A school-based wellbeing programme to promote social functioning.  
 
      
 
 
 
 
 
A school-based wellbeing programme to 
promote social functioning in middle childhood 
 
 
S Beets 
orcid.org/0000-0002-4055-103X 
 
 
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the 
degree Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology at the North-
West University 
 
 
Promotor:  Dr I van Schalkwyk 
Co-promotor:  Dr DK Kirsten   
 
 
Graduation: May 2019 
Student number: 10937625 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING ii 
 
Solemn Declaration 
 
I, Soretha Beets, declare that the thesis (article format) hereby submitted by me, in 
compliance with the requirements for the PhD in Psychology at the North-West University 
Potchefstroom Campus, is my own independent work. I have acknowledged all material and 
sources used in its preparation, whether they be books, articles, reports, lecture notes, or 
any other kind of document, electronic or personal communication. I also certify that this 
assignment/report has not previously been submitted for assessment at any other 
unit/university/faculty, and that I have not copied - in part or whole - or otherwise plagiarised 
the work of other students and/or persons. 
  
Student: Soretha Beets 
 
Signature:  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING iii 
 
 Letter of Permission 
 
The candidate opted to use the article format with the support of her supervisor and 
co-supervisor. The co-authors declare that the input and effort of Soretha Beets in 
writing these articles reflects the research done by her. The first author contributed to 
theme development, undertook most of the literature review, performed the data 
analysis and took the lead in the description of the data. She drafted the manuscript 
and incorporated all the suggestions from the co-authors into the manuscript.  
 
We hereby grant permission to the first author to submit these articles for 
examination purposes in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PhD in 
Psychology. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Dr Izanette van Schalkwyk 
Supervisor 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………………………………… 
Dr Doret Kirsten 
Co-supervisor 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING iv 
 
Acknowledgements 
 
To God be all the Glory! 
 
My sincerest gratitude and appreciation to the following persons and institutions for their 
respective contributions in making the completion of this study possible:  
• My promotor, Dr Izanette van Schalkwyk, for being there for me every step of the way; 
for being not only a supervisor to me but also a mentor and confidante; for kindness, 
inspiration, enthusiasm, continuous encouragement, valuable inputs, and outstanding 
guidance. 
• My co-promotor, Dr Doret Kirsten, for calmness during challenges, incredible knowledge 
and insight, and a good example of living a life with integrity and meaning. 
• My parents, family, and friends for their interest in the study and for their love, 
understanding, support, and encouragement. 
• Prof Alida Nienaber for assistance with the initial conceptualisation of the study. 
• Mrs Ismé Oberholzer for professional inputs regarding various aspects of the study; 
especially the presentation of the Social Treasures Programme.      
• Prof Suria Ellis from Statistical Consultation Services at the NWU for assistance with the 
analysis and interpretation of the quantitative data. 
• Ms Elizabeth le Roux for the transcription of the focus group interviews. 
• Mr Nestus Venter from the Ferdinand Postma Library at the NWU for going the extra 
mile in assistance with the acquisition of sources. 
• Ms Elcke du Plessis for the language and technical editing. 
• All the participants (learners, educators, and parents) in my study as well as the 
mediators and principals at the various schools that were involved.  
• The North-West Department of Education and Sport Development for granting 
permission for this study. 
• The Department of Higher Education and Training for financial assistance in the form of 
a Research and Development Grant and the Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences 
University for the administration of this grant. 
• The North-West University for financial assistance in the form of a post-graduate 
bursary. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING v 
 
Proof of Language Editing 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING vi 
 
Preface 
 
This thesis is submitted in article format as indicated in the 2018 General Academic 
Rules (A4.4.2 and A4.10.5) of the North-West University. It is submitted in fulfilment of the 
requirements for the PhD in Psychology. The manuscript in article style meets the 
requirements of the specific journals that were selected for submission: i) South African 
Journal of Education, ii) Acta Academica, and iii) Journal of Psychology in Africa. Exceptions 
are made for the purpose of the thesis, for example, the use of 1.5 line spacing instead of 
double line spacing; 11-point font instead of 12-point font; the use of Arial font instead of 
Times New Roman font; and the length (number of words) of article three. These will be 
amended before submission to the particular journals. For the purposes of this thesis, the 
page numbering of the thesis as a whole is consecutive. However, for journal submission 
purposes, the manuscript will be numbered starting from page 1. 
 The thesis is divided into three sections. Section A consists of the first stage of the 
research and the preparation for the main phase and manuscript (research proposal and 
ethics application); section B reflects the research reports for examination in article format 
(three research articles); and Section C contains the conclusions and reflections of the 
study. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING vii 
 
Summary 
     
Title 
A school-based wellbeing programme to promote social functioning in middle 
childhood 
Keywords 
Learners, middle childhood, positive psychology, programme development, 
programme evaluation, school, social functioning, social skills, South Africa, wellbeing 
 
This study was done from a positive psychology perspective and was based on 
Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological systems theory as well as Erikson’s psychosocial theory. 
Educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle childhood as well as 
the skills and competencies these learners need, were explored. This was done by 
conducting focus groups with 29 educators of 10- to 12-year-old learners (in grades five and 
six) from four schools that each represent one section into which schools of a selected area 
in the North-West Province of South Africa are divided. The results indicated that context 
and culture are important in learners’ social functioning, that learners in middle childhood 
display both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour during their interactions, and that the 
intentional development and strengthening of certain social skills and competencies are 
needed.  
A school-based wellbeing programme called the Social Treasures Programme (STP) 
was developed by taking the abovementioned needed skills and competencies as well as 
literature reviews on social skills programmes into consideration. The STP includes sessions 
on self-esteem and gratitude, self-regulation and goal setting, values and relationships, 
communication and listening skills, conflict management, emotional competence, and 
resilient coping.  
As a school-based wellbeing programme in itself does not change learners’ social 
functioning, the STP was implemented and evaluated at one school from the 
abovementioned area in the North-West Province to determine its effectiveness. A repeated 
measures design was used for this, and learners, educators and, parents or legal guardians 
completed psychometric scales at various time-intervals. The psychometric scales that were 
completed by the learners included the Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised (La 
Greca, 1998; La Greca & Stone, 1993), the School Short-Form Coopersmith Self-Esteem 
Inventory–Revised (Coopersmith, 1967; Hills, Francis, & Jennings, 2011), the Children’s 
Self-Report Social Skills Scale (Danielson & Phelps, 2003), the Children’s Depression 
Inventory Short Form (Kovacs, 2011), and the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING viii 
 
Lepper, 1999); while the Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1 (Children’s Institute, 2002) was 
completed by the educators, and the Child Social Preference Scale (Coplan, Prakash, 
O’Neil, & Armer, 2004) by the parents. 
Initially, 221 learners from the abovementioned four schools participated in pre-
testing, as the reliability and validity of the abovementioned five scales for the learners had 
to be determined for the South African context (and a large number of participants are 
needed for this). Sixty-six learners from one school were chosen for the experimental and 
control groups (with 45 learners in the experimental group and 21 in the control group) and 
participated in the evaluation of the STP (which consisted of attendance of the STP by the 
experimental group, post-testing directly after the presentation of the STP to the 
experimental group, and follow-up testing three months later). Thirteen educators and 66 
parents or legal guardians completed the psychometric scales for the particular group into 
wich they fall, before the presentation of the STP to the experimental group and also three 
months after the presentation of the STP to the experimental group. 
The STP had a positive effect. According to the psychometric scales completed by 
the learners over time, their social anxiety decreased while their social skills (including 
adherence to social rules and politeness) and self-esteem increased. Furthermore, 
according to the psychometric scale completed by the educators over time, the STP 
increased the learners’ assertiveness and peer social skills. The psychometric scales 
completed by the parents or legal guardians indicated that no differences occurred as a 
result of the STP. 
  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING ix 
 
Opsomming 
 
Titel 
‘n Skoolgebaseerde welstandsprogram vir die verbetering van sosiale funksionering 
in die middel-kinderjare 
Sleutelwoorde 
Leerders, middel-kinderjare, positiewe sielkunde, programontwikkeling, 
programevaluering, skool, sosiale funksionering, sosiale vaardighede, Suid-Afrika, welstand 
 
Hierdie studie is gedoen vanuit die perspektief van positiewe sielkunde en is 
gebaseer op Bronfenrenner se bio-ekologiese-sistemeteorie sowel as Erikson se 
psigososiale teorie.  
Opvoeders se ervarings van die sosiale funksionering van leerders in die middel-
kinderjare sowel as die vaardighede en bevoedghede wat hierdie leerders benodig, is 
ondersoek. Dit is gedoen deur fokusgroepe te hou met 29 opvoeders van 10- tot 12-jarige 
leerders (in graad vyf en ses) van vier skole, wat elk ‘n gedeelte verteenwoordig waarin 
skole uit ‘n geselekteerde area in die Noordwes Provinsie van Suid-Afrika opgedeel is. Die 
bevindinge toon aan dat konteks en kultuur belangrik is in leerders se sosiale funksionering, 
dat leerders in die middel-kinderjare beide gepaste en onvanpaste gedrag toon in hul 
interaksies, en dat die doelbewuste ontwikkeling en versterking van sekere sosiale 
vaardighede en bevoegdhede nodig is. 
 ‘n Skoolgebaseerde program naamlik die “Social Treasures Programme” (STP) is 
ontwikkel deur die bogenoemde noodsaaklike vaardighede en bevoegdhede sowel as 
literatuuroorsigte van programme oor sosiale vaardighede in ag te neem. Die STP sluit 
sessies oor selfwaarde en dankbaarheid, self-regulering en die stel van doelwitte, waardes 
en verhoudings, kommunikasie- en luistervaardighede, konflikbestuur, emosionele 
vaardigheid en veerkragtige hantering in. 
Aangesien ‘n skoolgebaseerde welstandsprogram op sigself nie leerders se sosiale 
funksionering verander nie is die STP geïmplementeer en geëvalueer by een skool vanuit 
die bogenoemde area in die Noordwes Provinsie om die effektiwiteit daarvan te bepaal. 
Herhalende metings is hiervoor gebruik en leerders, opvoeders en ouers of wetlike voogde 
het psigometriese skale op verskillende tydsintervalle voltooi. Die psigometriese skale wat 
deur die leerders voltooi is sluit die  “Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised” (La Greca, 
1998; La Greca & Stone, 1993), die “School Short-Form Coopersmith Self-Esteem 
Inventory–Revised” (Coopersmith, 1967; Hills, Francis, & Jennings, 2011), die “Children’s 
Self-Report Social Skills Scale” (Danielson & Phelps, 2003), die “Children’s Depression 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING x 
 
