old tattered blanket 
the two phrases: latlha (throw away) and mokgatha wa kobo (old tattered 
blanket) draw attention. The word latlha (throw away) suggests that there 
is neither value nor use for the object that is being thrown away. 
Furthermore there is no further interest in recovering the object any time 
in the future. The phrase "mokgatha wa kobo" (an old tattered blanket) 
depicts an old tattered blanket that has seen the worst of times. Because 
of its state, such a blanket has no use and it has to be thrown away far 
from home. In Setswana culture a blanket (kobo) is associated with 
warmth and comfort to the body. When a blanket gets worn out to the 
extent that it is old and in tatters, the blanket ceases to be of any further 
use. Any use of such a blanket exposes the body to some discomfort. The 
mind also experiences feelings of abject poverty. Throwing it away would 
therefore be appropriate. The metaphor in the line suggests that 
orphanhood may initially draw sympathy from the community. As time goes 
on, the sympathy wears thin and orphanhood becomes a discomfort to both 
the body and the mind. 
The line, 
42 
Go garolakwa ke ditau tsa Jengobo 
To be tom to pieces by a pride of lions 
creates a sense of destruction beyond any recognition. The word 
garolakwa (torn to pieces) in its literal sense means torn to tiny pieces. 
I 
Considering that the blanket is old and in tatters, any further tearing will 
leave it as bits of unrecognizable material. The phrase "ditau tsa lengobo,, 
refers to a pride of lions out in the wilderness. The lions are in a hungry 
and ferocious mood. This mood of the lions is suggested by the guttural 
sounds of the letter "g' found in the words "Go" and "garolakwa". The 
metaphor created here is of furious activity being performed to destroy 
orphanhood completely. 
In the sixth and last stanza the first line states 
Fa bo ka bo bo se ngwana wa Jobopo 
Were it not a child of creation 
The word ngwana (child) conjures images of a helpless, non-threatening 
and innocent being. It removes the belligerent attitude with which 
orphanhood has been faced in the poem. This is in sharp contrast to the 
wickedness with which orphanhood has been described. The phrase "wa 
/obopo., (of creation) points out that orphanhood is part and parcel of 
human life. The youthfulness of a child juxtaposed with the timelessness 
of creation creates a metaphor that suggests that orphanhood is a 
permanent feature of the human race which is everywhere in human life. 
43 
In the line, 
Nkabo ke bo tseisa tse/a fela e kgopo, 
I would set it only on a long and devious path 
the phrase "tsela tela e kgopo" describes a long and devious path that 
prevents the traveller on it from reaching his/her destination. In traditional 
and rural life there are few well laid out routes. There are trails that are 
long and seemingly endless. The metaphor of the endless route or trail 
suggests that orphanhood could be made to travel only along routes that 
would lead it to nobody; hence nobody would experience it. 
The line 
Ka thipa ke bo sega mmele makgasa, 
With a knife cut its body to shreds 
gives orphanhood an attribute of a body or torso. The verb "sega" 
indicates cutting. Through fear for orphanhood, the cutting is done 
viciously such that the torso (mmele) is in tatters {makgasa). The word 
"body" in everyday language refers to the main part of most creatures. A 
vicious attack to the body should leave the creature incapacitated. The 
metaphor in this line suggests that orphanhood could be rendered 
ineffective if its main source of energy could be shut down. 
As a last act in wishful thinking, the poem concludes that 
44 
Ke baa ke re, Bosiela, tsamaya, o a ntshosaf 
And then say, Orphanhood, go away, you scare me! 
The word "tsamaya" (go away) sug,gests a command that orphanhood in 
its state of total surrender, has to obey. The phrase "o a ntshosa" (you 
scare me), may indicate the ragged and bloodied appearance of the body 
of orphanhood after the imagined vicious attack on it. It may also refer to 
the fear that orphanhood has generated throughout the poem. The 
metaphor in the phrase "o a ntshosa" (you scare me) suggests fear that 
remains with orphaned people even when times are better for them. 
4.2 LOSO. 
In this poem the poet describes his feelings when he first learnt about th~ 
death of a person who was close to him. The poet then extends the 
personal nature of the poem and also explores the manifestation of death 
within society at large. 
In the opening stanza the poet alludes to his body and the environment. 
In line two of the opening stanza the poet states that 
Ka nyera moko, ka rothisa keledi, 
I melted marrow, I dropped a tear. 
