The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa ISSN: (Online) 2415-2005, (Print) 1817-4434 Page 1 of 10 Review Article Examining the interface between bureaucratic conflict and public interest in Africa Author: Background: In every human organisation, there is bound to be conflict of ideas because Chinyeaka J. Igbokwe- 1,2 everyone wants his or her viewpoint to take precedent over others. There are those who want Ibeto to be on top of every situation irrespective of those involved or the issue at stake. However, a Affiliations: proactive bureaucratic leadership should be able to find a way out of these quagmires. 1School of Public Management, Governance Aim: Within the framework of the strategic elite theory, this article examines the nexus and Public Policy, College of between bureaucratic conflict and public interest in Africa, as well as challenges confronting Business, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, bureaucracy in the pursuit of public interest with specific reference to Nigeria. South Africa Method: This article adopts a qualitative approach and is descriptive in nature, with the 2 researcher setting out to illustrate the association that exists between the dependent and Department of Public Administration, Faculty of independent variables. Authoritative scholarly sources were reviewed during a desktop Management Sciences, study. The purpose was to identify the relevant publications and apply them in the research. Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka, Nigeria Results: This article argues that whilst conflict generally is an inevitable outcome of human interactions. However, conflict is more common in a bureaucratic organisation where issues Corresponding author: Chinyeaka Igbokwe-Ibeto, of power and influence are always a source of contention amongst the Ministries, Departments ugochinyerecj@yahoo.co.uk and Agencies (MDAs). Therefore, resolving the basis for the existence of the MDAs that will ultimately inculcate in the bureaucrats a new worldview. Dates: Received: 04 May 2020 Conclusion: It therefore, concludes that there should be countervailing forces to put the Accepted: 04 Mar. 2021 bureaucracy on check. This includes: strengthening interest groups, the pursuit of Published: 30 June 2021 institutionalism, ethical reorientation in the public service, amongst other measures. However, How to cite this article: to achieve this, requires a critical mass of men and women of integrity, doggedly and ruggedly Igbokwe-Ibeto CJ. Examining committed to Africa’s project and ready to subsume their personal interests under that of the the interface between national interests. bureaucratic conflict and public interest in Africa. Keywords: efficiency; development; leadership; management; service delivery. J transdiscipl res S Afr. 2021;17(1), a874. https://doi. org/10.4102/td.v17i1.874 Introduction Copyright: 1 © 2021. The Authors. Max Weber’s conception of bureaucracy was an ideal type: the type of organisation set up by Licensee: AOSIS. This work modern government to carry out various specialised functions embodied in an administrative is licensed under the system. Max Weber did not expect that the system of administration he outlined could or Creative Commons Attribution License. should be rigidly applied or that it would be uninfluenced by specific historical or cultural context.2,3 Bureaucracy, much as modern (scholars) admirers of the system would want to conceive it, is not a perfect system. It has its challenges that need to be constantly put in check in order to ensure that they do not negate or make it antiquated. The human factor in all these such as interpersonal relationships is crucial. No matter how well an organisation is crafted, without the human factor to control its operations, it may grind to a halt. That is why, of all the factors of production, the human factor (labour) is fundamental. It brings other elements to play in the process of ensuring that the organisation meets with the exigencies of the time, especially in a global system characterised by stiff competition and complex situations. Some of the challenges modern organisations face are man-made. The reason for this is partly because of the unstable nature of man. The unstable variable nature of man makes it difficult to predict human behaviour. Whilst the behavouralists have done an extensive work on this, the outcome has Read online: not been incontrovertible. The verdict remains that man is an unstable variable that cannot be Scan this QR easily predicted. This quality in every man has been brought to bear on their relationship code with your smart phone or with others in the workplace. More often than not, man’s relationship with others is conflictual mobile device because of the pursuit of ends that are divergent and sometimes, irreconcilable. Max Weber was to read online. conscious of this fact, that is why in his articulation of the ideal type of bureaucracy, he notes that http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 2 of 10 Review Article its central precepts such as specialisation of roles, rationality literature for the purpose of the research. It included scan- and money amongst others are subject to the vicissitude of reading, comprehensive and critical reading and writing time and space.2 down ideas. Authoritative scholarly sources were reviewed, during a desktop study. The purpose was to identify the Therefore, in every human organisation, there is bound to relevant publications and apply them in the research. be conflict of ideas, values and wants, because everyone involved in conflictual situations wants his or her viewpoint Conceptual and theoretical considerations to take precedent over others. In addition, human beings have different drives. There are those who want to be on top Bureaucracy and its relevance in modern organisation, be it of every situation irrespective of those involved or the issue in the public and private sectors, have been a subject of at stake. But conflict between two and more persons in a intense academic debate. Perhaps the concept is more workplace, if not properly handled, can cause damage of popular in its negative connotations than the positive ones. unfathomable proportion. Moreover, in the public sector More often than not, it is used in pejorative terms. Yet, one where the public interest is involved, such situation should cannot run away from its relevance in the management of be identified and addressed with dispatch. modern organisation. This perhaps explains why there is definitional quagmire as to what the concept of bureaucracy Like other forms of organisation, bureaucracy also has its actually represents. A representative sample of these views fair share of conflicts in different areas and aspects of the on the subject will illuminate the author’s position on this organisation. Such conflict can be internal or external to it. subject better. Taking a holistic view of the concept