Jàmbá - Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 
ISSN: (Online) 2072-845X, (Print) 1996-1421
Page 1 of 6 Original Research
Gender mainstreaming: A lasting solution 
to disaster risk reduction
Authors: Disasters threaten resources as well as displace millions of people globally. It is undisputable 
Jestina Chineka1 
1 that disasters have gender dimensions. However, most African countries are still lagging Agnes Musyoki  
Edmore Kori1 behind as far as the holistic integration of gender mainstreaming into national policies, 
Hector Chikoore1 particularly on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). The purpose of this article was to unpack the 
consequence of overlooking gender in DRR, thereby highlighting its importance. The study 
Affiliations:
1 followed a comparative study design, by using two case studies of Mumbwa District in Department of Geography 
and Geo-Information Science, Zambia and Chivi District in Zimbabwe. The specific objectives were to examine the disaster 
University of Venda, risks in both Mumbwa and Chivi districts, analyse the DRR strategies used in both districts 
Thohoyandou, South Africa and highlight the critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming in DRR in these 
cases. Findings showed that gender mainstreaming is not only an important tool in DRR but 
Corresponding author:
Jestina Chineka,  also a sustainable development initiative. Despite challenges faced by countries in DRR, 
jessiench@gmail.com gender mainstreaming should always be considered as their first line of action in DRR.
Dates: Keywords: Disaster Risk Reduction; Gender Mainstreaming; Sustainable Development; 
Received: 10 July 2018 Holistic Integration; Overlooking Gender; First Line of Action. 
Accepted: 01 Aug. 2018
Published: 04 July 2019
How to cite this article: Introduction
Chineka, J., Musyoki, A., 
Kori, E. & Chikoore, H., 2019, Disaster risks threaten economies and livelihoods in many African countries. According to the 
‘Gender mainstreaming: International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR 2004), Africa is the only continent with 
A lasting solution to disaster an increasing disaster trend in the past decade. With climate change effects becoming a reality in 
risk reduction’, Jàmbá: the 21st century, a multiplicity of challenges and vulnerabilities which might be having gender 
Journal of Disaster Risk 
Studies 11(3), a723. https:// connotations have surfaced. Despite the improvements in information technology, education 
doi.org/10.4102/jamba. and growing economies, Millennium Development Goals Report (2014) describes multiple and 
v11i3.723 interdependent challenges that have exposed African countries to disaster risks. Recent 
researches by ISDR (2004), Joseph-Brown and Tuiloma-Sua (2012) and Turnbull, Sterrett and 
Copyright:
© 2019. The Authors. Hilliboe (2013) show that women are affected by disasters more than men, and therefore, women 
Licensee: AOSIS. This work can play a crucial role in disaster management if they are integrated into Disaster Risk Reduction 
is licensed under the (DRR) plans. International frameworks such as the Hyogo Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction 
Creative Commons 
Attribution License. (2005–2015) place gender issues at the centre of disaster management. African countries including 
Zambia and Zimbabwe are facing a myriad of challenges with regard to different kinds of 
disasters. According to Chaguta (2010), most African countries demonstrate limited capacity to 
develop sustainable DRR programmes. The major research question behind this article is: How 
critical is gender mainstreaming in DRR programmes?
Study aim and objectives
The aim of this study was to highlight gender mainstreaming as an imperative and holistic, 
cost-effective and long-term solution to DRR using two cases from Zambia and Zimbabwe. 
This aim is addressed by the following objectives:
1. to examine the disaster risks in both Mumbwa and Chivi districts
2. to analyse the DRR strategies used in both districts
3. to highlight the critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming in DRR in these 
cases.
Read online: The study area
Scan this QR Mumbwa District lies in the western part of the Central Province of Zambia. According to the 
code with your 
smart phone or Central Statistical Office of Zambia (2010), Mumbwa District has a population of 226 177 of which 
mobile device women constituted more than half of the total population. The area has an average annual 
to read online.
maximum temperature of 30°C, with mean annual rainfalls ranging between 600 mm and 800 mm 
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(Ministry of Tourism and Arts [Zambia] 2018). As such, contextualisation of the two case areas and in gaining better 
drought frequency in Mumbwa District has increased to understanding of the outcomes. The comparative research 
below the traditionally known 10-year interval (James-Sebro design helped to highlight the different approaches of the 
2005). Drought risks in the Mumbwa District also include two cases to DRR and the success factors to DRR.