Marrow is essential to the strength of the bones and the skeletal frame of 
the human being. The marrow is not solid as the bones. However, a loss 
of strength because of fear (consider line one stanza one, the phrase "ka 
45 
tshoga" (I feared)), makes an individual feel as though the bones have lost 
their fundamental strength. The poet portrays this in the idiomatic phrase 
"ka nyera moko" (I melted marrow). The phrase "ka rothisa keledi (I 
dropped a tear) has a literal meaning of crying. It is not accepted in 
Setswana culture for men to show tears of grief or pain, as it is regarded 
as a sign of weakness for a man to cry. An admission that "I dropped a 
tear' (ka rothisa keled1) underscores the deep grief the narrator in the poem 
feels. The phrases "ka nyera moko" and "ka rothisa keledl' create a 
metaphor of crippling sorrow. 
In the line 
Lefatshe Ia ntshofala, Ia dikologa, 
The Earth darkened, it spun 
the phrase "lefatshe Ia ntshofala" (the earth darkened) literally means no 
light illuminates what is around the narrator, who faces darkness which is 
a sign of gloom or sadness. The phrase "/a dikologa" (it spun) describes 
a state of dizziness and blurred vision. A metaphor of paralyzing grief is 
created. 
The line 
Leitlho Ia me Ia benya jaaka naledl, 
My eye shone like a star 
is a simile. The eye shines brightly like a star in a dark sky because of 
46 
tears. A metaphor of outpouring sorrow is created by the phrase. 
In the line 
Sengwe sa seba pelong khubidu ya me 
Something whispered in my red heart 
the word "pelong" (in the heart) refers to a human organ that is culturally 
regarded as being a place of keeping secrets. That there is something 
("sengwe") that whispers ("seba") emphasizes the secrecy the heart is 
generally believed to harbour. The heart is naturally red ("khubidtl') in 
colour. In the context of the poem, the colour red signifies deep sorrow. 
A metaphor of almost tangible sorrow is created by the line. 
Words of comfort are stated in the line 
The line 
Sa re: 'Se lele, ke thata ya Modimo!' 
It said: 'Do not cry, it is God's will'. 
Dikeledi tsa kga/a mo let/haeng Ia me 
The tears dried on my jowl 
indicates weeping that has stopped. When the poet states that 
Loleme twa ama magalapa godimo, 
The tongue touched the palate high above 
47 
a sense of impending speechlessness is introduced. The tongue (/o/eme) 
is an organ of speech. The palate is the roof of the mouth. In normal 
speech the tongue does touch the palate high above the mouth. By adding 
the word "godimo" (high above) the poet introduces an unusual position for 
the tongue if any speech is to take place. When the tongue touches the 
palate high above (godimo}, no speech can take place. The line creates 
a metaphor of lack of speech. This metaphor gets underscored by the line 
Ka didima/a tela ka nna semumu 
I just kept silent I became a mute. 
The elements of metaphor found in the phrases "ka nyera moko," (my 
marrow melted) "lefatshe /a ntshofala .. (the earth darkened), "leitlho Ia me 
Ia benya" (my eye shone}, "sengwe sa seba" (something whispered), 
"pelong khubidu ya me" (in my red heart), are examples of ontological 
metaphors. All these elements are natural and commonplacce in our 
thoughts and lives. 
In the second stanza, the first four lines 
Ga se gope kwa loso re sa /o boneng, 
There is no place where we do not see death 
Re to bona ka matlho gongwe le gongwe 
We see it with eyes everywhere 
Mo /obopong lotlhe lo to sa tsamaeng, 
In all creation that is immobt1e 
48 
Le mo phologolong le mo bathong, longwe 
In animal and in people it is the same 
describe the places where death may be found. These statements carry 
no metaphor. 
The line 
Selemo se ntsha dibe tsa let/hafula, 
Summer yields the debris of autumn 
I 
focuses on two seasons "selemo" (summer) and "letlhafula" (autumn). 
What has been planted in summer gets harvested in autumn. The word 
"dibe .. (debris) describes what remains on the fields after harvesting. 
Traditionally the fields get cleaned and the debris is dried out to be used for 
I 
making fire. The harvest is processed in various ways to get food for 
human consumption. The chaff forms part of the debris. This debris could 
in one sense be regarded as worthless, yet in some way it could be used 
to make fire. Two opposing values, that of worthlessness and value are 
suggested by the word "dibe" (debris). The summer season suggests a 
blooming period of life (youth and success) and autumn a period of maturity 
followed by a decline. A metaphor of thriving existence followed by 
withering is created. 
The line 
Maungo a lana ke mefago ya dlngwaga 
Its fruits are the provisions for years 
49 
points out that the harvest of autumn feeds people endlessly. Traditionally 
what gets harvested is carefully stored in silos and granaries for future 
consumption. The phrase "mefago ya dingwaga" suggests planning for a 
well provided future. 