Inventory Short Form” (Kovacs, 2011) en die “Subjective Happiness Scale” (Lyubomirsky & 
Lepper, 1999) in; terwyl die “Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1” (Children’s Institute, 2002) 
voltooi is deur die opvoeders en die “Child Social Preference Scale” (Coplan, Prakash, 
O’Neil, & Armer, 2004) deur die ouers. 
Aanvanklik het 221 leerders van die bogenoemde vier skole aan die voor-toetsing 
deelgeneem omdat die betroubaarheid en die geldigheid van die bogenoemde vyf skale vir 
die leerders bepaal moes word vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks (en groot getalle deelnemers 
hiervoor nodig is). Ses-en-sestig leerders van een skool is vir die eksperimentele en 
kontrolegroepe gekies (met 45 leerders in die eksperimentele groep en 21 in die 
kontrolegroep) en het deelgeneem aan die evaluering van die STP (wat bestaan het uit die 
bywoning van die STP deur die eksperimentele groep, na-toetsing direk na die aanbieding 
van die STP aan die eksperimentele groep en die opvolgtoetsing drie maande daarna). 
Dertien opvoeders en 66 ouers of wetlike voogde het die psigometriese skale vir die 
spesifieke groep waarin hulle val voltooi voor die aanbieding van die STP aan die 
eksperimentele groep en ook drie maande na die aanbieding van die STP aan die 
eksperimentele groep.     
Die STP het ‘n positiewe effek gehad. Volgens die psigometriese skale wat oor ‘n 
tydperk deur die leerders voltooi is, het hulle sosiale angs afgeneem terwyl hulle sosiale 
vaardighede (die nakoming van sosiale reëls en beleefdheid ingesluit) en selfagting 
toegeneem het. Verder, volgens die psigometriese skale wat deur die opvoeders voltooi is 
oor ‘n tydperk, het die STP leerders se selfgeldendheid en sosiale vaardighede met hul 
mede-leerders verbeter. Die psigometriese skale voltooi deur die ouers of wetlike voogde 
het aangetoon dat geen veranderinge plaasgevind het as gevolg van die STP nie. 
  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING xi 
 
Contents 
Solemn Declaration ................................................................................................................ ii 
Letter of Permission .............................................................................................................. iii 
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... iv 
Proof of Language Editing ..................................................................................................... v 
Preface ................................................................................................................................. vi 
Summary ............................................................................................................................. vii 
Opsomming .......................................................................................................................... ix 
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... xii 
List of Figure………………………………………………………………………………………….xii 
List of Appendices ............................................................................................................... xiii 
SECTION A: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 
SECTION B: SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES ................................................................................. 32 
Article 1: Exploring educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood ....................................................................................................................... 33 
Author guidelines for the South African Journal of Education ....................................... 34 
Article 2: The development of the Social Treasures Programme to enhance the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood .................................................................... 57 
Author guidelines for Acta Academica .......................................................................... 58 
Article 3: An evaluation of the effect of the Social Treasures Programme aimed at enhancing 
the social functioning of learners in middle childhood .................................................... 80 
Author guidelines for the Journal of Psychology in Africa ............................................. 81 
SECTION C: CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION ............................................................. 117 
COMPLETE REFERENCE LIST…………………………………………………………………127 
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………... ……140 
 
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING xii 
 
List of Tables 
 
Table 1: Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scales used for learners    108 
Table 2: Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scale used for educators   109 
Table 3: Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scale used for parents or legal 
guardians             110 
Table 4: Validity of psychometric scales used for learners        111 
Table 5. Validity of psychometric scale used for educators. .............................................. 112 
Table 6. Validity of psychometric scale used for parents or legal guardians. ..................... 113 
Table 7. Descriptive statistics and statistical and practical significances (pre-, post-, and 
follow-up) for experimental and control groups. ............................................................ 114 
Table 8. T-tests for psychometric scale used for educators. .............................................. 115 
Table 9. T-tests for psychometric scale used for parents. ................................................. 116 
 
 
List of Figures 
 
Figure 1. Structure of session……………………………………………………………………...63 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING xiii 
 
List of Appendices  
              
Appendix 1: Permission for the study from the North-West Province’s Department of 
Education and Sport Development………………………………………………………....141 
Appendix 2: Permission for the study from the research focus area Community Psychosocial 
Research (COMPRES)……………………………………………………………………....142 
Appendix 3: Ethics Approval Certificate from the Health Research Ethics Committee (HREC) 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………143 
Appendix 4: Focus group interview guide………………………………………………………144 
Appendix 5: An example of the coding of the qualitative data…………..……………………145 
Appendix 6: An example of a poster used in the Social Treasures Programme…………...146 
Appendix 7: Attendance certificate for the Social Treasures Programme ………………….147 
        
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 1 
 
SECTION A 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 2 
 
Introduction 
The focus of this study was the development and evaluation of a school-based 
wellbeing programme to enhance the social functioning of learners in middle childhood in the 
South African context.  
South Africa forms part of what is referred to as the Global South. The Global South 
is characterised by large numbers of individuals staying in informal settlements, high 
maternal and child mortality, increasing poverty, ongoing food insecurity, and inequality 
(Mahali et al., 2018). Many South African schools are situated in environments of high risk, 
high need and scarce resources (Ebersöhn, 2015), where disciplinary problems occur 
(Kourkoutas & Wolhuter, 2013; Wolhuter & Van Staden, 2008) and the incidence of violence 
and aggression is common (South African Council of Educators, 2011). In the 2030 Agenda 
for Sustainable Development, creating enabling environments for children is central and the 
17 Sustainable Developmental Goals (SDGs) that have been identified are aimed at 
impacting all aspects of children’s lives and outlining a world vision in which all children 
reach their potential and thrive (Bhardwaj, Sambu, & Jamieson, 2017).  
Positive relationships are at the heart of children’s development and wellbeing, and 
researchers and educators are increasingly aware of the significance of social and emotional 
competence in the classroom and beyond, including education and employment outcomes in 
adulthood (Frydenberg, Martin & Collie, 2017).  
Social and emotional learning (SEL) refers to the processes by which social and 
emotional competencies are developed (Weare & Nind, 2011). This takes place in five 
domains namely self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, responsible decision-
making and relationship skills (Durlak, Domitrovich, Weissberg, & Gullotta, 2015). Self-
awareness refers to an individual’s ability to accurately recognise his/her feelings and 
thoughts and its influence on his/her behaviour. Social awareness includes the 
understanding of ethical and social norms for behaviour; the recognition of the support 
received from the school, family and community; empathising with others; and understanding 
another individual’s perspective. Self-management refers to the ability of an individual to 
regulate his/her cognitions, emotions and behaviors in order to set and achieve his/her 
goals. Responsible decision-making refers to making constructive choices on, for example, 
the consequences of an action. Relationship skills includes the establishment and 
maintenance of rewarding and healthy relationships with various individuals and groups 
(Dusenbury & Weissberg, 2017).  
SEL may assist children in acquiring and effectively applying the knowledge, skills 
and attitudes needed to understand and manage emotions; to feel and show concern and 
care for others; to set and achieve goals; and to make responsible decisions (Weissberg, 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 3 
 
Durlak, Domitrovich, & Gullotta, 2015). According to Dusenbury and Weissberg (2017), SEL 
may assist children in adjusting better, displaying more positive social behaviour and fewer 
conduct problems, to experience less emotional distress, and in performing better 
academically. SEL is also necessary for enhanced social relations both in schools and the 
society (Usakli & Ekici, 2018); may prevent risky behaviours, for example, violence and 
bullying (Weare & Nind, 2011); and may contributes to important life outcomes, for example, 
school success (Greenberg, Domitrovich, Weissberg, & Durlak, 2017).  
Supportive relationships are critical in SEL as it leads to engaging, challenging and 
meaningful learning (Weare & Nind, 2011) and thus positive development. Caring 
relationships are also important for positive development and as learners grow older, their 
relationships with peers and teachers, for example, become more important in the 
development of social connectedness (Berry & Malek, 2017). However, according to Louw 
and Louw (2014), the family is still central to their lives and the parents still act as powerful 
socialisation agents by fulfilling the roles of direct instructors (transmitting rules and values to 
their children), indirect socialisers (providing examples of appropriate behaviour to their 
children) and social managers (managing their children’s exposure to information, activities 
and people). Children’s social interactions are thus central to positive development (Kitching, 
Roos, & Ferreira, 2012).  
SEL may improve social functioning. Social functioning can be viewed as processes 
of relating (individuals interacting with one another) which create opportunities for wellbeing 
(Wissing, 2013). In this study, social functioning is also understood as a continuum indicating 
positive social functioning such as high self-esteem on the higher end and challenging social 
functioning such as the experience of social anxiety or depression on the lower end. 
Depending on one’s position on the continuum, the level of wellbeing will differ. 
Social skills are the best indicator of positive wellbeing (Nair, Ravindranath, & 
Thomas, 2013). According to Gresham, Elliot, and Kettler (2010), social skills can be defined 
as the particular behaviour displayed in certain situations that leads to judgement by others 
on the levels of competency of these behaviours. Social skills are important for successful 
social functioning because they assist individuals in adapting to and understanding various 
social settings (Luiselli, McCarty, Coniglio, Ramirez, & Putman, 2008). Furthermore, Dowd 
and Tierney (2005) state that social skills enable the young to develop and nurture, for 
example, responsibility, trustworthiness, respect, caring, and fairness. Moreover, all learners 
need social skills to assist them in achieving meaningful lives and overcoming severe 
challenges (Nel & Payne-Van Staden, 2014). Social skills may be taught by using 
behavioural techniques that includes instruction, discussions, modelling and rehearsing of 
appropriate behaviour as well as feedback and reinforcement (Spence, 2003). 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 4 
 
Theoretical Paradigm 
This study was done from a positive psychology paradigm, especially Keyes’ mental 
health continuum (Keyes, 2002), and was informed by Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological 
systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and Erikson’s psychosocial model (Erikson, 1982). 
These are discussed next. 
Positive Psychology 
Positive psychology was developed as an antidote to the traditional emphasis of 
psychology on what is not going well, for example, mental illnesses and weaknesses (Eloff, 
2013; MacConville & Rae, 2012). However, it does not deny the challenges or problems that 
individuals may experience (Peterson, 2009), and may assist individuals in fighting 
psychological and social problems of a serious nature and developing characteristics leading 
to bigger fulfilment not only for themselves but also for others (Donald, Lazarus, & Moolla, 
2014). Furthermore, a positive psychology approach is relevant in schools as it focuses on 
an awareness of the distress that learners may experience (in various forms) at their homes, 
within their communities, at school, and in the classroom. The awareness of distress could 
create possibilities for finding ways to ameliorate or transform it into improved feelings and 
thus a sense of wellbeing (Donald et al., 2014). In addition, school-based positive 
psychology programmes aim at preventing future problems and challenges by teaching skills 
with the purpose of encouraging positive emotions, positive behaviours, and positive self-
perceptions (Chodkiewicz & Boyle, 2017). 
 Within the positive psychology approach, a key assumption is that wellbeing includes 
an individual’s experience of his or her life, an individual’s ability to contribute to and function 
within his or her social environment, and not having mental ill-health (Keyes, 2003; Ryff, 
1989). Keyes’ model of mental health (the mental health continuum) is used as a 
cornerstone theoretical approach in this study.  
Keyes’ Mental Health Continuum 
According to Keyes’ (2002) mental health continuum, wellbeing is explained in terms 
of eudaimonia (to function well) and hedonia (to feel good). The eudaimonia component is 
represented by social and psychological wellbeing, while the hedonia component is 
represented by emotional wellbeing (Keyes, 2006). Social wellbeing is especially relevant to 
this study as it indicates sound social functioning (Wissing, 2014), and Keyes’ (1998) model 
of social wellbeing reveals the interaction between an individual and his or her community by 
providing a perspective on individuals’ judgement of the society’s general functioning and the 
functioning of individuals in their social world (Peter, Roberts, & Dengate, 2011). In short, the 
psychological wellbeing component of this model includes characteristics that indicate sound 
individual functioning, namely self-acceptance, positive relations, environmental mastery, 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 5 
 