From whatever angle it emanates, it should be dealt with as ‘bureaucracy’, Dimock2 posited that bureaucracy is the quickly as it rears its ugly head, for the public interest to be composite institution manifestations, which tend towards served. The debate on the question of what constitutes the inflexibility and depersonalisation. The word composite is public interest, remains the raison d’etre of government used by Dimock in this definition to bring in variables such everywhere. The more government pursues this goal, the as the tradition of the organisation and the spirit of its more the stability, peace and progress we have in human employees that together create an atmosphere that makes society. Much of the conflict, crisis and violence in the world bureaucracy an institution.2 today are by-product of the failure of government to pursue the public interests doggedly. Whilst conflict may be The term ‘conflict’ has no single clear meaning. Systematic unavoidable in formal bureaucracy, accommodation, reviews of the conflict literature by Air,4 Emiola5 and Fulmer6 bargaining and consensus remain the most enduring and show a conceptual sympathy for, but little consensual effective means for settling such disputes. There are a endorsement of any generally accepted definition of conflict. number of studies that focus on bureaucracy and service Fulmer6 in his classic review has illustrated tremendous delivery; however, not much has been documented on the variance in conflict definitions. He discovered a range of relationship between bureaucratic conflict and public definitions for specific interests and a variety of general interest in Africa. This article, therefore, seeks to examine definitions that attempt to be all-inclusive. The concept of the interface between bureaucratic conflict and public conflict can be viewed from many angles depending on the interest in Africa with specific reference to Nigeria to fill the scholar’s view point or worldview. But from a general research gap. perspective, conflict can be regarded as disagreement between two equal and unequal parties over an issue on To address the issues raised, this article is divided into which they hold divergent positions. Coser7 in argued that seven parts. Aside from introduction, the first part explores conflict is a: the conceptual and theoretical framework. The second examines the nature of bureaucratic conflict. The third [S]truggle over values, claims to status, power and scarce provides an overview of the methods of investigating resources which the aim of the opposing parties is not only to bureaucratic conflict. The fourth discusses the significance gain the desired value, but also to neutralise, injure or eliminate rivals. of bureaucratic conflict. The fifth x-rayed the interface between bureaucratic conflict and public interest, whilst the sixth analyses challenges confronting formal bureaucracy This perspective takes a radical view of the concept of in pursuit of public interest. The seventh part makes conflict in which competitors use every weapon at their prescriptions for resolving the identified problems in the disposal to undo or gain advantage over their competitor. public interest. When situated within the context of formal bureaucracy, conflict is the struggle for pre-eminence, power and control Methodology over resources of government, which more often than not, take the form of subtle competition amongst ministries, This study, which is theoretical in nature, drew its arguments departments and agencies (MDAs). mostly from secondary data, which included, textbooks, journal publications and internet sources. Subsequently, Having noted in the course of this discourse that relevant sources of this research were fairly and professionally bureaucratic form of public organisation intends to move scrutinised, understood and tested with the available public administration from its traditional and charismatic http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 3 of 10 Review Article models, which were characterised by systems where liberty but everywhere are in chains. Mummer Gadhafi of Akhakpe points out: Libya and Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe are a case in point. [P]olicies of government were administered on the basis of Many years of strongman rule and authoritarianism ended norms that injected personalistic, ascriptive and other irrational up in violence and subsequent demise of their regimes. considerations into the processes of administration. Government Africa is in a cross-road today and public policies are could not continue on this basis in the context of modernity.2 ineffectual because there seems to be little convergences of interest between the governors and the governed because Max Weber sought to bring into public administration public interest means little to public officeholders. some of the key cannons of the enlightenment period and of the industrialising society such as specialisation, Public interest could be defined as the common good that efficiency and effectiveness, rationality, impersonal, will benefit the whole community irrespective of status, sex, authority is exercised by administrators, only by reason of creed or ethnicity.2 Policies of government should correspond the office they occupy and not because of their age, family, with the public interest. Whilst debate may be intense on the wealth, wisdom or magical powers. The kind of means of achieving certain goals such as: reduction of administration system that Max Weber envisaged is budget deficit, removal of subsides and taxes, seldom do we already evolving, as bureaucratic organisation in its purest talk about the ends of these measures. Yet, the behavioural form is based on legal-rational system.1 aspect to all these is very crucial. Unless it is factored into every process and made the key issue, we may compromise Two crucial points can be deduced from the submission the very essence of policies and programmes of government. made here. Firstly, Max Weber wanted to move away from a Whilst legislators and administrators would agree that system of administration in which powers to hire and fire are governments need economic growth and stability to remain in the hands of certain demagogic leaders who do things legitimate, the rule of the game is not often followed. Mclean based on their personal whims and caprices. Secondly, unlike and McMillan9 provided two mutually exclusive and the previous models of administration, occupants of official contradicting notions of the concept of public interest. The positions, do not only have certain rights, they also have first conceives of it as ‘the common interest of persons in certain obligations. These obligations, as argued here is to their capacity as members of the public’. Here, it implied that pursue and serve the public interests. Thus, the rights of there is an interest that all members of the society subscribe bureaucratic leaders must of