From the line 
Ba ba a fulang ba a ja dimpa go gompala 
Those who pick it eat it to gorge themselves 
it is clear that the phrase "dimpa go gompala" suggests greed. This 
contradicts the sensibility perceived in the phrase "mefago ya dingwaga". 
The poet suggests that the cause of the greed of those who harvest, may 
be found in the line 
Ba itse ba tlogela tsotlhe tsa lenaga 
Knowing that they are leaving all earthly things. 
The harvesters know that they will not live for ever. Therefore, they opt to 
enjoy themselves while the times are good. This line of thought is 
supported by the line 
Mme ba ba sa sweng ba leta Ia mariga 
But those who do not die, wait for a wintry day. 
The word "mariga" suggests cold and unfriendly circumstances. 
50 
By using seemingly unconnected ideas: "ke mefago ya dingwaga" (it is 
provision for years), "baa ja dimpa go gompala" (gorge themselves), " ba 
t/oge/a tsotlhe tsa /enaga" (they leave all earthly things) and "ba leta /a 
mariga" (they wait for a wintry day), the poet creates a metaphor that 
shows that the knowledge that death comes to all dictates how people plan 
their lives. Others live for now and others plan ahead. The metaphor 
alludes to a real characteristic of human nature. 
I 
The third stanza highlights the dominance of death. Death does not 
recognize social classes. This is referred to in line two 
A o Kgosi e kgo/o kana o Mokga/agadi 
Be you a great Chief or a Servant. 
Traditionally the Chief (Kgos1) holds the highest status in the society while 
a servant (Mokga/agad!) belongs to the lowest class. By placing the two 
social classes in juxtaposition, the poet creates a metaphor that asserts 
that death treats people as being a classless society. 
In the line 
Leru Ia Joso le tla nako nngwe tela, 
The cloud of death comes once only, 
the phrase "Leru Ia /oso" (cloud of death) depicts a traditionally accepted 
symbolism. A cloud is perceived as enveloping and smothering. 
Traditionally, when clouds gather, the elders try to read ,meaning in them 
51 
by using their experience to tell what may happen in the village. The cloud 
of death (leru Ia loso) appears once only (/e tla nako nngwe tela). The time 
span in which the cloud appears is not long enough for any predictions to 
be made and no details of the cloud are revealed. The mystery that 
characterizes the cloud is futher emphasized in the line 
The two lines 
Ga le phatshime, ga le dume setladi. 
It does not flash, it does not roar lightning/ike. 
Leru Ia /oso le tla nako nngwe tela 
The cloud of death comes once only 
Ga /e phatshirne, ga le dume setfadi 
It does not flash, it does not roar lightning like 
create a metaphor of the stealth of death. 
Another feature of the third stanza is the relation of death to time. No 
matter the month of the year, death occurs. This is stated in 
and the line 
Loso to rena pakeng tsotlhe tsa ngwaga 
Death reigns through all seasons of the year 
52 
Letlhafula, kgakologo /e mariga 
Autumn, spring and winter. 
Furthermore, the poet reinforces the sovereignty of death in the line, 
Lo rena, lo buse, to rene serena 
It reigns, it rules, reigning king/ike. 
Death is given a human attribute and consequently metaphor is created. 
The line 
Dithunya di kgabisa phupu tsa rona, 
Flowers decorate our graves 
highlights the timelessness of death. Traditionally after a burial, we 
decorate the grave with flowers (dithunya). This is done irrespective of the 
season. The phrase "dithunya di kgabisa phupu" (flowers decorate graves) 
creates a metaphor of how unseasonal death is. The poet has omitted the 
summer season in this line seven. Flowers bloom naturally in summer and 
in the other seasons mourners make flowers used to adorn the graves. 
The flowers on the graves attract butterflies: 
Le metlantlanyane e rapama le rona 
Even butterflies lie with us. 
53 
The butterflies lie on the flowers on the grave. The phrase "e rapama te 
rona" creates a metaphor that illustrates that death makes a complex form 
of life (human life) share a resting place with simple creatures such as 
butterflies. 
In the fourth stanza the poet brings the lack of beauty in death to the fore. 
The line 
A tshwanologo e kgolo e /oso /o e dirang! 
What a huge change does death commit! 
simply states that death causes change. Lines two to four are some 
comments on the splendour of life in man. There is no metaphor in the 
lines: 
The lines: 
Leba bontlentle jo bogolo jwa motho, 
Look at the great beauty of man 
Bophepa bo senang se se ka bo phalang 
Splendour that nothing can surpass 
Le boitumelo mo leseding Ia mat/ho 
And a joy in the light of the eyes 
Mo /osong ga se mothol ke selo tela 
In death it is no man/ it is a mere object 
54 
"Mo phupung ke mmu, marapo makgabana 
In the grave it is soil, bones lumpy soil 
Boswajwa mmu le nama ya dibokwana. 