autonomy, purpose in life, and personal growth, while the emotional wellbeing component 
refers to the characteristics of interest in life, positive emotion, and satisfaction with life 
(Wissing, 2014). 
The mental health continuum represents three wellbeing categories, namely 
languishing (levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing are low), moderate 
mental health (levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing are moderate), and 
flourishing (levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing are high; Wissing, 2014). 
Some individuals are languishing and can be seen as having relatively low mental health 
and thus complete mental illness. Moderately healthy individuals are classified as not having 
complete mental health, but also not having a mental illness. Flourishing individuals are 
enthusiastic and engaged with others in an active and productive way. They may have a 
mental disorder but will also display characteristics of positive mental health (Keyes, 2003). 
Practices associated with positive psychology, such as promoting healthy social 
interaction, are compatible with an ecological perspective (compare Bronfenbrenner, 1979) 
and provide a holistic understanding of human behaviour at individual, family, community, 
and broader societal levels. 
Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Systems Theory  
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) bio-ecological systems theory can be of great value in view 
of the nature of this study, since it considers important factors with reference to development 
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) as well as the embeddedness of individuals’ behaviour in 
the ecosphere. 
According to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) bio-ecological systems theory, an individual’s 
development is influenced either directly or indirectly by various systems. The developing 
child is in the middle of these systems which include the micro-, meso-, exo-, and 
macrosystems (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016).  
The microsystem, of which there may be more than one, consists of the individuals 
who are closest to the child (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016) and who are familiar to him or her 
(Donald et al., 2014). Furthermore, it includes patterns of daily activity, relationships, and 
roles that may shape various aspects of social, spiritual, cognitive, moral, and emotional 
development (Donald et al., 2014). Events in one microsystem may influence another 
microsystem (Louw, Louw, & Kail, 2014); for example, the way in which a child responds at 
school may be influenced by what happens in the peer group or at home (Donald et al., 
2014).  
  Connections or interactions across microsystems lead to the development of the 
mesosystem (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016); for example, the developing child’s experience or 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 6 
 
circumstances at home might affect the way in which the child interacts and relates with 
those at school. 
The exosystem represents those social settings that a child does not experience 
directly but that nevertheless still have an influence on his or her development (Kail & 
Cavanaugh, 2016), for example, religious institutions, social networks, and the availability of 
institutions for social welfare and health care (Louw et al., 2014).  
The macrosystem includes dominant economic and social structures as well as 
practices, beliefs, and values that have an influence on all the other social systems. For 
example, a child who grows up in a culture that has the value of respecting older individuals 
or obeying authority will comply with this in his or her proximal interactions within the micro- 
and mesosystems (Donald et al., 2014).  
The macrosystem develops over time as the environment of the child changes 
constantly, referring both to physiological changes and changes in the social environment of 
the child. Bronfenbrenner refers to this as the chronosystem – the specific time at which 
particular changes take place in the life of a child as well as its influence on the development 
of the particular child (Louw et al., 2014).  
Bronfenbrenner’s latest writings differ from his earliest in the sense that he 
became more concerned with the process of human development (Donald et al., 2014). In 
the 1980s, Bronfenbrenner (as cited in in Donald et al., 2014) refers to a “process” as 
something explaining the connection between certain aspects of the context or the 
individual and the outcome of interest. In the 1990s, proximal processes were seen as the 
most important factor in development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) and 
Bronfenbrenner also started to discuss the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model 
that now lies central to his theory (Bronfenbrenner, as cited in Donald et al., 2014).  
The PPCT model views proximal processes (continuous forms of interaction in the 
immediate environment) as the primary mechanism for development (Bronfenbrenner & 
Morris, 2006). Rosa and Tudge (2013) state that, under the person factors, the bio-
ecological model looks at the role that personal characteristics of individuals play in social 
interactions. This is important for the current study, as individual characteristics may not 
only have an influence on the individual’s development but may also be an outcome of 
the individual’s development. Furthermore, context involves the interconnected systems, 
which are based on Bronfenbrenner’s original model as described previously, while time 
refers to what Bronfenbrenner calls the chronosystem (Rosa & Tudge, 2013). Donald et 
al. (2014) state that time, context, and person factors all have an influence on the process 
factors. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 7 
 
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory  
According to Erikson’s (1982) psychosocial theory, middle childhood is the phase of 
industry versus inferiority, meaning that learners develop the ability to cooperate and create, 
which may lead to either incompetence or mastery. The most recognised psychological 
developmental task in middle childhood is the gaining of self-competence (Charlesworth, 
Wood, & Viggiani, 2008). Furthermore, self-esteem and individuality are developed during 
this period by mentally comparing actual social experiences to the ideal self (Ripke, Huston, 
Eccles, & Templeton, 2008), by comparing the self to others, by having friends with whom 
stable relationships can be developed, and by being accepted and liked by siblings and 
parents (Feldman, 2007). The formation of a strong sense of identity, based on competence 
that is separate from parents, should now be built (Hook, 2013). In addition, children during 
this stage identify strongly with their peer group and peer influences are of key importance to 
the personality and functioning of developing children. A high value is thus placed on being 
able to productively engage and communicate with peers and also to be recognised and 
positively acknowledged by them. If a child fails at the developmental tasks of middle 
childhood, it will most probably lead to ineptness and inferiority, as the roots of inability, 
inferiority complexes, low self-esteem, and feelings of unworthiness lie in this developmental 
stage (Hook, 2013). 
Problem Statement and Rationale 
During middle childhood, learners are challenged with accomplishing sound social 
functioning that not only includes the family, but also their school and neighbourhood 
(Weiten, 2017). Furthermore, peers are rather important in this life phase (Louw & Louw, 
2014) and the peer group may have a powerful influence on a learner (Donald et al., 2014). 
Unfortunately, this influence may be negative (Donald et al., 2014), and social functioning 
may be hindered. According to Erikson’s (1982) psychosocial theory, if learners are not 
successful in the developmental tasks of their particular life phase (which in middle 
childhood also include competent social functioning), a sense of inferiority may develop, 
which may be detrimental to further development (Donald et al., 2014).  
Like all other learners, those in middle childhood are exposed to various 
environmental or external risks that may hamper their social functioning. Barbarin (2003) 
states that these risks include, for example, poverty, HIV, exposure to violence, familial 
conflict, and stressors regarding their education (including a lack of resources and support 
services as well as poorly trained educators). Furthermore, learner discipline is problematic 
in many South African schools (Kourkoutas & Wolhuter, 2013; Wolhuter & Van Staden, 
2008) and include, for example, theft, vandalism, as well as destructive and disrespectful 
behaviour towards educators and fellow learners (LeeFon, Jacobs, Le Roux, & De Wet, 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 8 
 
2013). In addition, aggressive behaviour is a common occurrence in South African schools 
(SACE, 2011), with this being a manner of expressing frustrations and emotions (Breet, 
Myburgh, & Poggenpoel, 2010). All of the above may be associated with poor social 
functioning and lower levels of wellbeing.  
Deficits in social functioning (as evidenced by lacking social skills) have many 
adverse consequences (January, Casey, & Paulson, 2011); for example, learners showing 
an increased vulnerability towards mental health challenges such as social anxiety and 
depression (Segrin & Flora, 2000). Given the above, it is thus important that sound social 
functioning should be developed, strengthened and protected as, according to Damasio 
(2006), it is not automatic or instinctive due to mere maturation. Furthermore, Luiselli et al. 
(2005) indicate that it is unlikely that learners will develop positive social skills without 
direction and assistance. According to Lewis, Brock, and Lazarus (2002), social skills 
training may be beneficial in the sense that it prevents various problem-behaviours and may 
also serve as an early intervention or programme for these. As no such evidence-based 
intervention or programme for the South African context could be found in the literature, the 
development and evaluation of such a programme was deemed necessary. The aim of this 
programme is to supplement the limited social skills training for 10- to 12 year old learners, 
that forms part of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Life Orientation 
Curriculum that is presented in South African schools. 
As the school environment is associated with learning (Rambaldo, Wilding, Goldman, 
McClure, & Friedberg, 2001), it was argued that such a programme should be school-based. 
Other reasons for choosing a school-based programme are that school-based programmes 
reach more learners (Cemalcilar, 2010; Barret, Lock, & Farrel, 2005) and may lead to 
learners being less resistant to participate (Barret et al., 2005). 
Furthermore, as indicated previously, middle childhood was chosen as the life phase 
for the programme. Additional reasons, linked to developmental timing, include that this life 
phase is a favourable time for both the encouraging of competence and the hindering of 
problems that may emerge in adolescence (Schonert-Reichl, Guhn, Gadermann, Hymel, 
Sweiss, & Hertzman, 2013).  
Research Questions 
Given the abovementioned, the research questions for this study were: 
• How do educators experience the social functioning of learners in middle childhood? 
• What support do learners in middle childhood need in terms of social skills and 
competencies in order to enhance their social functioning towards higher levels of 
wellbeing?  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 9 
 
• What should be the content of a school-based wellbeing programme to promote the 
social functioning of learners in middle childhood towards higher levels of wellbeing? 
• What is the effect of such a school-based wellbeing programme on the social functioning 
and wellbeing of learners in middle childhood?  
Aims and Objectives 
The overall aim of this study was to develop and evaluate the effect of a school-
based wellbeing programme, to promote social functioning in middle childhood. The 
secondary objectives of this study, necessary to achieve the primary aim, were divided into 
phases: 
• Phase 1: to explore educators’ experience of the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood (Section B, Article 1); 
• Phase 1: to use the information obtained from the abovementioned objective as a basis 
for exploring educators’ viewpoints on the needs of learners in middle childhood in terms 
of social skills and competencies (Section B, Article 1); 
• Phase 2: to use the information obtained from the abovementioned objectives as well as 
a thorough literature review to develop (determine the content of) a school-based 
wellbeing programme aimed at promoting the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood towards higher levels of wellbeing (Section B, Article 2); and  
• Phase 3: to evaluate the effect of a school-based wellbeing programme aimed at 
promoting the social functioning of learners in middle childhood towards higher levels of 
wellbeing (Section B, Article 3). 
Hypotheses 
No hypotheses have been set for phases 1 and 2 (see the first three objectives) as 
they were qualitative in nature and thus involved exploratory research. In phase 3, after the 
school-based wellbeing programme was developed, the null hypothesis was that this 
programme would not increase the social functioning of learners in middle childhood towards 
higher levels of wellbeing, while the alternative hypothesis was that the school-based 
wellbeing programme would increase the social functioning of learners in middle childhood 
towards higher levels of wellbeing.  
Research Methodology 
A multiple methods design was used to conduct the study. This design allowed the 
use of different methods in the three phases of the study. Next, each phase will be 
discussed in terms of its research methodology, namely its design, setting, participants, 
sampling strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, recruitment process and procedures, 
methods of data collection, data analysis, dissemination of results, and the ethical aspects of 
relevance to the particular phase. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 10 
 