necessity coincide with the to or consider to be to their benefit. The second perspective, will or public interest of the citizens in the polity. Unless this views public interest as ‘the aggregate of the individual is done, we boldly argue here that public administration interest of persons affected by a policy or action under cannot be efficient and effective. consideration’.9 Public interest viewed from this angle opines This takes us to the issue of the public interest. Jean that the interest of the people can be summed up and put Jacques Rousseau was interested in a social contract that will forward at any given point in time as the public interest. bring about equality, representativeness and the general Even where this is practicable, it will take tedious and long good. If a distinction can be made between the state and the time to articulate and aggregate these interests of members people, Rousseau8 argued: of the body polity, which means that public policy will be continually delayed to the detriment of the public interest it There is between these two bodies, this essential alterative, that intends to serve. the state exists by itself, and the government only through the sovereign. This dominant will of the prince is or should be nothing but the general will or the law his force is only the public Bureaucratic conflicts hardly come to the public knowledge force concentrated in his hands, and as soon as he tries to base as they are covered in secrecy or officialdom. The members any absolute and independent action on his own authority, the of the public only see these conflicts indirectly when tie that binds the whole together begin to be loosened. If finally, policies and programmes of government are delayed or not the princes should come to have particular will more active than implemented at all or turned out to be inefficient and the will of the sovereign and should employ the public force in ineffective. In either way, the public interest suffers as his hands in obedience to this particular will, there will be so members of the public are left with poorly conceived and to speak, two sovereigns, one rightful and the other actual, implemented public policies and development programmes. the social union will evaporate instantly and the body politic would be dissolved. If not properly managed, bureaucratic conflict could lead to crisis, which can shut-down government. Therefore, one It follows from the foregoing discussion that the government can deduce that it requires more manifestation of conflict at whatever level should not have wills that are diametrically and violence to establish a state of crisis. Conflict occurs opposed to that of the people, if not, it would alienate or mostly amongst the power elites be they in the bureaucracy, isolate them from it and the state. If the government wants to amongst the political executive or the legislators. Therefore, remain in power, it would want to rely on force, which if not bureaucratic conflict is an elite and institutional centred curtailed or prevented may end up in the dissolution of the issue. The elite theory gives us an understanding of the body politic. This is why authoritarianism threatens the very nature and character of this group of people and how they existence of a state because the people want freedom and influence the policy process either positively or negatively. http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 4 of 10 Review Article In all political society or large scale organisations, the the web of policy failure, especially when huge financial masses do not come together to decide or make decisions, involvement has been made into it. Sartori12 argued that in only a few do. This designated few are called the strategic practical terms there cannot be an iron law of oligarchy. What elite. The strategic elite theory states that society is governed matters in contemporary times is not the form that not by voters or public opinion but by small group of organisations take but the interaction within them and how wealthy persons. This view was ably marshaled by Wright this can help achieve the goals of democracy.2 Therefore, Mill in the 1950s against the principle of political equity as instead of looking inside an organisation, focus should be on proposed by the United States Constitution. His study the relations in the world of politics, between separate and shows that rather than having government by the people, it competing organisations. It is this scenario that generates is the power elite that actually govern.10 Robert Michael conflict and unless it is managed for the benefit of the applied this theory to the study of modern bureaucratic majority, it may spell doom for the body politic. organisations with specific reference to the German Social Democratic Party. His findings showed that elite groups The nature of bureaucratic conflict who derived their powers and authority from well-honed organisational skills ran the party.10 Conflict is a universal phenomenon as it is found everywhere: human beings interact to achieve certain goals. The formal bureaucracy is not an exception. In fact, given the enormity This led Michael to advocate the now famous ‘Iron Law of of its daily activities, it cannot but have some elements of oligarchy’. He observed that as organisations become conflicts either induced by deliberate actions or those that oligarchic or bureaucratised because of the fact that those evolved in course of developing and implementing in the top echelon of every organisation that has gained government policies and programmes.11 Here, the article control of information, better skills and knowledge, shall interrogate the why and how of this subject. naturally assume position of making decisions for the rest who are politically unsophisticated and almost always Formal bureaucracy is perhaps the most important institution preoccupied with their private affairs. Therefore, those of modern government. It is the engine room of the executive whose organisations are to survive abdicate powers to arm of government and over time has risen as the handmaid make decision to bureaucratic officials who govern in the of the developmental aspirations of the modern state.2,11,13 It name of the rest. Empirical evidence tends to prove this has risen in accordance with the expansion of the activities of theory right particularly in developing countries. But the the executive branch of government. In spite of the increase theory has not gone unchallenged. of its workload, it manages to remain closely knit and maintains a high level of secrecy. Yet, it has had its own fair The first major critique of the elitist theory comes from the share of conflicts that occur frequently albeit, under official pluralist. Both the elite and pluralist theorists agree that veil several of these conflict areas can be identified as follows. elitism is a ubiquitous phenomenon observable everywhere, either in the dispersion of