An inheritance of the soil and flesh for worms. 
Marapo mairwa maje le makgabana: 
Bones made into stones and lumpy soil. 
This physical transformation of a corpse is perceived by the poet, as a gift 
for everybody: 
Seo ke mpho ya motho mongwe le mongwe tela 
That is a gift for each and every person. 
A gift (mpho) is something that is given and not asked for. Normally, a gift 
brings joy. The gift of the human body being changed to soH (mmu), bones 
(marapo) and lumpy soil (makgabana) brings unpleasant feelings. By 
using the phrase ~~mpho ya motho" (a gift for a person), the poet creates a 
metaphor of an imposition of circumstances beyond human control. 
In the last stanza, the poet re-emphasizes that death removes all class 
barriers. The first two lines and the last two lines of the stanza empatically , 
state that death levels all 
Le fa bangwe fatsheng ba go panyeletsa, 
Even when others on Earth oppress you, 
55 
Mo /osong ba lekana sentle tela nao; 
In death they are perfectly equal to you 
Baikgodisi le fa ba re ba a go nyatsa 
The pompous even when they try to despise you 
Mmung mmogo gone to tsamaya ka dinao. 
On the ground together you walk 
Baga/e, magat/apa losong baa tshwana, 
Heroes, cowards in death are the same 
Kgosi le motlhanka mo mmung ba a lekana. 
A Chief and a servant in the ground are equal. 
Lines five to seven suggest that death ignores status and settles on 
anyone: 
Loso to nna motho ka mabela sentsl, 
Death sits on a person with pride, fly like 
Ga to sisimoge le maemo a serena 
It doesn't respect even royal status 
Lona to kotama tela, moore a go itse. 
It just squats, that we know 
We culturally regard a fly as a dirty, germ-carrying insect. By alluding to 
56 
the inclination of a fly to squat on even the cleanest and most respected 
spots, a metaphor is created. The metaphor suggests the disdain and 
contempt with which death holds all societal positions. 
4.3 MOTLHABANI. 
This poem describes the burial of a courageous warrior who died during a 
battle and gets buried far away from home. The poet furthermore describes 
the warrior's feats in many battles and the fear he has instilled in all who 
knew him. 
In the first stanza the eerie silence that envelopes the burial is set out in the 
first two lines: 
Le fa e le mokgwasa kana o no o seyo! 
Even a scratch of sound was not present 
Le fa e le moropa ka baka leo 
Even a drum at that moment. 
Normally, when soldiers are buried, there is military music. Drums are one 
of the basic instruments that are played. However, on this occassion there 
was a deadly silence. 
The bare necessities of burying a warrior were missing: 
Phate ya kgongwana o ne a sa e bewa 
The skin of a young ox was not placed on him 
57 
Setlhako lenaong a sa se newa, 
A shoe on his foot he was not given. 
Before Western culture influenced Setswana tradition, a warrior was 
wrapped with the hide (phate) of a grown ox or cow that has been 
slaughtered. When a young ox (kgongwana) was used, the hide would not 
be large enough to wrap the corpse properly. Even that was missing. A 
shoe put on the foot of the corpse was supposed to prepare the dead 
person for the journey after death. The missing items create a metaphor 
of a pitiful circumstance. 
The metaphor is reinforced in the line 
Ramo tsenya ale segwere mo mmung, 
We put him as a root in the ground. 
Just as a root (segwere) is bare, the warrior was buried with no clothing. 
Despite the poor situation in which they buried the warrior, some 
recognition of his exploits as a warrior was shown: 
Ra mo latsa jaaka motlhabam~ 
We laid him down like a warrior 
A Jadiwa Jegaeng le thobane. 
We laid him at home with a knobkerrie. 
58 
Burying a warrior with some weapon was a traditional custom. The belief 
was that he would continue being a warrior in the next world. The phrase 
"a ladiwa legaeng,. (we laid him at home) creates a metaphor that death is 
like sleeping. This is a viewpoint held by Christians. 
They buried him at night under a moonlit sky 
0 letse ka lesedi Ia ngwedi 
He slept with light from the moon 
and the warrior may have bled to death: 
Mmele wa gagwe o rotha le madi, 
His body dripping with blood. 