Phase 1 
 Design. Qualitative research was conducted during this phase. According to Rubin 
and Babbie (2014), qualitative research creates a deeper understanding of individuals’ 
experiences. 
 Setting. The participants to this phase (educators) were selected from four public 
primary schools in an area in the North-West Province and the research was conducted at 
these schools. 
Sampling strategy. The number of schools was determined with cluster sampling 
based on the number of sub-areas (four) into which schools in the area are divided as well 
as the number of schools in the area. With cluster sampling, clusters of individuals are 
identified, after which the appropriate number of clusters are selected randomly (Wilson & 
MacLean, 2011). Random sampling without replacement was applied and probabilities thus 
changed after each selection, with the population then having one element less (Gravetter & 
Wallnau, 2011). A maximum number of educators (n = 29), were purposefully recruited. 
Ritchie, Lewis, and Elam (2003) state that with purposive sampling, the elements of a 
sample are selected based on having certain characteristics that may enable an in-depth 
exploration and understanding of the topic under investigation.  
 Participants. The educators of 10- to 12-year-old learners (in grades five and six) 
from four public primary schools were asked to participate. Only schools with at least 400 
learners were considered. Educators were asked to participate for the following reasons:  
• Educators spend a lot of time with learners as they work with them on a daily basis;  
• Educators have knowledge of learners’ developmental phases and their various 
developmental goals as this forms part of their training, and educators can thus establish 
whether learners are meeting these developmental goals or not;  
• Educators have information on learners’ school performance, their potential regarding 
success in school and also the factors hindering success; and,  
• Educators are experts on primary school learners’ social functioning and challenges 
regarding daily relational interaction.   
 Inclusion and exclusion criteria. For participation in Phase 1, the following 
inclusion criteria applied:  
• An individual had to be an educator at one of the public primary schools selected for 
participation,  
• An individual had to present classes to learners aged 10 to 12 years (in grade five or six) 
at one of the public primary schools selected for participation, 
• An individual had to have at least two years’ experience in presenting classes to learners 
aged 10 to 12 years (in grade five or six), and 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 11 
 
• An individual had to be able to understand and speak English (at English schools), 
Afrikaans (at Afrikaans schools), or both (at double medium schools). 
The following exclusion criterion applied: 
• Educators who were appointed as mediators by a principal of any school selected for 
participation (in order to prevent a person from having possibly conflicting roles). 
 Recruitment process and procedure. The following steps were followed: 
• Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the North-West Province’s 
Department of Education and Sport Development (see Appendix 1). 
• Approval to conduct the research was obtained from the Health Research Ethics 
Committee (HREC) of the North-West University (ethics approval number: NWU-00082-
15-A1; see Appendix 3).  
• Contact was made with the principals (gatekeepers of the school communities) of the 
public primary schools selected for participation by means of letters. These letters 
explained the aim of the research to the principals and also asked them to appoint 
mediators (one per school selected for participation), should the school wish to 
participate. (The mediator had to be a trusted educator who would not take part in the 
research him- or herself but who had the role of serving as a contact person between the 
researcher and the research participants, as this person was in close proximity to the 
participants).  
• The mediators in collaboration with the researcher arranged information sessions (one 
per school selected for participation) to introduce the research to possible participants.  
• Follow-up conversations with the principals and appointed mediators were done 
telephonically. 
• The information sessions were held at the various schools and the researcher was 
present at all the information sessions. Once the educators had indicated their 
willingness to participate in the research, participant information leaflets explaining the 
research together with consent forms for participation in the research  were distributed to 
them by the mediators.  
• Those educators who wanted to participate were asked to submit their consent forms to 
the relevant mediators within three days. The various mediators returned the consent 
forms to the offices of the various principals.  
• The researcher collected the consent forms from the principals of the selected schools. 
• Educators who completed the consent forms to participate were invited to attend a focus 
group interview.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 12 
 
• Focus groups interviews were conducted separately, per school, at the particular 
schools.   
 Data collection. Qualitative research was done using focus group interviews as a 
method of data collection. According to Kelly (2006), a focus group can be defined as a 
research interview that takes place within a group of individuals who share similar 
experiences.  
The aims of the focus group interviews were: firstly, to explore educators’ 
experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle childhood, and secondly, to 
explore the social skills and competencies which learners in middle childhood might benefit 
from in order to improve their social functioning. An interview guide was used for the focus 
group interviews (see Appendix 4). 
Throughout the process of data gathering, the researcher kept field and reflective 
notes about, for example, the participants’ non-verbal behaviour such as tone of voice, body 
posture, and facial expressions. All focus group interviews were audio recorded and  
transcribed verbatim.   
Data analysis. The transcribed data were analysed using thematic content 
analysis.Coding was done as follows: The researcher read through the transcriptions of the 
various focus groups a couple of times. A summary was made of the usable information 
obtained from the focus groups, per school, and various codes were attached to this. 
Highlighters of different colours were used to group codes with similar meaning or that is 
linked together, initially per school and then for all the schools together. This was integrated 
into themes. A thematic content analysis was also undertaken by a co-coder as well as one 
of the supervisors. This supervisor and the researcher again integrated the themes from the 
various individuals and then decided on three main themes with the first theme being divided 
into 4 sub-themes. (For an example on how the coding was done, see Appendix 5).   
 Trustworthiness of qualitative data. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), 
credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability can be used to assess the quality 
of qualitative data and thus its trustworthiness. Credibility refers to consistency between the 
views of the research participants and the researchers’ representation and reconstruction of 
their views (Schurink, Fouché, & De Vos, 2011). Member checking, that is, the provision of 
feedback to participants in order to determine whether one’s views are correct (Boeije, 
2010), was applied during this phase. The themes identified during the thematic analysis 
were verified to add to the trustworthiness of the research. Transferability refers to the 
transferring of findings from one case to another. During this phase, transferability was 
facilitated by analysing the results of studies that are similar to this study, determining 
theoretical boundaries from them and letting this guide data collection (Schurink et al., 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 13 
 
2011). Dependability refers to keeping the research process well-documented and logical 
(Schurink et al., 2011). Boeije (2010) sees this as methodological accountability, that is, the 
documentation of all activities in terms of what, how, and why. The details of all the activities 
during this phase were thus thoroughly documented. Confirmability refers to the confirmation 
of the results of one study by another (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The results were compared 
with those of similar studies in order to determine if comparable results have been obtained. 
This was done to prevent bias from the researcher’s side (Schurink et al., 2011), and the 
researcher took care not to let personal values or theoretical inclinations determine the way 
in which the research was conducted as this could have led to inaccurate findings (Bryman, 
2012).   
 Dissemination of research results. Short reports on the findings of the research 
were provided to the North-West Province’s Department of Education and Sport 
Development, all the participants, the principals, and the mediators. The reports for the 
various groups of individuals were written with the particular reader in mind. The results of 
the research were made available to participants and principals through the mediators. The 
results were presented at a national conference, the Africa Positive Psychology Conference 
in April 2018 at the North-West University as a poster presentation, and were also prepared 
in the form of an academic article intended for submission to a peer-reviewed scientific 
journal.   
 Ethics. Approval to conduct the research was obtained from the research focus area, 
Community Psychosocial Research (COMPRES; see Appendix 2), and the HREC (see 
Appendix 3). Permission for the study was also obtained from the Department of Education 
and Sport Development of the North-West Province (see Appendix 1), and the principals of 
the relevant schools. In addition, consent to participate in this phase of the study was 
obtained from the educators who wanted to participate. 
The ethical guidelines of the HREC were carefully followed. Participation was 
voluntary; participants were free to withdraw at any time without suffering adverse 
consequences or having to provide an explanation for their choice. Furthermore, no rewards 
for participation were provided. 
The risks involved in participating were minimal to low for participants and included 
partial loss of anonymity and confidentiality in the focus group interviews, being 
uncomfortable to talk in front of others, disagreeing with the opinion of a group member, and 
possible power relationships due to years of teaching experience. These risks can also be 
seen as the disadvantages of focus group interviews. These risks were managed by setting 
rules for the focus groups and the way in which confidentiality and anonymity would be dealt 
with. The above was also explained to the participants of each focus group interview before 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 14 
 
the particular interview started. Furthermore, issues regarding confidentiality and anonymity 
were explained in the consent form.  
The audio-recordings of the focus groups were safeguarded by storing it on the 
researcher’s own personal laptop which was password-protected and to which only the 
researcher had access. The laptop was locked away for security reasons when the 
researcher was not busy working on the research. The audio-recordings were also stored on 
a USB disk which was locked in a cupboard inside the locked office of the researcher. The 
audio-recordings on the USB disk were password-protected. The transcripts of the audio-
recordings were stored in a locked cupboard inside the locked office of the researcher. Data 
provided in the focus groups were coded while being transcribed. In the transcriptions, it was 
thus not possible to link any of the data to a particular participant. The audio-recordings of 
the focus groups were deleted after completion of the transcriptions. Furthermore, only the 
researchers and the persons who transcribed and analysed the data had access to it, and 
both the transcriptionist and data analyst had to sign confidentiality agreements. After 
completion of the study, the transcripts and audio-recordings on the USB disk would be 
handed over to the archives of the NWU (Center for Child, Youth and Family Studies, 
Wellington) for safekeeping for a period of 5 years, whereafter it will be destroyed. 
Phase 2 
 Design and development of the school-based wellbeing programme. The aim of 
the second phase of the study was to design a school-based wellbeing programme, 
eventually called the Social Treasures Programme (STP). This programme was designed 
within the framework of positive psychology and aims at protecting and promoting the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood (aged 10- to 12 years and in grades five and six).  
The following steps were followed in the design of the STP: 
• Keywords were developed for a literature search.  
• Each keyword was thoroughly searched on all the available databases. Books, articles, 
dissertations, theses, and all other available material were used in the literature study. 
• The information obtained from the above was summarised. 
• The results of the thematic content analysis (from Phase 1) were used to inform the 
researcher on educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood. 
• The information from the literature study and the research findings from Phase 1 of the 
research were integrated. (The aim of the abovementioned procedure was to determine 
the most important components and the content of the school-based wellbeing 
programme to enhance social functioning directed by wellbeing and health.) 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 15 
 
• Academics in the field of psychology (with knowledge on programme development and/or 
social functioning and/or middle childhood) as well as a registered educational 
psychologist working with children in middle childhood were asked to evaluate the STP. 
Face and content validity were of importance. While face validity refers to appearance, 
content validity refers to the inclusion of the correct content or all the relevant 
components (Bless, Higson-Smith, & Sithole, 2013). The evaluators thus had to ensure 
that the STP was valid for its purpose, and that it included the appropriate components 
and content. Furthermore, the evaluators assisted in determining whether the STP would 
be suitable for the particular age group in terms of the length of the sessions, the duration 
of the programme, and the level of the content.   
 Dissemination of research results. The results of the research were to be 
submitted for publication in a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the form of a research 
article. 
Phase 3 
 Design. In this phase, quantitative research methodology was used, namely an 
experimental pre-test post-test design. According to Bryman (2014), quantitative research 
involves the quantification of data while it is collected and analysed. In order to ensure that 
extraneous variables, that is, participant variables (for example, age and gender) and 
environmental variables (for example, time of day), do not have an effect on the relationship 
between the variables under investigation, the extraneous variables had to be controlled by 
the researcher. This was done by using random assignment (the chances of each participant 
being assigned to either the experimental or control group were equal), by matching 
(equivalent environments and groups were ensured), and by holding variables constant (for 
example, the ages of participants were more or less the same; Gravetter & Wallnau, 2011). 
With the pre-test post-test control group design, an experimental group and a control group 
are created using random sampling (without replacement) and random assignment (Fouché, 
Delport, & De Vos, 2011). In this study, both of these groups participated in the pre-tests, 
post-tests (directly after the presentation of the STP to learners in the experimental group), 
and follow-up tests (three months after the post-testing) on the same occasions, but only the 
experimental group received the STP at a time between the pre- and post-testing.  
Setting. Pre-testing of the learners took place at suitable venues at the 
abovementioned four public primary schools respectively, while the presentations of the 
STP, the post-testing of learners in the experimental and control groups, and the follow-up 
testing of the learners in the experimental and control groups took place at a suitable venue 
at one school. Educators and parents were asked to complete the psychometric scales at 
home. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 16 
 