power or influence over particular Funding issues are as old as bureaucracy itself. Bureaucracies, policies. But they disagree on the nature of the political particularly the public ones, have always sought to increase system that produces them. The pluralists argue that no one their budgets. They press and lobby to get budget increased individual or group can exercise power over the whole from the political executive and the legislators: mostly process of public policy. For the pluralists, the political through the annual appropriation bills. In this quest for more system or the bureaucracy is too wide open, freewheeling money or funding, they tend to have some advantages vis-à- and institutionally fragmented to allow for any such vis the political executive and legislators.2 These come from accumulation of power.10 Therefore, what is obtained, for their possession of information and technical expertise. In example, in the United States is not concentration of power some policy areas that are technical in nature, political but its diffusion. As a perspective pluralist put it,10 the most institutions find it difficult to exert their influence and control important obstacle to social change in the United States is not because they do not have the time and energy to acquire the the concentration of power but its diffusion if power was skills and knowledge required to deal with such technical concentrated sufficiently, those who wish for change would matters, thereby allowing the heads of MDAs to enjoy merely have to negotiate with those who hold the power and immense influence and autonomy in such policy areas.11 if necessary put pressure on them. But power is so widely diffused that, in many instances, there is no one to negotiate Bureaucratic conflict may arise over the question of who with and no one on whom to put pressure. controls the power of the purse. In order to survive, prosper and grow, within the bureaucracy, money is needed. Each Interest groups in Africa for instance, play some roles in MDA wants to be ahead of the other or at least not to be policymaking, especially where the interest of their members short-changed. Once the money is gotten, they seek to shield is of paramount importance. Both political executives and this from preying eyes within and outside the bureaucracy. bureaucrats, sometimes go out of their ways to negotiate As Guy2,14 put it: with interest groups that are special in certain areas of policy. [T]he bureaucracy seeks money and the autonomy to spend it, This is done to ensure the success of such policies once they while the political institutions seek control of their funds and to are passed into law.2,11 No government wants to be caught in ensure accountability as to how it will be spent. http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 5 of 10 Review Article Formal bureaucracy is always on the look out to make sure Insofar as political actors still remain provincial in their political institutions such as the political executive and roles and thinking, so shall the bureaucracies continue to parliament do not get to control what is given. amass the political clout to dominate and determine who gets what, when, where and how much. Where political Based on this discussion is the related question of autonomy actors cannot give policy direction, the public interests are over bureaucratic activities and actions particularly in the at risk and bad governance pervades the entire political use of funds. Agencies may seek latitude in the way funds and socio-economic systems. are spent so that they are not put under public spotlight. It speaks volume of the level of public accountability in Also, bureaucratic conflict may emerge from personnel and government institutions.15 Such latitude or autonomy could welfare issues in the bureaucracy. Issues of appointment, be positively deplored in the final analysis to serve the public promotion, transfer, discipline and incentives to work may interest. Another area that seeks autonomy is the area of cause strives and bad blood amongst bureaucrats. Whilst the policy. Bureaucrats might seek autonomy to make policy in a bureaucracy would want to be as representative as possible particular area without interference from other political to reflect plurality of the state, often, issues of quota system institutions. This situation has persisted for long because tend to put the educationally advanced regions against the other political institutions lack the will to checkmate such educationally less advanced ones.16,17 In this circumstance, intensions by virtue of their lack of requisite expertise and merit tends to be sacrificed on the altar of mediocrity. In the information.2 Yet, political institutions should find a way of formal bureaucracy as in other type of bureaucracies, regulating the autonomy of the bureaucrats to act because favoritism and nepotism are high. Some people get promoted, political institutions have their constitutional role to regulate given cars, better offices, sent to foreign trips for training, policy and the implementation of policy. Moreover, they whilst others are kept in one position for years, even when must be politically responsible for what happens to the they have all it takes to move to the next level, travel for country and they need to control policy if they are to be held foreign or domestic training programmes or enjoy the responsible for it.14 But, do they have the expertise, prerequisites of their office. Therefore, who gets what, when information and political will to do this? The answer appears and how is skewed in bureaucratic politics. to be in the negative. Also, cleavages and conflict could emerge from unsettled Another area of bureaucratic conflict is in the exchange union matters. Labour–employers’ relationship in Africa system within and outside the bureaucracy. Within the have persistently and consistently being frosty. This is bureaucracy, information and communication flow may not partly because of the insincerity of governments to honour be effective amongst the staff thereby creating feelings of agreements reached with representatives of labour that alienation that may breed discontent. Proper communication would help sustain an atmosphere of industrial peace and is the key to organisational effectiveness because it helps to harmony. The constant Academic Staff Union of Universities prevent rumour mongering and distortions of facts. The (ASUU) strike in Nigeria that paralyses academic activities exchange relationship between the bureaucracy and in the universities is as a result of failure to honour political institutions is often conflictual. Whilst agencies agreements. For example, university academics in Nigeria could be said to have their own ideologies, which they hold who are supposed to be conducting research on finding tight to, political actors hardly have a policy-specific cure for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic ideology.2 This is not unrelated to the deficit of ideology in have been on strike. The same applies to other unions. If most of the political parties of this dispensation in Africa. government operates by lies, what then are children Many political leaders simply do not have the background learning from the leaders of today? Leaders should show in the policy area to contribute much in the way of policy good examples to children who in turn should learn good direction and the demands of their jobs often prevent them virtues from them. from developing such direction.2 At the level of wage management government at different Based on the widely acknowledged relative ignorance of levels has not been able to determine what represent living political leaders in controlling or checkmating their wages for their workforce, yet they expect workers to administrative counterpart, has it come to a situation where demonstrate high moral rectitude in the discharge of their the bureaucracy constitutes an alternative government? responsibilities. For example, in Nigeria, the N30 000 per Guy14 volunteered an answer when he opined that an month minimum wage, which is less than $100 for public impartial analysis of the situation would have to accept servants is ridiculous and the height of absurdity. the argument that bureaucracies have by now acquired Governments know that this take-home pay cannot considerable political clout, even to the point of coming to reasonably manage workers’ home for a month. Yet, they dominate policy making in many modern political systems. stick to this amount. A fraudulent government can only have According to Akhakpe2 and Igbokwe-Ibeto,11 developing fraudulent workforce. cutting edge technology and competitive edge vis-à-vis other actors in the political domain, may go a long way in According to Akhakpe,2 structural and institutional determining who calls the shot in such relationship. incongruence are sources of cleavages and conflicts in the http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 6 of 10 Review Article bureaucracy. The point has been argued that structures In all, there are however, personal values of bureaucrats and institutions developed from different scenarios cannot over official ones. Man, as a self-interested being will be used to solve or find solution to problems of different always seek after his own preservation before any other societies. As a result of this, most migrated institutions consideration except if curtailed. As Anderson22 puts it: and structures from Western Europe could not operate bureaucrats or more specifically, decision makers may also efficiently and effectively through the use of force. This be guided by their personal values or by the urge to protect method of administering society runs against the or promote their own physical or financial well-being, historically and culturally tested method that hinge on reputation or historical position. To some extent, the public devolution of powers and authorities to local authorities. choice theorists are correct in arguing that official behaviour is driven by self-interest.2 The point being made Thus, if what was expected of the post-colonial State in is that such interests are often put over and above Africa was modernisation as the trend suggests, it would bureaucracy and by implication the public interest thereby mean the wholesale import of non-African scenarios and valuating or undermining the goals of the bureaucracy and solutions.18 In other words, it was believed that Africa the government it represents. Bureaucratic goals are could prosper only upon rejection of itself.18 sometimes pursued but not realised because of personal values of bureaucrats. Such organisational fixation has found resonance in the perennial feud between the generalist and specialist or professionals (staff-line) in the formal bureaucracy. This for a Methods of investigating bureaucratic conflict long time has been a subject of cleavage and conflict. For It is difficult to get to the root of bureaucratic conflict through Ugoo19 and Smith,20 this conflict amongst the top echelon of interview of officials of the bureaucracy and political institutions. the civil service came as a result of integration of the old This belongs to the category of investigation known as action secretariat of generalists’ political officers with professionals research. This method of investigating social phenomena has in the executive departments, to fall in line with what is going the advantage of adapting itself to variations that take place in 23 on in the national political scene. This brought about the the subject matter of investigation. This approach to super imposition of generalists’ administrators on the investigation belongs to the category of survey research where samples are taken on a case study, analysis made and findings professionals in the executive departments of government. are generalised.24,25 However, this approach may not reveal much about bureaucratic conflicts because respondents have a The professionals such as doctors, engineers, architects way of writing down what they do not really mean when asked amongst others, argue that they are equally qualified as their certain questions through questionnaires. Perhaps, the situation generalists’ counterparts to rise to the position of permanent could be different in more literate societies. secretaries. But the generalists on their part posit that by virtue of their knowledge and training they are more A researcher may also use content analysis of views on qualified to head the ministries. If the culture in public bureaucratic conflict to get at who did what, when and how. organisation is virile and robust such separation would have However, in Africa, this is a veritable source of information been immaterial bearing in mind that there is a larger goal to on bureaucratic conflict as it presents the largely illiterate pursue, which is the public interests. society with information to gauge actions of public officials. Also, one may be interested in looking at past decisions taken This brings the article to the clash between individual on a subject matter to determine who makes decisions about bureaucratic values and the public interests. Although public what issue, to understand whether decisions are made by servants are recruited to serve the public interests, values of one person and office or several persons and offices. This is bureaucrats that represent the interest of the bureaucracy important because as we are reminded that there is in every tend to conflict with the common good.21 For example, formal organisation an iron law of oligarchy. Yet, this approach is bureaucracies are supposed to pursue distributive justice as a fraught with problem because there is the tradition of goal. If they do this in practice, it will connect almost secrecy of views in the formal bureaucracy that may make it automatically with the people. However, failure