The poet keeps the reader aware of the atmosphere of a battlefield by 
referring to traditional weapons used to prepare the grave: 
Mmu re ne re o fata ka dithebe, 
The ground we dug with shields 
Phupu re ne ra epa ka digai 
The grave we dug with assegais 
Sefikantswe sa gagwe sa nna thebe 
His tombstone was a shield 
59 
The weapons "dithebe" (shields) and "digai" (assegais) are the most 
important and precious weapons for a warrior. The use of these weapons 
for the task stated in the lines, creates a metaphor of high sacrifice for a ! 
just cause (burial of the warrior). 
In the third stanza the poet recalls the ferocity of the warrior which used to 
make the Zulus weep 
Batho Tebele bane ba lela, 
Zulu people wept. 
They wept uncontrollably 
Ba lela a lekola semelamela 
Weeping as one examining a strong smelling herb 
Usually a strong smelling herb (semelamela) held close enough to the 
eyes, will irritate them, causing tears. Prolonged exposure of the eyes to 
such a herb makes tears run freely down the face. A strong smelling herb 
(semelamela) is certainly not a pleasant object to be held near the face. 
The phrase "ba lela a lekola semelamela" brings to mind an examination or 
scrutiny of a sad situation. The metaphor created by the phrase suggests 
uncontrolled grief caused by facing a mournful event that cannot be 
avoided. 
The poet recalls how the Zulu people used to cry with fear in the line, 
60 
Ba re ba lela ba le matlho a kwano 
They say they weep with downcast eyes. 
Traditionally, out of respect or fear, one does not look a revered or feared 
person straight in the face. The eyes are directed downwards. The phrase 
"ba /e matlho a kwano .. (with downcast eyes) signifies the lack of courage 
to talk face to face with the warrior. A metaphor of reverence or mortal fear 
for the warrior is created by this phrase. 
Their plea was that the warrior should show them their children 
Bare, re fe bana re "khombize". 
They say, give us children "to show'. 
The word "bana" in this context is associated with the generally held belief 
that children are the future of any society. A society under attack would 
plead for the lives of its children. The idea of a future to look forward to is 
found in the phrase "re khombize" (to show). The children need nurturing 
and guidance as they grow. The adult members of the society show the 
children how to take care of themselves in a process that requires time. 
The plea therefore implies an extension of life for the entire society. This 
is the metaphor created by the phrase "re fe bana re "khombize"'' (give us 
children "to show''). 
The people stood in awe of the warrior as revealed in 
61 
Nkwe marema le ka tshaka o fano 
Leopard chopper even with a sword you are here. 
The leopard (nkwe) has a reputation as a fierce fighter and is found mainly 
in Africa and Asia. Its skin is traditionally worn by kings and chiefs as part 
of the royal dress. Killing a leopard by hacking it is an achievement of 
great honour. Such a feat shows rare bravery on the side of the killer. The 
phrase "/e ka tshaka o fano" (even with a sword you are here) means the 
warrior had immense skills in using the sword. So the phrase "nkwe 
marema le ka tsheka o fano" (leopard chopper even with a sword you are 
here) creates a metaphor of singlehanded bravery. 
The dangerous and hostile nature of the warrior is stated in 
Ke yo o tsutsubantse sefatlhogo 
Here he is frowning. 
In conclusion, the dead warrior was a ruthless killer that had assumed the 
status of an idol 
Modimako go tshelang yo o sego! 
The idol in whose presence the fortunate live. 
The word "modimako" (idol) suggests an object worshipped by many. 
These worshippers stay alive because of the luck (lesego) that is 
determined by the idol (modimako). The idolaters do not realise that the 
62 
life of an idol is at the mercy of human hands. Although the warrior was 
worshipped by many, his life was ended by wounds inflicted on him. Idols 
cannot give nor prolong any life. The love of God determines life on earth. 
63 
CHAPTER 5. 
METAPHOR AND MYTH IN RADITLADI'S POEMS. 
5.1 INTRODUCTION. 
Lakoff and Johnson (1980:185) state that "any human conceptual system 
is mostly metaphorical in nature and that, therefore, there is no fully 
objective, unconditional, or absolute truth". It is this viewpoint that is 
adopted in this study to seek the contribution of metaphor in giving order 
to our lives. 
Playing a role similar to that of metaphor, are myths. Myths are found in all 
cultures and we quite often regard the myths of our culture as "truths". 
Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 185) point out that "the truth is ways relative to 
a conceptual system". Each myth finds its roots in a cultural experience 
I 
motivated by real and reasonable concerns. It may therefore be argued 
that the conceptual system on which a truth is based is not universal. 