Participants. The four public primary schools that were selected in Phase 1, by 
using cluster sampling within an area in the North-West Province were used again. During 
pre-testing, a total of 212 learners aged 10 to 12 (in grades five and six) from the 
abovementioned four schools participated. After the school that was used for the evaluation 
of the STP was determined, 66 learners from this school (with 45 learners in the 
experimental group and 21 learners in the control group), 66 parents or legal guardians, and 
13 educators participated. Parents and educators were included as participants in order to 
get a better understanding of learners’ social functioning. These participants are significant 
role players in learners’ home and learning environments, respectively, which are learners’ 
main contexts of social functioning. 
Sampling strategy. Convenience sampling was used for the pre-testing of the 
learners from the four public primary schools. In this type of sampling, elements to a sample 
are selected based on how easy and convenient it is to access them (Swanepoel, 
Swanepoel, Van Graan, Allison & Santana, 2015). Convenience sampling was decided upon 
because the validity and reliability of the psychometric scales used for the learners had to be 
determined for the South African context and many learners were needed for this. 
Furthermore, by using convenience sampling all the learners who assented to be part of pre-
testing and whose parents consented to it, could be included and not only a few.  
Stratified random sampling, was used for the selection of learners from the one 
school. This type of sampling refers to the division of the population into different sub-groups 
(strata) and then randomly selecting elements from each strata (Swanepoel et al., 2015). 
The learners of this one school were thus divided into three categories based on their total 
scores on all the psychometric scales completed in the pre-testing, with these categories 
including a category for learners with high scores, a category for learners with average 
scores and a category for learners with low scores. More or less equal percentage of 
learners from all three categories were randomly selected to form both the experimental and 
control group. Purposive sampling, as defined under phase 1, was used for the selection of 
parents or legal guardians and educators.  
 Selection criteria for participants.   
 Learners. For a learner to be able to participate in pre-testing, he or she had to 
comply with the following inclusion criteria: 
• Be a learner at one of the four public primary schools selected for pre-testing;  
• Be 10 to 12 years old (in grade five or six); 
• Have a basic proficiency in Afrikaans, English, Setswana, or Sesotho in order to be able 
to complete the psychometric tests; and 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 17 
 
• Receive voluntary consent from parents to participate and provide voluntary assent to 
participate.  
The exclusion criterion for participation of learners in pre-testing was that:  
• The learner would move to another school before pre-testing took place. 
For a learner to be selected for further participation (STP, post-testing, and follow-up 
testing) by being part of either the experimental or control group, he or she had to comply 
with the following inclusion criteria: 
• Be a learner at the public primary school selected for further participation;  
• Be 10 to 12 years old (in grade five or six); 
• Have a basic proficiency in Afrikaans (at Afrikaans schools) or English (at English 
schools) to be able to follow the STP; and 
• Receive voluntary consent from parents to participate and provide voluntary assent to 
participate in pre-testing.  
The exclusion criterion for further participation was that:  
• The learner would move to another school before the STP, post-testing, and follow-up 
testing were completed. 
 Parents or legal guardians. The inclusion criteria for a parent or legal guardian to 
participate in this phase by means of the completion of a psychometric scale before and 
three months after the presentation of the STP to the experimental group were that: 
• The individual’s child is in the school selected for the presentation of the STP, the post-
testing, and the follow-up testing; 
• The individual’s child is 10 to 12 years old (in grade five or six); 
• The individual’s child has been selected for participation in either the experimental or 
control group; 
• The individual has a basic proficiency in English (to be able to complete the 
psychometric scale); and  
• The individual consented voluntarily to participate in the research.  
 Educators. The inclusion criteria for educators to participate in this phase by means 
of the completion of a psychometric scale before and three months after the presentation of 
the STP to the experimental group were that: 
• The individual is an educator at the public primary school selected for the presentation of 
the STP, the post-testing, and the follow-up testing; 
• The individual is the register class educator of a learner aged 10 to 12 years (in grade 
five or six) who has been selected to either the experimental or the control group 
(preferable); or the individual currently presents classes to learners aged 10 to 12 years 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 18 
 
(in grade five or six) who has been selected to the experimental or control group (in 
cases where a register class educator of a learner or learners selected for either the 
experimental or control group did not consent to participation or is a mediator); 
• The individual must have a basic proficiency in English (to be able to complete the 
psychometric scale); and 
• The individual must voluntarily consent to participate in the study. 
The exclusion criterion for participation by educators in this phase was that:   
• The educator is appointed in the role of mediator (in order to prevent a person from 
having possibly conflicting roles). 
Recruitment and procedure. The following steps were followed: 
• The parents of all the 10- to 12-year-olds (in grades five and six) at the four schools 
selected for participation in the pre-testing were contacted through the school by means 
of letters asking their permission for their child or children to be approached for 
participation in this study. In the letters, the parents were asked to send the permission 
forms back to the school with their child or children within 3 days.  
• The mediator at each of the abovementioned four schools then provided the 10- to 12-
year-old learners (in grades five and six) of the particular school, whose parents provided 
permission for them to be approached for this study, with an information leaflet (including 
an assent form for the learner and a consent form for one of the learner’s parents to be 
completed and signed if the learner assented to participation and a parent or guardian of 
the learner provided permission for this).  
• The mediator asked the learners to return the assent and consent forms to him or her 
within three days.The selected four schools were visited by the researcher to collect the 
assent and consent forms.  
• All the psychometric scales for learners were translated from English to Afrikaans, 
Setswana, and Sesotho in order for the participants to be able to complete it in a 
language of their choice. Back-translation took place to ensure that the psychometric 
scales were translated correctly. The translation and back translation of the psychometric 
scales were done by mother-tongue speakers of the language into which the 
psychometric scales were translated. Before translation took place, consent for this was 
obtained from the developers of the measures. 
• The learners who assented to take part in the pre-testing and whose parents provided 
consent for this completed the abovementioned five psychometric scales at their 
particular schools, as part of a group and in the language of their choice, at a time 
arranged with the principals and mediators as well as the learners and the parents, per 
school. This was done after school hours at venues identified and approved by the 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 19 
 
mediators and principals of the various schools, and took approximately one and a half 
hours (74 items) with 10-minute breaks after every half-hour. In order to assist the 
learners in paying the needed attention, a comfortable room with sufficient silence was 
used and a “do not disturb” notice was placed on the door. Furthermore, all the learners 
completed the psychometric scales together – the researcher read each question or 
statement, explained it and then waited for all the learners to indicate their answer before 
proceeding to the next question or statement. In instances where the researcher was not 
familiar with the language in which the psychometric scales were completed, an educator 
at the particular school read the questions to the learners and explained it in both the 
language in which it was read and in English in order for the researcher to ensure that 
the explanation was correct. All the learners thus finished the psychometric scales at the 
same time.  
• The psychometric scales were scored by Statistical Consultation Services at the North-
West University. The learners who participated in the pre-testing and were from the 
school selected for further participation were divided into three categories according to 
their total scores on all the psychometric scales, as indicated previously. An equal 
percentage of learners from the three categories were selected to form both the 
experimental and control groups. The Statistical Consultation Services also determined 
the reliability and validity of all the psychometric scales used for the learners for the 
particular context (see Section B, Article 3). 
• By using a second information leaflet for learners, some learners were invited to 
participate further by forming part of either the experimental or the control group.  
• One parent or legal guardian and the register class educator (or another educator) of 
every learner in the experimental or control group were invited to take part in the study 
by means of an information leaflet (including a consent form for their own participation) 
and to attend an information session on the study (separate sessions for the educators 
and also for the parents and learners).  
• The learners from the school selected for further participation who have participated in 
the pre-testing but who have not been selected to form part of either the experimental or 
control group received a letter in which they were thanked for taking part in the pre-
testing and for the contribution that they have made. They were also informed that, 
unfortunately, they have not been selected for further participation as selection was 
determined by chance.  
• An information session for the learners selected for the experimental and control groups, 
and their parents was arranged for and conducted at the school selected for further 
participation after school hours. The information session was held three days after the 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 20 
 
learners and their parents received invitation and information letters (including assent 
and consent forms). 
• During the information session, the researcher provided the learners and their parents 
with information on the study and they had the opportunity to ask questions. The 
researcher asked that the assent and consent forms be returned by the learners to the 
mediator at the school within three days from the date of the information session, should 
both the learner and his or her parents agree to participation.  
• An information session was also arranged for the educators invited to participate. The 
information session was held three days after they received information letters (including 
a consent form) and they also had up to three days after the information session to 
submit their consent forms to the mediator. 
• The school was visited by the researcher to collect the consent and assent forms. 
• Psychometric scales were distributed to the parents (CSPS) and register class educators 
or other educators (T-CRS 2.1) of the learners in both the experimental and control 
groups with the request to complete and return the psychometric scales in sealed 
envelopes to the school’s mediators within three days.  
• The experimental group was divided into two groups and arrangements were made for 
learners in both these groups to attend the STP that was presented at the one public 
primary school selected for participation, by an educational psychologist with a 
background in teaching. The arrangements were communicated with the learners and 
their parents through the mediator at the particular school.  
• After the presentation of the STP to learners in the experimental group and three months 
after this, the effectiveness of the STP was evaluated and the learners in both the 
experimental and control groups again completed all the psychometric measures for 
learners at a venue at their school.  
• The learners in both the experimental and control groups received an attendance 
certificate (see Appendix 7) and a gift of thanks to show the researcher’s appreciation for 
their participation in the research. 
• Psychometric scales were distributed to the parents (CSPS) and register class educators 
or other educators (T-CRS 2.1) of the learners in both the experimental and control 
groups with the request to complete and return the psychometric scales in sealed 
envelopes to the school’s mediators within three days.  
• The presentation of the STP to learners in the control group was arranged for by the 
mediator of the school after which the STP was presented to these learners at their 
school and by the same educational psychologist who presented the STP to the 
experimental group.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 21 
 