reduced agricultural production, water shortages, loss of 
livestock, malnutrition and poverty (Petrie et al. 2016). To Data analysis was performed by comparing the two cases by 
reduce the risks of drought, an international organisation using international organisations standards as benchmarks. 
called Heifer International introduced the Pass on the Gift Strategies from the United Nations International Strategy for 
Programme in 2005 in Mumbwa District; the programme’s Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) such as the Post 1999 Strategy, 
main objective was to help the community adapt to drought the Hyogo Framework on DRR (2005) and the Sustainable 
shocks through empowering women. In this programme, Livelihoods Framework were employed in this study. This 
women in Mumbwa District were given heifers, which they study also employs a theoretical framework from Sen’s 
would pass on the calf to a fellow member in the programme. Capabilities Theory (1989) to demonstrate the role of women’s 
Livestock is a crucial asset in drought-prone areas. It is a capabilities in DRR programmes. Cross patterns from both 
source of the much needed proteins both in meat and milk, case studies (Mumbwa and Chivi districts) were examined 
as well as being used as draught power by many rural and interpreted based on the themes generated by the 
households. objectives, the analytical framework and case outcomes. The 
methodological flow adopted starts with case study selection, 
For the second case study, Chivi District located southwest of case outcomes and then interpretation of results.
the Masvingo Province in Zimbabwe was chosen. Chivi 
District has a population of 166 049, with women forming a Literature review
majority – 54.5% (ZimSat 2012). Like in Mumbwa District of 
Zambia, Chivi District of Zimbabwe also experiences Gender mainstreaming concept
drought-induced disasters. The drought frequency in Chivi Gender mainstreaming is a strategy for gendered concerns 
District lies at an interval of 3–5 years (Mudzonga 2012). and experiences to be integrated into design, policies and 
Drought risks in Chivi District include dwindling water programmes in all spheres (World Health Organisation 
resources, lack of food and deepening poverty (source). The 2010). According to ECOSOC (1997), gender mainstreaming 
Government of Zimbabwe through the Ministry of Lands is the process of evaluating gender dimensions of any 
and Agricultural Resources supported by the International planned action, legal framework and programme for a 
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) specific area at all stages. Tsui, Hearn & Young (2014), 
introduced the Conservation Farming Programme in 2004 to defined it as the reorganisation, improvement, development 
reduce drought shocks through sustainable farming. This and evaluation of policy processes so that gender equality 
programme entailed conservative farming practices such as is incorporated in all policies at all levels and stages. This is 
digging planting basins, mulching and crop rotation. The conceded by Alston (2014), who described it as a globally 
main objective of this initiative was to reduce the effect of accepted strategy for promoting gender equality. They 
drought by enhancing agricultural productivity. argue that mainstreaming is not an ending solution but a 
strategy to achieve gender equality by ensuring that it forms 
Materials and methods the centre of all activities, plans and policies of development. 
This article is a desktop research based on studies conducted 
Sustainable Development Goal number 5 seeks to achieve 
by James-Sebro (2005) and Heifer (2010) in the Mumbwa 
gender equality and empower all women and girls 
District of Zambia and studies conducted by Mazvimavi et al. 
(UN Women 2015). It targets to end all forms of discrimination 
(2010) and Gukurume, Nhodo & Mafongoya (2010) in Chivi 
and violence against women. It recognises that women have 
District of Zimbabwe. The main themes of these two studies 
were to build resilient communities through harnessing a role to play in their communities, and hence, there is a need 
livestock and to ensure food security in drought-prone rural to evade gender inequality, especially in DRR.
communities through conservative farming practices. Both 
cases aimed to reduce the knock-on effects of drought. Why gender mainstreaming in disaster 
However, their execution differed in that the Chivi case risk reduction?
sought to improve productivity through green agriculture, Disaster, according to the ISDR (2004), refers to the disruption 
whereas the Zambian case strengthened communities through of the community’s functionality, resulting in human, 
empowering women with livestock. economic and environmental losses to an extent that the 
community cannot cope without external support. And risk 
The article follows a comparative research design, a research is defined as the function of a hazard and vulnerability, that 
methodology that aims to make comparisons across different is, Risk = Hazard × (Vulnerability ˗ Capacity) (Joseph-Brown 
spatial locations, principles or values. Camari (2008) defines 2012). Both women and men face challenges that increase 
it as the juxtaposition of values shared by two or more cases their vulnerability to disaster, in relation to their differentiated 
or a method to analyse relationships between phenomena social and economic orientation. Turnbull et al. (2013) note 
and their casual connections. This design is critical in the that people’s distinct socio-economic clusters shape their 
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disaster experiences. It is within this breadth that it becomes critical success factors derived from gender mainstreaming 
imperative to integrate all gender concerns in disaster by using a comparative case analysis of the districts of 
management. Mumbwa in Zambia and Chivi in Zimbabwe. 