Consequently, the search for the contribution of metaphor to myths may be 
found in examining the significance of metaphor in the life of a reader of the 
poems under discussion. What is significant to the reader will depend on 
the readers past experiences, values, feelings, and intuitive insight. The 
significance is established through interaction and interactional properties 
of humankind, and its environment. The environment includes the physical 
environment and interaction with other people. This interaction process 
leads to a mutual change between man and the environment. Lakoff and 
Johnson (1980:226-230) describe creation of the significance of metaphor 
64 
through the above process as "experientialist myth... The experientialist 
myth is supposed to lead to an understanding of experiences. 
This chapter will focus on the metaphors found in the three poems and their 
contribution to experientialist myth. The myth is detected in some of the 
following important areas of modem life. The areas are: 
(a) interpersonal communication; 
(b) self-understanding; 
(c) ritual; 
(d) aesthetic experiences; and 
(e) politics. 
5.2 METAPHOR AND SYMBOLS. 
Metaphor and symbol represent ways in which a literary artist can make a 
concrete particular of some kind convey a further meaning. Both metaphor 
and symbol are parts of the universal analogical process by which we 
discover patterns in the heterogeneous elements of our experiences. 
Symbol and metaphor have their own special, individual characters, but 
sometime they overlap (Brooks, 1976:581). A symbol may be part of a 
metaphor. Consider the following in this regard: 
Tenor Vehicle 
Bosiela ke pula ya kgogolamoko 
Orphanhood is a rain that washes everything away 
65 
Pula ya kgogolamoko, which is part of the metaphor, symbolises complete 
destruction. 
Pretorius (1989:45) states that a literary symbol combines an image with 
a concept. Two objects are not compared as in the case of a metaphor, 
but the one object is automatically associated with the other. Also, symbols 
may be actions or gestures. 
Pretorius (1985:45-46) proposes that three types of symbols are dominant 
in poetic works of North Sotho. Tswana is closely related to North Sotho. 
The types of symbols are 
(a) traditional symbols: these are symbols that reveal cultural 
traits unique to a particular tribe. For instance in the line (from 
Bosiela) 
Bo bo bo senye lokgapho twa ntlo e feetswe 
And even spoil the tapestry of the swept house. 
the word "lokgapho" (traditional tapestry) is a symbol of 
neatness in a traditional home. 
(b) Universal symbols: these are not limited to any time, place or 
ethnic group. They are universal in their underlying concepts. 
A symbol such as "mosetlho" (thorn) symbolising constant pain 
in Bosiela, is meaningful in a wide context and is not confined 
to Tswana literature: 
66 
Ke mosetlho o sa tWalelweng ditlhako; 
It is a widespread thorn against which no shoes can be 
worn. 
(c) Umited symbols: some words or concepts find symbolic 
meaning in a specific poetic context. In Loso the cloud 
(leru) in the specific context symbolises a smothering 
presence: 
Leru Ia loso le tla nako nngwe fela, 
The cloud of death comes at any time. 
This study will adopt this schematic classification of the symbols to examine 
the generality of the symbols in the three poems: Bosiela (Orphanhood), 
Loso (Death) and Motlhabani (The V\(arrior) . 
5.2.1 The symbols in the poem "Bosiela". 
Stanza Une 
1 1 
1 2 
1 3 
Phrase 
sekalobadi 
scarf ike 
mosidi 
soot 
bodibeng 
lake 
Symbolises 
indelible painful 
memories 
dirt 
in this context: 
a cleansing place 
Type of symbol 
universal 
universal 
limited 
Stanza Line 
1 4 
2 1 
2 2 
2 3 
2 4 
3 1 
3 2 
Phrase 
nameng 
on nesh 
ledimo 
ogre 
mose/ese/e 
thorny bush 
bolota 
swelling 
sebodu 
a rotten 
corpse 
pula ya 
kgogolammoko 
67 
Symbolises 
man's inability 
to remove pain 
fearsome being 
hurting experience 
deep grief 
a situation that 
is shunned by all 
devastation 
rain that washes everything away 
mosetlho constant pain 
widespread thorn plant 
3 3 rape/e in this context: 
hardhearted not begging 
Type of Symbol 
limited 
universal 
universal 
limited 
universal 
universal 
universal 
limited 
Stanza Une Phrase 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 
1 
tlhabe 
stab 
/eselamotlhaka 
reed picker 
2 dikoko, masogo 
le dikgaka 
fowl, birds and crows 
3 ntlo e ageletswe 
a fortified house 
68 
Symbolises 
painful action 
evil or wickedness 
in this context: 
presence on and 
above the earth 
place of security 
4 4 lokgapho lwa ntlo neatness 
5 1 
5 2 
decor of a traditional 
home 
itlhotlhorwa 
dusted off 
borwa 
south 
in this context: 
denouncement 
in this context: 
cold rejection 
Type of Symbol 
universal 
universal 
limited 
universal 
traditional 
limited 
limited 
Stanza Une 
5 3 
5 4 
6 1 
6 2 
6 3 
Phrase 
mokgatha 
69 
Symbolises 
in this context: 
wa kobo worthless possession 
old tattered blanket 
ditau tsa 
lengobo 
lions of a lair 
ngwana wa 
lobopo 
child of creation 
merciless 
circumstances 
reverence for 
creation 
tsela ... e kgopo in this context: 
treacherous path a wish to banish 
orphanhood 
sega mmele in this context: 
makgasa a desire to destroy 
cut its body to shreds orphanhood 
Type of Symbol 
limited 
universal 
universal 
limited 
limited 
The poem Bosiela has more universal and limited symbols than traditional 
symbols. In the examination of the poem only one traditional symbol was 
identified. It seems as if the poet managed to go beyond the confines of 
Tswana tradition and language in the presentation of the painful experience 
' 
of orphanhood. 