• The results of the research were made available to the relevant stakeholders and 
participants. 
 Data collection. In Phase 3, quantitative research methods were used, and 
quantitative data were collected by using psychometric scales. 
All learners aged 10 to 12 (in grades five and six) who were from the four schools 
selected for participation, who received their parents’ permission to participate and who 
assented to participate, completed all the psychometric scales for the pre-testing (the Social 
Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised [SASC–R; La Greca, 1998; La Greca & Stone, 1993]; 
the School Short-Form Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–Revised [Coopersmith, 1967; 
Hills, Francis, & Jennings, 2011]; the Children’s Self-Report Social Skills Scale [CS4; 
Danielson & Phelps, 2003]; the Children’s Depression Inventory Short Form [CDI 2; Kovacs, 
2011]; and the Subjective Happiness Scale [SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999]. These 
scales were selected as they were appropriate to measure the concepts influencing learners’ 
social functioning. Learners who assented and whose parents consented to them being part 
of  the experimental or control groups participated in post-testing (directly after the 
presentation of the STP to the experimental group) and follow-up  testing (three months after 
the presentation of the STP) by completing the above-mentioned psychometric scales again 
at various occasions.  
The register class educators of the learners selected for the experimental group as 
well as the control group were asked to complete the Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1 
(Children’s Institute, 2002) before and three months after the presentation of the STP to the 
experimental group. In the instance of a register class educator of a learner not consenting 
to participate in this research, any other educator who currently presents classes to the 
particular learner could have participated provided that he or she complied with the inclusion 
criteria. 
A parent or legal guardian of each learner selected for the experimental or the control 
group was asked to complete the Child Social Preference Scale (CSPS; Coplan, Prakash, 
O’Neil, & Armer, 2004) before and three months after the presentation of the STP to learners 
in the experimental group.  
  Data analysis. All the statistical analyses were done with AMOS version 25 (AMOS 
Development Company, 2017) and SPSS version 25.0 (IBM Corporation, 2017) at the 
Statistical Consultation Services of the North-West University. 
  The validity and reliability of the psychometric scales that were used, were 
determined. To determine the validity of all the measures, exploratory and confirmatory 
factor analysis was conducted, while the reliability (internal consistency) of all the measures 
was determined by calculating Cronbach alpha coefficients.   
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 22 
 
 To determine the differences between the experimental and control groups, before the 
presentation of the STP to learners in the experimental group, independent t-tests were 
conducted.  
 Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted for the 
determination of the within-group differences for both the experimental and control groups 
over time, based on the psychometric scales that were completed by the learners, while 
paired t-tests were performed for the determination of the within-group differences for the 
abovementioned groups over time, based on the psychometric scales that were completed 
by the educators and parents or legal guardians.  
 For the determination of the differences between the experimental and control groups 
directly after (only in the case of the psychometric scales completed by the learners) as well 
as three months after the presentation of the STP to learners in the experimental group, 
repeated measures t-tests were conducted. If differences existed, its statistical and/or 
practical significances were determined.   
 Dissemination of research results. The results of the research were made 
available to the North-West Province’s Department of Education and Sport Development and 
also to all the stakeholders and participants. Various reports were formulated in order for 
each participant or stakeholder to receive feedback that is suitable to him or her and that he 
or she is able to understand well. The research may also be published in peer-reviewed 
scientific journals in the form of a research article. 
Ethics. Approval to conduct the study was obtained from COMPRES and HREC. 
Permission for the study was obtained from the Department of Education and Sport 
Development of the North-West Province and the principals of the relevant schools. Before 
the completion of the psychometric scales, the written consent of parents or legal guardians 
and educators, and in the case of learners, their written assent and one of their parents’ 
consent, were obtained.  
The researcher explained relevant matters related to the study, such as the aim of 
the study, what participation entailed, the benefits and risks of participation, and how the 
results would be used, to all the groups of participants before their participation. All the 
groups of participants were informed that participation was voluntary and that it may be 
declined and also that consent or assent to participate may be withdrawn at any time, 
without adverse consequences to anyone or having to explain the reasons for the 
withdrawal. Since all the important and relevant information were provided to participants 
before their participation, no participant was deceived.  
The learners from the school selected for further participation who have not been 
selected for the experimental or control groups received letters thanking them for their 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 23 
 
participation in the pre-testing and for their contribution to scientific knowledge. They were 
also informed that they have unfortunately not been selected and also that everyone had an 
equal chance of being selected to either the experimental or the control group and that it was 
merely by chance that they were not included. Learners who were selected for the 
experimental or control groups were informed that both a parent and an educator of each of 
them will be asked to complete psychometric scales on their social preferences and 
behaviour, respectively, before and three months after the first presentation of the STP to 
the experimental group. Learners, educators, and parents or legal guardians were also 
informed that all information provided was confidential and that only the researcher would 
have access to it.  
Learners’ anonymity was protected by representing each learner with a number. This 
was made possible through the researcher drawing up a list of all the learners that have 
participated in the pre-testing and allocating a unique number to each learner. Only the 
researcher had access to this list with names and numbers and it was kept separate from 
the completed psychometric scales. Regarding the sets of psychometric scales that learners 
received to complete during pre-testing, post-testing, and follow-up testing, a learner was 
required to put his or her name on the first page of his or her set. Only the particular 
learner’s name was on the first page of the learner’s set, and when the researcher received 
the sets, the unique number that belongs to a particular learner was put on the second page 
of the set of psychometric scales of each learner. All the first pages containing the names 
were then removed to protect the identities of the learners The same applied for the 
psychometric scales completed by the parents or legal guardians and the educators. 
Furthermore, the educators who completed the psychometric scales on the behaviour 
of the learners before and three months after the STP had to sign an agreement that they 
would not share the information they provided on a learner with anyone but the researcher. 
The mediator was also instructed not to open any sealed envelopes from the learners or 
teachers (with completed psychometric scales on learners from either their parents or 
educators in it).  
The data were captured and coded by the researcher, and when the datasets were 
handed over to the Statistical Consultation Services at the North-West University for data 
analysis, it only included the abovementioned numbers and none of the participants’ names. 
The Statistical Consultation Services selected the learners to be included in both the 
experimental and control groups scientifically and gave their numbers through to the 
researcher, per group. The researcher then matched the numbers with the names of 
learners and invited the particular learners to participate. The category into which a learner 
was classified according to the learner’s scores on the psychometric scales was not 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 24 
 
provided to the researcher and no learner’s name was thus linked to a certain category; only 
to being in the experimental or control group. 
An educational psychologist registered with the HPCSA presented the STP and also 
did debriefing after all the sessions (including the sessions where psychometric scales have 
been completed by the learners). Debriefing was also done during the sessions as needed. 
If learners needed to discuss anything regarding the psychometric scales that they have 
completed or the sessions of the STP they attended, they had the opportunity to talk to the 
psychologist or the researcher. 
The risks of the study were less than the benefits. 
After completion of the study, the completed psychometric scales will be handed over 
to the archives of the NWU (Center for Child, Youth and Family Studies, Wellington) for 
safekeeping for a period of five years, whereafter it will be destroyed. 
Research Paradigm 
According to Babbie (2013) paradigmatic assumptions forms the foundation of a 
study, inform readers about the researcher’s viewpoints and provide a framework for 
organising observations and reasoning. The researcher's paradigm and theoretical 
framework are influenced by her background as a researcher with masters degrees in both 
Research Psychology and Economics as well as her work experience as a lecturer working 
with a diversity of youngsters on a daily basis.   
Ontology may be defined as the nature of being (Bryman, 2012). The researcher's 
ontological stance is based on post-modernism and specifically critical social constructivism. 
This implies that knowledge obtained from individuals is used to build new knowledge and to 
simultaneously bring about positive change. Social constructivism refers to the development 
of knowledge (or learning) through interactions (or social processes). Furthermore, it implies 
that new knowledge are being build on existing knowledge, creating the possibility for 
existing knowledge to be interpreted in new ways. (Hyslop-Margison & Strobel, 2008). 
Critical constructivism, as a perspective of social constructivism, focuses on the role of both 
the cultural and social environments in the creation of knowledge (Milutinovic, 2015).   
Epistemology may be defined as “the science of knowing” (Babbie, 2013, p. 4). The 
epistemological viewpoint of this study is that individuals co-create knowledge. The 
methodology used is to provide the best knowledge, and in this case includes qualitative as 
well as quantitative approaches. In this study a qualitative approach was used to explore 
educators' experiences of learners in middle childhood’s social interactions and functioning 
(Section A, Phase 1 and Section B, Article 2). Qualitative research fits well into a 
postmodern worldview as it moves away from positivism, which emphasises logic, cause 
and effect. Quantitative measures provided important information to evaluate the effect of 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 25 
 
the well-being programme developed to enhance the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood (Section A, Phase 3 and Section B, Article 3). 
Possible Contributions of the Study 
 The study will be informative on the social functioning of learners in middle childhood, 
as viewed by educators. The study will also determine whether some psychometric scales 
that have been developed overseas are suitable for use in the South African context. 
Furthermore, a school-based wellbeing programme (the STP) that may enhance the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood will emerge from this study. If this programme 
succeeds in its goals, it may be trusted to enhance the social functioning of learners in 
middle childhood if used correctly, as it will then be evidence-based. This study will also 
contribute to the knowledge base of the social functioning and wellbeing of learners, 
especially in middle childhood. It is likely that the three articles (three phases) that emanated 
from this study will be published in accredited scientific journals, which will provide 
information to researchers working on the same themes and/or in the same context. 
Furthermore, Article 1 was presented as a poster at the Africa Positive Psychology 
Conference held at the North-West University during April 2018.   
Outline of the Research Report 
Section A included an introduction to the study, the theoretical paradigm used for the 
study, the problem statement and rationale for the study, the aim and objectives of the study, 
the hypotheses set for the study, and the research methodology used in the three phases of 
the study.   
In Section B, three research articles, each prepared according to the author 
guidelines of the scientific journal chosen for the particular article, will be presented, namely:  
• Article 1: Exploring educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in 
middle childhood (written for submission to the South African Journal of 
Education). 
• Article 2: The development of the Social Treasures Programme to enhance the 
social functioning of learners in middle childhood (written for submission to Acta 
Academica).  
• Article 3: An evaluation of the effect of the Social Treasures Programme aimed at 
enhancing the social functioning of learners in middle childhood (written for 
submission to the Journal of Psychology in Africa).  
Section C includes a summary of the study, as well as a complete list of references. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 26 
 
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SECTION B 
 
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 33 
 
Article 1 
 
Exploring educators’ experiences of the social functioning of 
learners in middle childhood 
 
Soretha Beets1*, Izanette Van Schalkwyk1 & Doret K Kirsten2 
1Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, COMPRES, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa 
2 School of Psychosocial Education, COMBER, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa 
 
*Corresponding author email: soretha.beets@gmail.com 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 34 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 35 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 36 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 37 
 
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Van Zyl R (ed.) 1994. Recent advances in classroom research. New York: McGraw-Hill. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 38 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 39 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 40 
 
Abstract 
This research explored educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood in a South African context. Educators are important socialisation agents for 
learners in middle childhood, and it was reasoned that they could offer valuable information 
to identify those key social skills and competencies that learners in this life phase need in 
order to function optimally. A qualitative approach and an exploratory design were used. 
Twenty-nine educators were purposefully selected as participants from four school districts 
in a particular area in the North-West Province. Data were collected via four focus group 
interviews, with each focus group interview including the educators of one school per district. 
Thematic analysis of the data revealed that context and culture have a strong influence on 
social functioning, that both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour are displayed by 
learners in middle childhood in interaction with others, and that various social skills need to 
be intentionally developed and strengthened. It was thus recommended that learners in 
middle childhood should be supported to acquire certain social skills, for example, 
communication and listening, conflict management, and problem solving to improve their 
social functioning.  
 