to do this difficult to come out with something meaningful and over time has resulted in formal bureaucracies failing to meet tangible from this process. One thing is to agree to talk, the up with their responsibilities to the vast majority.11 other is to be objective with the discussion. Bureaucrats are influenced by organisational values, which they have come to imbibe over time. This is kept in view by A similar method is the attribution method. It consists of simply asking members of an organisation and knowledgeable several methods including rewards and sanctions to induce individuals outside the organisation, where the locus of their members to accept and act in accordance with power lies in the organisation, who has the power of decision- organisationally determined values.22 Agency official’s making and the limit of such powers.2 decisions may be influenced by considerations to ensure agency survival, to increase its budget or to preserve its power and programmes against external control. These Significance of bureaucratic conflict values may lead to conflict amongst agencies with Bureaucratic conflict is not without its positive and negative overlapping functions.22 aspects. There is the tendency to see conflict in general from http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 7 of 10 Review Article the negative perspective. But there are indeed, positivity’s automatically on this special corps of servants of the state that could be harvested from every conflict. In this section, whose fundamental basis of existence is to help realise the the article dwells on some details on both sides of the divide. goals of national development and nation-building in their various ramifications.2,13 To this end, government’s foray Conflict and conflict resolution constitute an important into various aspects of human life in the wake of its statist activity in bureaucratic organisation as well as forming major policies and programmes have at the back of their mind the part of bureaucratic practices. Whilst conflict prevention may overall goal of achieving public interest at all times. It is, be a preoccupation of bureaucrats, it is not really a bad thing therefore, axiomatic that the public interest should be at the to have conflict in the bureaucracy or any organisation for heart of every activity, actions and inactions, and that matter. At any rate, conflict in any human collectivity programmes of the bureaucracies. It can be argued that the has come to stay. It cannot be completely avoided or resolved. bureaucratic conflicts this article has elaborated on, should essentially aim at, or concern itself with how to further the Conflict can be costly to the bureaucracy in terms of turnover, common good or public interests. inability to carry out a programme or project, waste of (human and materials) resources. Sometimes the effects of Although, the subject of public interests remains one of the conflict are difficult to quantify at physical and social cost. contested issues, with lack of agreement of what actually it is One may argue that the slow pace of nation-building and or should entail. In substantive terms, scholars such as national development can be attributed to such cleavages Akhakpe,2 Lane,26 Otite27 and Rekosh28 are still divided over and conflicts. Yet, certain benefits could be derived from what constitutes the public interest. A conservative view bureaucratic conflicts. According to Akhakpe,2 some of these posits that whatever comes out from political struggle or benefits include: innovation in terms of new techniques and better still, bureaucratic conflict, be it policy or other related technologies, bottom-top communication, more accountability issues, is in the public interest. This argument states that if all and proper use of funds. What this amounts to is that, a good groups and persons are able to take part in these struggles fight must lead to a worthwhile or meaningful change. which in a practical world is not possible, then the public Therefore, it can be said that whatever may be the tangible or interest would be served. From another angle, public interest intangible benefits of conflicts, organisations always attempt is seen as a myth by which many public policies, although to resolve such conflicts. Whatever may be the effect of selfish are regarded as being in the public interest in order to bureaucratic conflicts, a good deal of conflict resolution make them publicly acceptable.22 requires negotiation, bargaining and compromise. All these are needed because the stake in bureaucratic conflict could be What then constitutes public interest? Redford11 in very high and its outcome may affect not only the life and volunteered three approaches to the question. The first is to careers of individuals but also the existence of agencies and concentrate on policy area that is replete with conflict substance of public policy. In bureaucratic conflict, the amongst group interests. For the struggle amongst groups to personality of bureaucrats is very paramount to the nature get to certain position, it should not be who is pushing what and character of formal bureaucracy. What then is the but what matters is, whether or not what is finally achieved interface between bureaucratic conflicts and public interest? serves the common good or the general will. The public This question becomes germane taking into cognisance that interests can be seen as those interests widely and continually formal bureaucracies ab initio are created to discharge certain shared, for this reason, they are said to be in the public functions and responsibilities on behalf of governments interest. The campaign of many for world peace, clean air, at different levels. drug control and fight against terrorism are in the public interest. The third perspective to the issue of public interests The interface between bureaucratic conflict and is to look at the need for organisation and its procedures in public interest representing and balancing interests, bring about compromise Bureaucracies in developing countries in Africa, Asia and and put whatever is reached in the process into effect.2,22 In Latin America are expected to play pivotal roles and this approach, emphasis is on the process of arriving at a goal responsibilities in fast-tracking or jump-starting the or need, not really its content. People are likely to look at and development of their countries. At independence, in judge the end product of a programme, law or policy on the most of these countries, the formal bureaucracy was basis of the path it followed rather than what it entails. expected to champion the overall goal of social change. These expectations were well intended and placed on the The term public interest is something of a subterfuge used by door steps of this special corps of servants of the state those in official positions to perpetrate actions that are in because of the training, experience and expertise they their