70 
5.2.2 The symbols In the poem "Loso". 
Stanza Une 
1 2 
1 3 
1 3 
1 3 
1 4 
1 5 
1 6 
1 7 
Phrase 
moko 
marrow 
keledi 
tear 
ntshofala 
darkened 
dikologa 
spinning 
naledi 
star 
pelong 
in the heart 
letlhaeng 
jowl or cheek 
magalapa 
palate or roof 
mouth 
Symbolises 
inner courage 
sorrow 
gloom or 
sadness 
in this context: 
confusion 
in this context: 
intense grief 
private feelings 
in this context: 
acceptance of 
Type of Symbol 
universal 
universal 
universal 
limited 
limited 
universal 
limited 
what has happened 
in this context: limited 
deep shock 
Stanza Une 
1 8 
2 2 
2 3 
2 5 
2 7 
2 8 
Phrase 
71 
Symbolises Type of Symbol 
semumu 
mute . 
matfho 
eyes 
lobopong fo 
sa tsamayeng 
immobile creation 
dibe tsa 
/et/hafufa 
debris of 
autumn 
dimpa go 
gompafa 
bellies extended 
tfogefa ... 
tsa fenaga 
leave earthly 
things 
in this context: limited 
deep shock 
in this context: limited 
personal 
experience 
nature 
waste 
management 
greed 
dying 
universal 
universal 
universal 
universal 
Stanza Une 
2 9 
3 2 
3 2 
3 3 
3 8 
4 4 
4 6 
Phrase 
72 
Symbolises 
Ia mariga poverty in 
of winter old age 
Kgosi e kgolo highest social 
Great King status 
Mokga/agadi low social 
Servant status 
leru Ia /oso death 
cloud of death 
dithunya di memories 
kgabisa phupu of the dead 
flowers decorate 
graves 
lesedi Ia matlho being alive 
light of the eyes 
marapo 
makgabana 
bones are 
like pebbles 
long buried 
corpse 
Type of Symbol 
limited 
universal 
traditional 
limited 
universal 
universal 
universal 
Stanza Une 
5 4 
Phrase 
mmu.mmogo 
gone lo 
tsamaya ka dinao 
together on it 
you walk 
73 
Symbolises 
classless 
society 
Type of Symbol 
limited 
5 5 nna ... sentsi in this context: limited 
sit .. ny like spite 
Again in the poem "Loso·~ (Death), only one traditional symbol was 
identified. The poet, however, used many universal and limited symbols. 
5.2.3 The symbols in the poem "Motlhabani". 
Stanza Une Phrase 
1 2 
1 3 
1 5 
moropa 
drum 
phate ya 
kgongwana 
hide of a young ox 
setlhako lenaong 
a shoe on his foot 
Symbolises 
message 
burial 
burial 
Type of Symbol 
limited 
traditional 
traditional 
Stanza Une Phrase 
1 6 
2 6 
3 5 
segwere 
root 
sefikantswe 
tombstone 
nkwe marema 
leopard chopper 
74 
Symbolises Type of Symbol 
in this context: limited 
abject poverty 
memory of the dead universal 
bravery universal 
In this poem, the poet used all three types of symbols equally but sparingly. 
It is clear from this schematic analysis of all three poems that the usage of 
symbols has been largely confined to universal and limited symbols. The 
limited symbols acquire cultural value when judged within the context that 
they appear. Traditional symbols do not appear that much, and it may 
therefore be appropriate to propose that the three poems contain symbols 
that have a wider significance in several cultures other than the Tswana 
culture. 
75 
CHAPTER 6. 
CONCLUSION. 