Global change has become a fact of life, and disasters are on the Disaster risks under case studies
increase. Turnbull et al. (2013) highlight that the frequency of 
disasters is increasing since 1970s globally. IPCC (2007) predicts Chivi District despite being a drought prone area, the 
an increase of 1.1 °C to 6.4 °C in global surface warming by economy base is centred on agriculture. The small holder 
2100. The increase in global warming means further melting of farmers in this community often have their livestock and 
ice caps in polar regions, rise of sea levels, drier arid regions, crop production disrupted by the several episodes of 
floods and droughts. There is a real need to come up with drought experienced in the area. Food insecurity is a major 
effective strategies in disaster risk reduction. issue in the area. According to Chineka (2016), drought 
exposes the Chivi community across all gender lines. 
International organisations recognise the importance of gender The Household Vulnerability Index weighing vulnerability 
mainstreaming if disaster reduction plans are to be sustainable. across physical, social, human, financial and natural assets 
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster of each household showed that resilience linked more to 
Reduction (UNISDR) Hyogo Framework for Action (2005– economic and social network issues. Mazvimavi et al. (2010) 
2015) views gender as an integral part in disaster risk noted that half of the Zimbabwean population are food 
management, and hence, it should be incorporated into policies and nutrition insecure. In response to this risk, several 
and plans. The Millennium Developmental Goal number 3 drought adaptation programmes were initiated including 
places gender equality as one of the vital tools in development. conservation farming. 
Women and men continue to have different access to vital Drought coupled with diseases caused a huge cattle loss in 
resources globally because of cultural and societal values Mumbwa District. According to Heifer (2010), farming became 
and expectations. In Africa and many Asian countries, most labour-intensive, farming plots were reduced and women 
women still lack access to crucial resources which can add abandoned their protein-rich crop fields to work on their 
their resilience. Musyoki and Khayesi (2012) note that most 
men’s staple food crop plots, as men migrated to urban areas 
women lack access to land, livestock and financial capital 
seeking employment. Agricultural production dwindled. The 
which are critical in reducing vulnerabilities to disasters. 
Also, their traditional gender roles of household caretaking community became food and nutrition insecure. Heifer 
reduce their mobility and social networking. Few et al. introduced multi-purpose draught cattle programme that 
(2004), citing the Mozambique floods disaster, concede this could easily be managed by women, in a non-stereotypic 
view and add that women’s confinement to households and approach.
caregiving make them often lose their lives to save others.
Chivi and Mumbwa disaster risk reduction 
The rise in disasters globally makes careful planning and strategies
a holistic approach to DRR critical. Disasters are now believed  Conservation farming in Chivi targeted to reduce drought 
to be a manifestation of poor planning and weak policies. shocks through increasing agricultural production. It 
According to Turnbull et al. (2013), disasters are an avoidable sought to alleviate drought risk through sustainable green 
interruption which requires effective systems and sustainable farming. Farmers participated on voluntary basis. They 
strategies. They go without say that gender inequality is one allocated 0.1 hectares of their land for conservation farming. 
of the weak lines of many disaster policies globally. To maximise water and manure, farmers would only plant 
crops in prepared pits. The programme empowered farmers 
This draws this article back to the view that drought risks cut with sustainable farming practices such as mulching and 
across the social fabric and are divided or shaped by age, integrated pest management. According to Gukurume et al. 
ethnicity, physical ability and gender. Hence, the socially (2010), conservation project brought several conflicts and 
excluded and economically insecure are worst affected. challenges. Farmers who were participating were shunned 
Gender mainstreaming becomes critical especially in the by fellow community members who preferred food relief. 
patriarchal African communities. It goes without saying that The project was too labour-intensive. Farmers became 
effective DRR programmes must be engendered. reluctant to increase their plots. 