interest.11 This problem is thrown up by the unspecific possessed. No other organisation and institution could nature of the term ‘public’. Given the ambiguity that rival this unique organisation in terms of its composition. surrounds the term, alternative form of the relevant public is proposed. Even where such term can be provided, it is The colonial administration in most of the former colonies impossible in practice to identify where the public interest suffered retardation in virtually all aspects of human lies.9 Perhaps, the myth surrounding the concept ‘public lives. At independence, therefore, the burden fell almost interest’ makes it all the more iconic in government cycle. http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 8 of 10 Review Article Therefore, the question of whether an action or inaction, almost zero-sum except for the privatisation of bureaucrats’ activity or even policy is in the public interest can be put to heritage.2 The premium placed on power and status end up rest by assessing the potential gains and losses, which might subjugating or subsuming bureaucratic goals under personal follow from it.9 This point is further driven home by the view interest of bureaucrats.11 that when pressure groups lobby heavily on behalf of an issue for which there is little popular support and which Political institutions such as the executive and legislators bears little, if any, obvious relationship to the public interest, cannot do much in terms of control because they are birds of the policy process, programmes, actions, activities of the same feather. Even when they are willing, they are again bureaucrats is likely to be corrupted.10,11 Perhaps, this is a limited or constrained by access to information, technical mild way of articulating the relevance of public interest in abilities and expertise. The bureaucrats by reasons of their the actions of bureaucrats. Establishing a more comprehensive expert knowledge, access to information and experience are and causal connection between bureaucratic behaviour and able to avoid control and influence from outside thereby public interest, Almond29 argued that without such sacrificing the sacred goals of the bureaucracy for personal democratic aggregation, suppression of dissent leads to aggrandisement – money, agency control and status symbol.2 injustice and the frustration of the excluded, the corruption All these compromise the public interest. It is little wonder of the included and eventually to violence and greater that bureaucrats are defined in pejorative terms by members instability. of the public. A cursory examination of extant literature on the issues Although the present administrative system in Africa under investigation suggests that much of the infraction predated the modern western democracy, the political between government and the civil society is often caused by system has not been able to rise up to the challenge of failure of the government to put in the front burner, the bringing formal bureaucracy under its control and influence. public interest as the guiding principle of good governance. Several attempts at bureaucratic reforms in Africa have failed In a democracy, this imperative is constantly put in the public to bring about modern democratic practices.2 It suffices to say domain where decision makers are constantly reminded of that many years of military/authoritarian rule stunted the the need to pursue the common good. The fact that this has growth and development of democratic culture that would not always been the case in Africa takes the article straight to have put political institutions at par, if not above formal the impediments facing bureaucracy in pursuing the public bureaucracies in Africa. interest in Africa. The calibre or quality of staff and training that bureaucrats Challenges confronting bureaucracy in pursuit of received in recent times has become a subject of concern to public interest all stakeholders. For a long time, the formal bureaucracy The pursuit of public interest, whether heuristically and has not kept up with technological movement and normatively conceptualised, remains the fundamental basis innovation across the world. Brain drain in Africa has of modern government. It was for this reason, Max Weber depleted the public sector of some of its best hands. advocated for a system that is devoid of human Primordial sentiments in Africa has made it difficult to manipulations and whose goals are devoid of uncertainty.21 recruit the best hands in the society,21,30 even as the The legal-rational prescriptions of bureaucracy, if followed educational system continues to produce half-baked will bring about faithful actualisation of bureaucratic goals, graduates from a demoralised tertiary educational system.31 which represent the core values of the modern state: Matters are made worst by the disdain with which security, freedom, equality and liberty, provision of social training is approached by public servants. Many of welfare services, amongst others.13 These goals could be them cannot see the essence of such exercise when it said to represent some of elements of the public interest.1 In cannot elevate their material well-being. Definitely a practice, however, these aspirations, principles or depleted, demoralised and ill-equipped formal bureaucracy philosophies of the state remain far-fetched. The African cannot mid-wife policies and programme that will serve continent has for long been confronted with intractable the public interest.21 crises and conflicts, failed expectations of the people for progressive improvement in their material well-being, to Surely, bureaucratic leadership is the key to the realisation mention but a few of these assaults on the people they of the public interest. No matter the unpredictability of the swore to serve. In this section, the article attempts to time and the uncertainty in public policy implementation, a highlight some impediments to efforts by the bureaucracy proactive bureaucratic leadership should be able to find a to realise the public interest. way out of these quagmires to achieve the public interest. Bureaucrats only need to show that they adhere to the rules In Africa, public officials are mostly driven by materialism. and regulations of the game. They should not see themselves The rat-race for wealth is so intense that those involved are as ethnic, religious or sectional representatives but chief willing to go to an absurd level, like swearing in a shrine servant leaders who are ready to uphold the sanctity of the publicly or going nicked before it, just to lay their hands on laws. But ethnicity, religious bigotry, sectional inclinations the prize called power. For this reason, elite competition is and clientelism have invaded the bureaucracy to the http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 9 of 10 Review Article detriment of the public interest.2 Having identified some of public good.11 These