6.1 CHAPTER SUMMARIES. 
At the outset of this study, attention was drawn to the inherent nature of 
metaphorical concepts in linguistic expressions. Mention was also made of 
the link of metaphor to the value system of the user of the language. This 
link was not explored any further since the purpose of this study was to 
search for ways of identifying metaphor in the selected poems. 
Furthermore the study needed to answer the question of how the use of 
metaphor related to the traditional Tswana value system. 
A theoretical discussion of the concepts or ideas on metaphor revealed 
that metaphors tend to lead to limitless number of contexts in semantic 
abundance of meaning. The discussion also highlighted that metaphor is 
a powerful device that may be used to find patterns in seemingly unrelated 
experiences. By using metaphor, a poet can bring to the fore certain 
aspects of a concept and a partial understanding of the concept itself may 
be attained. The discussion pointed out that the features of a social 
phenomenon that are selected for attention may be scrutinised through 
metaphors. A certain perspective of life could be achieved and a cultur~ 
accompanied by sybolism got established. 
The study then proceeded to demonstrate that several language devices 
which cause poetry to be unique, could contain different types of metaphor. 
76 
An examination of the language devices in the selected poems revealed 
that metaphor could be enhanced and appreciated during usage of the 
devices. 
Following the foundation laid, an examintion of the use of metaphor in the 
selected poems was undertaken. Each line in the poems was examined 
and while a wealth of metaphor was found, there is no reason to believe 
that all metaphors had been unearthed. 
Since it was argued that metaphor has a bearing on culture and symbolism, 
it was befitting that the universality of the symbols engendered by the 
metaphors in the selected poems also be investigated. The study 
suggested that some symbols were universal (and therefore could be found 
in non-Tswana cultures), others were limited (in that they were confined to 
the text used) and the third type were symbols applicable to a particular 
Tswana tribe. 
6.2 RELEVANCE OF THE METAPHOR TO CONTEMPORARY 
SOCIETY AND CULTURE. 
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:226) each myth arises from real 
and reasonable concerns about real issues in life. A myth finds a basis for 
its existence in a peoples' cultural experience. Myth performs a function 
of emphasizing that there are real things that exist independently of people. 
These real issues direct the manner in which people interact with them and 
the way in which the people comprehend them. The myth revealed in the 
three poems has been derived from the metaphor observed in the poems. 
77 
The metaphors generated in the three poems were largely derived from 
ideas and concrete objects that are not confined to the Tswana culture. By 
using various linguistic techniques, the poet has gone beyond the barriers 
of language to explore the theme of death. The ,modern reader is exposed 
to the innuendos accompanying death and its consequences through 
several metaphoric expressions. 
In this study of metaphor found in the poems, it hs become clear that the 
poet uses metaphor as a mechanism to offer some understanding of 
people's experience of death. The metaphors used have introduced new 
meaning, suggested similarities and in the process defined a new reality 
about death. The metaphors have assisted in giving a description of the 
truth about death and its meaning only in a way the people live and interact 
with the world. 
The metaphors found in the poems highlight how people experience death. 
Through the metaphors, it seems as if the experiences of the different 
people blend into a whole and do not remain as isolated ·and individual 
experiences. Thus the metaphor creates an experiential gestalt about 
death. 
By employing metaphor as a basic mechanism, the poet has built in 
inferences about different situations where death may occur. An artistic 
usage of the metaphor has not led to a conflict in ideas about death in the 
three poems. Instead, the poems emphasize the inherent characteristics 
of death. Also, the poet has employed various forms of metaphor for the 
concept of death. This is acceptable because there is not a single form of 
78 
metaphor that can fulfill the role of making people comprehend death. 
The modern reader is drawn into the world of the bereaved by the 
metaphoric expressions created in these poems. Such a world is common 
to all humanity irrespective of culture, race, creed or age of the universe. 
When coming to symbolism in the poems, the symbols used are rarely 
traditional. Most of the symbols are limited or universal in the sense that 
they explain some aspects of how people react to death or the dead. What 
is also important is that the symbols assist the modem reader to 
comprehend the expression of agony and suffering when death takes away 
dear ones. 
The three poems have revealed a wealth of metaphor that is not only 
' 
relevant to Tswana culture but that may also enrich other cultures even in 
these modern times. 
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
Further studies may be conducted to examine and assess the extent to 
which the used metaphor in the poems hides certain aspects of how people 
react to death. Other studies may examine the role metaphor (in the 
poems) plays in providing communication on unshared experiences about 
death. The communication may lead to finding the meaning of death and 
an understanding of its nature. Lastly, it would be interesting to examine 
how the metaphor of the poems influences the perspective of man that 
death is part of his environment. The environment encompasses issues 
of meaningful existence of man. 
79 
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