Ethical consideration Mumbwa adopted the pass on the gift programme. This 
This article followed all ethical standards for a research intervention targeted mostly women, men and youth. A 
without direct contact with human or animal subjects. heifer would be passed to a family under the ownership of a 
woman, and if it produces, they would pass the calf to the 
Results and discussion next person on the list. The conservation farming programme in Chivi tackled drought from the farmer’s angle, whereas 
In this section, the article highlights the disaster risks the pass on the gift sought to reduce drought vulnerability 
experienced, the DRR strategies adopted, as well as the through empowering women. This cattle provision project 
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aimed to build economic and environmental resilience Lessons from Mumbwa and Chivi
through building self-reliant community by increasing crop 
Overlooking gender issues in DRR programmes is not only 
yields and nutrition as well as promoting agro-ecological 
farming. This was achieved by building the capacity of the overlooking of women and men dilemmas but also a 
rural women and men. Both women and men were trained shear negligence of root causes of disaster shocks in the 
in rearing cattle. The project targeted social development communities. Analysing the social construct of disasters, 
through gender integration. The project was a huge success, Enarson (2005) notes that women and men have short- and 
and communities formed their own co-operatives from this long-term needs in any disaster. Hence, excluding their 
project. It spread to other communities and was adopted by participation will be excluding their needs and potentials to 
other NGOs such as World Vision. adapt to the shocks and capacitate themselves to future 
disasters. DRR approach in disaster management seeks to 
Although both programmes sought to reduce drought promote community resilience through early warning 
risks, they reflect critical gender dimensions. The Chivi case systems and sustainable addressing of long-term crisis. This 
bundled farmers as a homogenous entity. Chivi District however to succeed would need disaster shocks to be 
has a high female population which constitute most the nipped in the bud, and hence, gender integration is the way 
smallholder farmers. Mumbwa case study brought in to achieve this. Capacitating communities and giving them 
gender paradigm. It is also crucial to note that although the a say in their issues promotes independence and a sense of 
Heifer project targeted to empower women, it integrated proprietorship. In Mumbwa, communities formed a 
men as well, which is gender mainstreaming in its holistic multiple of society projects after the pass on the Gift 
sense. Although addressing the past gender inequalities in programme because of interior motivation, although some 
patriarchal societies is important, the fact is that men still demo plots for conservation agriculture in Chivi were 
make decision in critical issues and are also vulnerable to neglected. Exclusion of beneficiaries does not only result in 
disaster shocks, hence the need to harmonise both parties white elephant projects but also makes the projects 
and allow them to showcase their capabilities. unsustainable. According to Sen ’s Capabilities Theory 
(1989), leaving out a certain gender means leaving out a 
Critical success factors on disaster risk reduction portion of the society, yet success of any developmental 
project is depended on people’s capabilities, which vary 
Mumbwa District project tackled disaster management from across the board. Hence, it is not only about gender but 
grass-roots level, in which community members participated community capabilities integration.
in every step of the intervention programme. Mumbwa 
project’s success rests on the inclusive approach more Gender is a sensitive topic in rural communities, and hence 
specifically on gender integration. The project ran almost to address, it would require more subtle approaches to 
concurrently with gender education, monitoring and achieve gender balance. Gender awareness training, a 
reviewing. According to Heifer (2010), the initial step for a 
continuous assessment and review of gender projects would 
group to be co-opted into the programme, it had to have a 
in the long run build gender equity. Conservation agriculture 
50% women membership to avoid repeating of the Women 
is eco-friendly and has a potential to boost productivity; 
in Development concept. Couples were encouraged to join 
however, it is labour-intensive. For people in Chivi to have 
and contracts of family ownership of livestock were signed 
to encourage family integration. Women contributing 70% appreciated it more, the community plot (Munda wezunde 
of global disaster victims and gendered asymmetries raMambo) could have been made the demo plot, and then 
characterising disaster shocks, gender mainstreaming is the community work collectively and reap the benefits of it. 
most sustainable tool in DRR (FAO 2007). Although statistics This would have maintained the traditional practices and 
show women domination in subsistence farming, in rural strengthen social cohesion against a disaster risk, which is 
areas such as Chivi, cultural values are still intact; women crucial in building resilient communities. 