organisations in the public and private hiccups to bureaucracy’s pursuit of the public interest. In realm have grown exponentially. But they are yet to have what follows, the article shall attempt some prescriptions or that organisation and discipline to sustain them over time. remedial steps to ameliorate the situation. But this can only get better by improving on what they do, particularly improving the relationship and interactions with Bureaucratic conflict and public interest: The pressure groups, particularly in the area of lobbyist’s way forward activities and policy advocacy. It can be argued that without conflict, the elite itself will be superfluous. Whilst the essence of elite interaction is At this critical juncture in the African evolution and conflictual, the question to be answered is how these developmental processes, Africa requires a critical mass of interactions can be maintained without causing havoc to the men and women of integrity, doggedly and ruggedly public interest. Firstly, the negative elite political culture in committed to the African project. In this mission, they should be ready to subsume their personal interests under Africa must change. Negative vices such as: corruption, that of the national interests. What Africa lacks are men clientelism, ethnicism, religion and parochialism should give who will elevate the national interest over and above that of way for positive elite political culture. This provides the basis the personal interest.2 It would be wrong to assume that this for understanding political allocation and change for 2 change of attitude by public officeholders could come with predicting the degree of stability in the system. As 3 the wave of the hand or wishful thinking. To get to this state LaPalombara has argued: of being, other factors must come to play, such as: resolving [T]he political sub cultures are important in part because they the basis for the existence of the African states that will provide a particular kind of learning for elite and masses that ultimately inculcate in the people a new worldview of belong to them and they reinforce this learning through a variety Africa and its organising philosophy. of on-going organisation and experience. Modern political systems are surely predicated on It is crucially important that democracy that is just gaining institutionalism as the formal channel for conducting ground in Africa be consolidated. This is vitally important to government affairs. Anderson22 saw institutions as partly, ‘a allow for the learning process to be internalised and set of regularised patterns of human behaviour that persist embedded in the elite and masses alike. The best way to over time and perform some significant social functions or perfect a system is to continually work on it. The advanced activities’. Their longevity and established rules and democracies did not get to where they are by chance. It took regulations give its operators values and belief in them that them years of falling and rising again to get to where they are can help stabilise and give legitimacy to its operators and today. The elite and populace need to be patient to arrive at members of the society. The respect for institutional rules that matured stage of democracy where relapse or breakdown keeps their operators within check and provides a framework is almost impossible. The sure way of getting there is to for assessing their performance. Overtime, the study of develop a democratic rule characterised by bargain and institutions as basis for understanding the political system compromise, accommodation and tolerance. including, of course, the bureaucracy has undergone changes. From the study of its legal powers, formal structures, Elite in general and bureaucratic elite in particular occupy a functions and activities, amongst others, emphasis is now on central position in the life of every regime in political power. its pattern and processes concentrating on behaviours of its They are to be seen as role models by the masses worthy of actors and how this helps to realise or negate their goals and emulation. The nature of elite–mass relationship is critical for mandate. Therefore, respect for and value of institutions will the development of Africa. Whilst the people always inclined go a long way in keeping bureaucrats on track and faithful to to follow the bureaucrat’s judgement as to the inclined their calling as a group assembled by the state to bring direction public policy and developmental programmes about social change in the society. should take, bureaucrats on their part should carry them along by putting their interests in the back of their minds in all they do. As Otite27 puts it: the elites in general ‘… are Conclusion capable, if not also expected to create new values, new The article has examined extensively the issue of bureaucratic insights, new ideas and new orientations in the process of conflict and public interest in Africa with an attempt at consolidating their influence on the masses’. But these clarifying the intellectual cobweb surrounding bureaucratic innovative roles carved out for the elite can only rob conflict and public interest. In addition, searchlight was also positively on the masses if they are based on the yearnings beamed on the theoretical framework for a better and aspirations of the people. understanding of the concepts under analysis. Thus, the strategic elite theory has been examined as postulated by Also, it is imperative to note that there are countervailing scholars. An attempt has also been made to establish a nexus groups in civil society that are able to put public servants in between bureaucratic conflict and public interest in Africa. constant watch, security and checks to prevent them from derailing from their motive for being an elite corps of public The article concludes that whilst conflict generally is an officials brought together to pursue the national interest or inevitable outcome of human interactions. However, conflict is http://www.td-sa.net Open Access Page 10 of 10 Review Article more prevalent in a formal bureaucracy where issues of power Data availability and influence are always in contention amongst the MDAs. At The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of the centre of bureaucratic cleavages and conflicts are the this study are available within the article. questions of money, more money, status, influence, labour relations and self-aggrandisement. Although efforts are often made to investigate causes of these conflicts, secrecy embedded Disclaimer in bureaucratic activities makes it difficult for researchers or The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of members of the public to lay their hands on what the issues the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or really are, with a view to finding lasting solution to them. position of any affiliated agency of the author. 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