Keywords: Educators; learners; learning environment; middle childhood, positive 
psychology; social functioning; social skills, wellbeing 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 41 
 
Introduction  
Educators and scientists increasingly acknowledge the importance of promoting social-
emotional learning and intelligence in the learning environment, concurrent with traditional 
cognitive skills (Masten, 2015). Competence and mastery of many key developmental tasks 
in middle childhood, for example, relate to both academic and social success. In this sense, 
effective schools advocate individual cognitive and social skills that encourage learning and 
positive development (Doll, Le Clair & Kurien, 2009). 
Social functioning is used as an umbrella term for this study, referring to a continuum 
of the processes indicating positive social functioning directed by pro-social behaviour in 
contrast to negative social functioning indicating at-risk behaviour or threats to social 
functioning. To determine whether the social functioning of learners is age-appropriate, 
developmental theories are valuable. 
 Erikson’s psychosocial theory is important as it explains the tasks or challenges 
children in middle childhood face and need to manage (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016) to acquire 
the needed social skills. Children in middle childhood (six years up to adolescence) are in 
the “industry versus inferiority” stage (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). During this stage, children 
are developing more and more abilities and skills and are preoccupied with gaining 
proficiency, competence, and mastery in the tasks they receive from both educators and 
parents (Erikson, cited by Hook, 2013). Children in middle childhood’s social relationships 
are now increasingly expanded to peers, mentors, and educators (Donald, Lazarus & 
Moolla, 2014). Learners’ competence in and mastery of social skills are influenced by the 
context within which they grow up.  
 Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory is of great value when considering the nature 
of this study, since it emphasises important contextual factors with reference to positive 
youth development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). According to this theory, the 
developing child is part of a sequence of complex as well as interactive systems including 
the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). Bronfenbrenner 
developed the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model. This model is now central to 
his theory (Bronfenbrenner, cited by Donald et al., 2014; Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000) 
and views proximal processes (continuing interaction between the learner and his or her 
immediate environment) as the primary mechanism for development (Bronfenbrenner & 
Morris, 2006). A learner’s interactions within a particular context, for example, home or 
school, will shape his or her social wellbeing to a great extent. 
Keyes’ (1998) model of social wellbeing explains the interaction between an 
individual and his or her community by providing a perspective on the functioning of 
individuals in their social world and the way in which they judge the general functioning of 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 42 
 
the society. According to this model, social wellbeing is an integral part of an individual’s 
mental health and encompasses social acceptance, social coherence, social actualisation, 
social contribution, and social integration (Du Toit, Wissing & Khumalo, 2014; Keyes, 1998). 
For learners to improve their psychological functioning and social wellbeing and thus grow in 
the abovementioned domains, they need sound social skills.  
Beyond the family, the learning (school) environment is the most organised system in 
which most children around the world spend most of their time (Masten, 2015). Schools offer 
opportunities for relationships with adults and peers beyond the family. According to 
Samanci (2010), primary schools have the important aim, amongst others, of assisting 
learners in adapting to a healthy social life. Evidently, educators can be a source of support 
to learners and facilitate positive relational experiences. This is important in the sense that, 
as Geldenhuys (2016) states, healthy social functioning is essential for both positive school 
performance and overall wellbeing. Furthermore, Ryff (2014) claims that relational health is 
embedded in those daily interactions and connections that offer opportunities for wellbeing. 
Kitching, Roos and Ferreira (2012) argue that healthy relational functioning is vital to positive 
human development. In other words, daily interaction or those ordinary activities that add to, 
for example, children in middle childhood’s social functioning is central to processes of 
positive development.  
Educators are in a good position to evaluate the social functioning of learners as they 
spend a lot of time with them and are well informed about their developmental phases and 
goals. Hence, the aim of this study was to explore educators’ experiences of the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood in order to determine the social skills that these 
learners need to enhance their social functioning.   
 
Methodology 
A qualitative approach employing an exploratory design was used for this study.  
 
Participants and Setting  
The final number of participating schools (n = 4) was determined with cluster sampling, 
based on the number of public primary schools in a particular area in the North-West 
province as well as the sub-areas (districts) into which schools in the area are divided. Only 
schools with at least 400 learners were considered for participation as it is preferable to 
include the highest possible number of participants. Purposive sampling was applied for the 
selection of participants (educators; n = 29), from the abovementioned four schools. The 
educators participating had to meet inclusion criteria, for example, having two years of 
experience in presenting classes to learners aged 10 to 12 years (in grades five and six) in 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 43 
 
order to be able to provide valuable information; and being able to understand and speak 
English or Afrikaans as these are the languages that the researcher is able to understand 
and speak.  
The research was conducted at the schools that participated. The schools are 
situated in a rural area known for its mining activities. Learners from these schools are from 
a diversity of races, cultures, languages, and socio-economic circumstances, with two of the 
schools being no-fee schools situated in informal settlements and the other two schools 
being in more advantaged suburbs of the selected urban area.  
 
Data Collection 
Four focus group interviews, one per school in each particular sub-area, were conducted. 
Each focus group consisted of six to 10 participants. After an explanation of the concept of 
social functioning was provided, open-ended questions such as: “How do you experience the 
social functioning of learners aged 10 to 12 years old in the classroom?”; “Tell me about any 
positive experiences that you have had with learners in middle childhood regarding their 
social functioning in your career up to date”; “Tell me about any negative experiences that 
you have had with learners in middle childhood regarding their social functioning in your 
career up to date”; and “How, do you think, can negative experiences be prevented or 
lessened, with specific reference to the social skills and competencies that learners in middle 
childhood need in order to manage social situations more effectively in future?” were asked.  
The focus groups were audio-recorded with the participants’ permission and 
supplemented by the researcher’s field and reflection notes. 
 
Data Analysis 
Thematic content analysis was used to analyse the verbatim-transcribed data according to 
the steps indicated by Clarke and Braun (2013), following an inductive approach. To ensure 
the trustworthiness of the data, attention was paid to credibility, transferability, dependability, 
and confirmability (Bryman, 2012). To ensure credibility, member checking was applied. This 
involves the provision of feedback on the findings to participants to determine whether the 
researchers’ views were correct (Boeije, 2010). Member checking was done by having 
conversations on the findings of the study with some of the educators who participated in the 
focus groups at the various schools. Furthermore, credibility was ensured by the thematic 
content analysis being done individually by both the researcher and a co-coder, whereafter 
the coding was compared and verified. Transferability was facilitated by analysing the results 
of studies similar to this one, by determining theoretical boundaries from these studies, and 
by allowing this to guide data collection (Schurink, Fouché & De Vos, 2011). Dependability 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 44 
 
was ensured by documenting the details of all the activities that happened in this study 
thoroughly and throughout (Boeije, 2010; Schurink et al., 2011). Lastly, confirmability was 
accomplished by determining whether the results of the current study are comparable to 
those of similar studies (Schurink et al., 2011). 
 
Procedure and Ethical Considerations 
The research proposal was approved by the research focus area, Community Psychosocial 
Research (COMPRES) of the Faculty of Health Sciences at the North-West University 
(NWU), whereafter ethical approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Health 
Research Ethics Committee (HREC) of the NWU (Ethics Approval Number: NWU-00082-15-
A1). Written permission to conduct the study was obtained from the North-West Province’s 
Department of Education and Sport Development and the school principals of the 
participating schools. The ethical principles as required by the HREC guided the research 
process: written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection, participants had the 
freedom to withdraw at any time, no harm was foreseen, and confidentiality and partial 
anonymity were ensured by explaining the rules of focus groups as well as its importance in 
protecting participants against harm to everyone involved. The risk level of the participants 
was labelled as low, and measures to minimise risk were put in place. 
 
Findings and Discussion 
The findings entail three main themes and four sub-themes that are discussed next. 
 
Theme 1: Context and culture 
Educators agreed that the context and culture of learners in middle childhood play an 
important role in their acquisition and use of social skills. 
 
Sub-theme 1.1: Contextual disadvantages and advantages (socio-economic factors) 
Educators spoke about the differences among learners in the same school or within the 
same sub-area who come from either rather privileged socio-economic circumstances or 
from economically deprived conditions. These socio-economic inequalities were expressed 
in the following way: 
“We sit here with children whom we provide with food, you know, they are poor, and 
then we also have some of the richest children in town.” (School 1) 
Educators referred to learners’ perceptions of hopelessness when coming from less 
privileged backgrounds and described it in terms of poor motivation to achieve at school and 
to obtain future success. This lack of commitment and responsibility was further qualified as 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 45 
 
learners’ tendency towards external incentives for motivation, such as financial rewards. 
These learners thus value material possessions, probably because they are more aware of 
their lower-order needs, for example food; in contrast to taking part in opportunities aimed at 
reaching their full potential and thus self-actualisation (Maslow, cited by Weiten, 2016). This 
tendency is illustrated by the following quotes:  
“If you can just say, ‘Now, we are going to compete for this and then you are going to 
be awarded a medal’, they will say, ‘Agh, what can I do with a medal? … It does not 
mean anything. Just a medal.’ For them to compete for a medal, it’s a disgrace … 
They will, money will do,…, it will do the thing.” (School 4) 
“They don’t dream … maybe seeing that the others, who are through their grade 12, 
né …They are there at home sitting doing nothing …Then it demotivates them.” 
(School 4) 
This finding indicates the complexity of socio-economic status, educational achievement, 
and social processes. Louw and Louw (2014) assert that socio-economic status may have 
an important impact on educational achievement as it influences the atmosphere in the 
family, the neighbourhood of the family, and the quality of the schooling. Marais (2016) 
mentions that learners in overcrowded classrooms participate poorly in classroom activities 
because of learners’ lack of motivation and limited focus in the learning environment due to 
the disruptive behaviour of fellow learners. Furthermore, in a study at 12 secondary schools 
in four provinces of South Africa, Prinsloo (2007) found that many learners display 
irresponsible behaviour and carelessness towards others and themselves, and that they lack 
long-term vision for their lives.  
Few negative factors were mentioned by participants regarding learners in middle 
childhood who come from an advantaged background. However, it may be that these 
learners’ exposure to technology may hold negative consequences, for example, electronic 
bullying and spending much time being busy in an unproductive way, which may lower their 
motivation to prioritise their academic work and other healthy activities. Furthermore, 
learners’ unhealthy usage of technology may have a negative impact on their social 
functioning as such activities decrease direct contact with others and thus the development 
of the skills and competencies needed for healthy interaction.   
It seems that context and socio-economic status is an important factor for learners in 
middle childhood’s social functioning and thus their conduct towards others.  
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 46 
 