might be involved in farming, but the land and decision-
making remain a male head’s role. It is vital to note that the success of the Mumbwa District 
project was not only hinged on gender integration, but also on 
Conservation agriculture being a sound, environmentally community capabilities. Most rural programmes fail because 
friendly approach, it is a fact that it is labour-intensive and of exclusion of some community members. Social cohesion is 
adds on to the high demanding gender roles of women. crucial for any development. In rural communities, societal 
Gender mainstreaming opens up the real needs of the acceptance matters and so are their perspectives, and hence, 
community and results in responsive and sustainable projects residents do not operate in isolation. For DRR programmes 
formulation. The life span of the conservation agriculture like any other community programmes to be sustainable, 
project in Chivi was dependent on donor support. Gukurume they have to promote social cohesion, seek to empower 
et al. (2010) note the 29.3% withdrawal of farmers in 2011–2012 the beneficiaries, preserve traditional practices and integrate 
when the donors pulled out. A project falling apart after gender and youth practically. The sustainability concept 
donors have pulled the plug reflects failure to capacitate supports this and highlights that economic development and 
communities as well as a lack of project buy-in by its environmental sustainability cannot be achieved in isolation 
beneficiaries that is common in top–down project designs. of the social aspect. In human livelihoods, gender forms the 
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core of the social continuum. Hence to address issues that climate change, focus has shifted from adapting to scouting 
affect any society, the core must be levelled and rationalised for sustainable adaptation strategies. Hence, continuous 
to accept new developments. monitoring and evaluation of adaptation projects is vital to 
ensure disaster reduction in communities. Future research 
Conclusion can seek effective ways for rural communities to adapt 
to climate change and its related risks without necessarily 
This article concludes that disasters affect communities, and disrupting the social systems and creating gender conflicts.
these units are not homogenous. They are underlined by 
thick social dimensions in which gender plays an integral 
part, especially in the African context. Results of this study Acknowledgements
showed that gender mainstreaming was Mumbwa’s secret This paper was presented at the first National Conference 
to the success of its DRR projects. Lacking thereof it in on Disaster Risk Science and Management in ‘South 
Chivi’s case weakened the Conservation Agriculture Project. Africa’s Response in a changing global environment’, 
Recognition of gender lines does not only address social 02–04 March 2015, at the Ranch Resort, Polokwane, 
injustices in communities but also builds social cohesion, South Africa, jointly hosted by the University of Venda, 
thereby strengthening social networks that are vital in DRR. School of Environmental Sciences, South Africa, and 
Hence, gender mainstreaming is not only a critical tool in National Disaster Management Centre (representing 
DRR but also a vital step towards sustainable development. Department of Cooperative Governance), South Africa. 
Gender mainstreaming must compliment all set of activities Faculty collaborators: Mr Tendayi Gondo, Prof. Agnes 
in any DRR programme. Governments should get more Musyoki and Mr Edmore Kori.
involved in community programmes by prioritising women’s 
and men’s capabilities. I (Ms Jestina Chineka) would like to thank my co-authors, 
Professor A. Musyoki, Mr E. Kori and Dr H. Chikoore for 
This study also recommends that there should not be a their unwavering support and guidance throughout this 
disparity between the gender mainstreaming frameworks research. A special mention goes to the Jamba Journal and the 
reviewers for this opportunity.
and communities they are drawn for. This is common with 
generic frameworks that tend to overlook the subtle social 
lines binding every community. A top–down approach to a Competing interests
disaster project management is detrimental to disaster risk The authors declare that they have no financial or personal 
reduction. Communities need to own a project for them to relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them 
build an intrinsic motivation towards its success, and only in writing this article.
this can yield a sustainable project.
Authors’ contributions
It is undisputable that rural women carry a heavy workload 
as far as gender roles are concerned. This makes them J.C. came up with the concept and drafted the article by using 
immobile and lack social networks and ultimately vulnerable inputs from co-authors and reviewers. A.M. contributed on 
when disasters strike. Hence, DRR projects should take gender issues, H.C. contributed with the drought concepts 
cognisance of this – labour-intensive projects such as and E.K. advised on the use of comparative study design.
the conservation farming add an extra burden. Better 
technologies can be sought to ensure adaptability of these Funding Information
communities to disaster risks. Drought-resistant crop This research received no specific grant from any funding 
varieties can be researched and be used in the area instead agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
of changing the farming system. 
Chivi is a patriarchal community; women manage farms on Data availability statement
behalf of their husbands. Hence, major decisions such as Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data 
changing the farming system will take time to implement were created or analysed in this study.
as they must be made by men who in most cases work 
far off the family compound. Moreover, conservation Disclaimer
farming practices such as Dhiga udye create gender tension. 
Smallholder farmers in Chivi who are mostly women use The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of 
mixed farming method; they grow crops and practise the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or 
livestock ranching. Using the crop residues for mulching position of any affiliated agency of the authors.
instead of storing it for cattle feed use in dry periods will 
create tension with their spouses who own most of the cattle. References
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