Sub-theme 1.2: Home and school influences 
According to the educators, many learners in this community are not part of stable home 
environments and are raised by, for example, a grandparent, a single mother, or a sibling, as 
indicated by the following quote:  
“The, the children in most instances are not staying in a very stable, form of family … 
you will find it is either they are being raised by the grandmothers or maybe their 
mother without a father, or a sister.” (School 4) 
Educators mentioned that some learners are emotionally deprived (experience a lack of love 
and attention) and exposed to incompetent parenting practices and unhealthy role-models. 
The consequences of these behaviours are then also displayed by learners in middle 
childhood within the school context. For example, some learners find it challenging to accept 
instructions and discipline from educators at school as they seem to be in control at their 
homes; they tend to be easily angered, argumentative, manipulative, and blame others for 
their mistakes as a result of a lack of discipline and/or the role models they are exposed to. 
In contrast, some learners have more suitable and positive circumstances at home. These 
learners tend to be well-mannered and educators perceive them as not giving any problems. 
The above can be illustrated by the following quotes:   
“90 percent depends on the circumstances at home. What happens at home, they 
apply at school, you know, if he is the, if he can play boss at home, then he will also 
play the boss here, you know.” (School 1) 
“There are kids who are having, you know, good manners, who are having a sound 
social, you know, upbringing.” (School 3) 
Educators emphasised the circumstances at the home environment as a key factor 
influencing the acquisition of social skills for learners in primary school. This particularly 
refers to the role of the family providing support, for example: parents modelling suitable 
behaviour to their children, the use of positive communication at home, parents having 
democratic attitudes regarding discipline, and parents showing unconditional acceptance of 
their child(ren). This finding resonates with Samanci (2010) who found that educators 
perceived the social functioning (development of social skills) of learners in middle childhood 
as mainly influenced by their primary agents of socialisation, namely their parents. De Witt 
and Lessing (2011) concur that educators mainly attribute learners’ problem behaviour to the 
parents. Louw and Louw (2014) state that an adult’s guidance is crucial to direct a child’s 
disregard for the wishes of the adult through whining or tantrums. 
All educators spoke about acting as “parents” for the learners mainly because: i) 
many parents are uninvolved in their children’s lives, and ii) there is an increasing number of 
primary school learners in South Africa who are the heads of their households. Educators 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 47 
 
also mentioned that they have to teach learners good manners in many instances. The 
above can be evidenced by the following quotes: 
“They sometimes see you as their, another mother or what, they will be so close to 
you. They will tell you almost everything. Mmm-hmm, and every time they would 
want to be next to you.” (School 4) 
 “We must teach good manners more than the academic subject. That’s the 
problem.” (School 1) 
Schoeman (2015) states that it is expected from educators in South Africa, apart from their 
educational role, to also provide psycho-social support to learners, especially in terms of 
caring and nurturing. Furthermore, according to Jefferis and Theron (2017), learners 
associate caring educators with positive parenting. 
In a South African study done by Prinsloo (2007), school principals pointed out some 
parents’ lack of involvement with regard to both their child’s learning process and other 
school activities. In a study done on primary school learners in the Free State province of 
South Africa, Leefon, Jacobs, Le Roux and De Wet (2013) indicated parents’ limited interest 
in learners’ school performance. Prinsloo (2007) asserts that educators need to teach good 
manners to some learners who are, for example, easily angered, argumentative, 
manipulative, and blaming of others. Evidently, educators can influence learners’ lives in 
socially significant and profound ways (Johnson, 2008). 
Learners see their schools as safe environments, and many will stay at school long 
after school hours due to this perception. Beattie, Brown and Cass (2015) indicate that 
schools are central in the lives of many learners. Furthermore, Masten (2015) states that 
schools function as “a symbol of normal life” (p. 239) and may, to a limited extent, 
compensate for deprivation at learners’ homes through the provision of attachment 
relationships, adult guidance, extra nutrition, and access to and monitoring of health care.  
The influence of schools and especially the positive role of educators are vital for the 
healthy social functioning of learners in middle childhood. Many times, these influences 
exceed the educators’ educational role, with particular reference to duties that are more of a 
social nature in order for learners to attain those skills needed at a developmentally 
appropriate social level. 
 
Sub-theme 1.3: Cultural values 
This sub-theme shows that the cultural values of the four schools included in the study differ. 
Some schools have a culture that is of a Western (individualistic) nature with a focus on 
autonomy (independence), while others have a collectivistic (interdependent) culture with the 
principle of “Ubuntu” featuring strongly. Sometimes, when learners representing various 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 48 
 
cultures are in the same school, all of these cultures may feature to an extent. The principle 
of Ubuntu is evidenced in the following quote:  
“Now you realise that now in the group of this learners, they will realise that this one, 
he’s better than the rest of us. … And then every time they will give that particular 
learner a support and even assist. They can even take their boots or their clothes for 
that particular learner.” (School 4) 
According to Gresham (2016), schools are challenged to teach learners from various 
language and ethnic backgrounds with different behaviour styles, beliefs, and attitudes.  
Even though some values that determine social functioning are universal across 
cultures, acceptable social functioning may also be culturally bound. Learners enrolled in 
schools representing various cultures may thus get confused as to what is expected of them 
in terms of acceptable social behaviour, especially when they are taught by educators from a 
different culture, with this impacting negatively on their acquisition of appropriate social skills.  
  
Sub-theme 1.4: Parenting styles and disciplinary practices 
In general, educators spoke about the variation in the ways parents discipline their children 
and how there is no consensus between parents and teachers on how to discipline the 
children (as also indicated in sub-theme 1.2). For example, some parents have few rules for 
their children and leave the task of discipline mostly to the educators:  
“And then you will also have to teach them manners, ‘Don’t you say please?’, ‘Don’t 
you say thank you?’ and ‘How does one ask?’, you know, that question you must ask 
all the time.” (School 2) 
Other parents are offended by educators disciplining their children and sometimes stand up 
against this in order to win the favour of their children: 
“And parents abuse that situation, ‘Right, now I will act on behalf of my child and for 
him, must show him’, to give attention to the child, to fight against the teacher 
because the child is angry now because the teacher reprimanded him.” (School 2) 
 Other parents are co-operating with the educators when it comes to discipline. 
“They’ll even bring the child to school if the child is always bunking.” (School 4) 
“Teachers you must punish these guys, this child.” (School 4) 
These findings are consistent with those of De Witt and Lessing (2011) who indicate that 
educators in the South African context may not receive sufficient support from parents when 
it comes to disciplining or correcting learners towards pro-social behaviour. The educators 
participating in the research of Leefon et al. (2013) were of the opinion that parents 
undermined their authority.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 49 
 
Disciplining learners may be problematic for educators, as the parenting style and 
disciplinary practices of parents differ from the situation at school. It is essential for learners 
in middle childhood to be socially competent, and this sub-theme shows that differences in 
the school and home environment (regarding disciplinary practices) could have a negative 
impact on learners’ social development (compare with sub-theme 1.2).   
The first theme thus reveals that educators view matters related to context and 
culture as key in the social functioning of learners in middle childhood.  
 
Theme 2: “Quality of connecting” in terms of behaviour 
“Quality of connecting” refers to the nature of learners’ relationships and how these 
relationships influence their behaviour. All educators indicated that learners display both 
appropriate and inappropriate behaviour which are mainly influenced by what they learn in 
the context of their home environment. Educators referred to appropriate behaviour as, for 
example, being kind, helpful, and respectful towards others, commenting nicely, and 
accepting discipline. The following verbatim quote provides an example of appropriate 
behaviour:  
“And if they do well in their things, they, there are some of them who will comment 
nicely.” (School 2) 
Inappropriate behaviour includes, for example, being nasty, being disruptive, being 
argumentative and displaying aggressive behaviour, stealing, and lying. The following 
verbatim quotes provide examples of inappropriate behaviour: 
“Yes, and I think that specific children can’t accept a “no” … They will carry on and on 
and on. … And they will argue with you about small things, for example, too much 
homework and will just carry on and on until you lose your temper. … Then they will 
get so angry. (School 1) 
 “Because sometimes they steal cell phones or they open teacher’s bags and take 
something.” (School 3) 
In learners’ relationships with others, both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour thus 
occur. 
The manifestation of inappropriate learner behaviour is a big challenge in South 
African schools (Van Rooyen, 2014; De Witt & Lessing, 2011). An increase in violent 
behaviour within this country’s public schools is linked to overcrowded classrooms, problems 
with discipline, bullying, fighting, screaming, and vandalism (Marais, 2016; Van Rooyen, 
2014). An educator who participated in Marais’ (2016) study referred to learners’ 
disrespectful behaviour as evidenced by them laughing at her when she tried to discipline 
them. Leefon et al. (2013) stated that in spite of most South African schools employing a 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 50 
 
code of conduct, it does not necessarily have the desired effect. Leefon et al. (2013) 
mentioned learners’ destructive behaviour towards fellow learners and also towards 
educators who were often the victims of theft and vandalism. Leefon (2012) found that other 
undesirable behaviour displayed by learners includes talking non-stop in class and not 
completing school work, fighting, displaying aggressive and arrogant behaviour, lying, using  
foul language, and back-chatting the educator when reprimanded.  
According to the participants, inappropriate behaviour also occurs due to the 
influences of negative peer pressure, exposure to unsuitable or age-inappropriate media as 
well as popular role models, and moral confusion, as illustrated by the following: 
 “And the children are really very stuck in group pressure … they as individuals they 
are actually wonderful children and almost everyone. … But together.” (School 2) 
“The social media have got the negative and positive impact on how the children 
behave.” (School 3) 
“Also reading magazines or their role models. So they like to be like them.” (School 
4) 
“The, they will think that, “why is this one loved by the teacher so much?” It means 
they have a relationship, that’s how their mind talk. It means the principal cannot 
send Elizabeth. If the principal sends Elizabeth, it means the principal has got an 
affair. … Even the teachers, if I’ve been close to the principal, then the principal is … 
my boyfriend.” (School 3) 
Educators in this study mentioned that bullying is frequently an imitation of the behaviour of 
role models, for example, parents or family members from dysfunctional homes. Van 
Rooyen (2014) found that bullying is the result of individuals (learners, educators, and 
parents) wanting to exercise power over others. She also indicates that bullying takes place 
by means of exclusions in relationships (whether it is relationships between learners or 
relationship between a learner and teacher) and continues as a result of fear experienced by 
the target.   
The media have an influence on children’s behaviour and beliefs, for example, 
television may portray adults and parents in a sense that authority structures are broken 
down, leading to problems with the socialising of children. The media may also provide 
children with questionable ideas on drugs, sexual attitudes, as well as violence and 
aggression (Louw & Louw, 2014).  
According to the educators, positive behaviour of learners in middle childhood does 
not occur as frequently as negative behaviour at the schools. However, some learners do 
display sound behaviour that serves as an example for their fellow learners.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 51 
 
The second theme reveals that educators spoke more about inappropriate behaviour 
displayed by the learners in middle childhood than appropriate behaviour, in both 
advantaged and disadvantaged contexts. In line with this, learners’ inappropriate behaviour 
is apparently influenced by various external factors and development-related challenges. 
Inappropriate behaviour displayed at school in daily activities is associated with poor social 
functioning and a lack of emotional competence. Conversely, appropriate behaviour is 
strengthened by being exposed to good examples from adults as well as fellow learners and 
is viewed as an indicator of sound social functioning and emotional competence.  
 
Theme 3: Social skills to be strengthened 
Educators suggested that the following social skills need to be strengthened and developed 
amongst learners in middle childhood in order to protect and improve their social functioning: 
self-regulation, problem solving, conflict management, assertiveness, resilient coping, and 
communication and listening. Educators also underlined psychological competence 
regarding self-esteem, values, positive relationships, healthy boundaries, and responsibility. 
Some prominent responses were:  
“The other skill that I think it is important and could help a lot, is that skill, in terms of 
conflict situation … trying to bring peace without judging the other one, but just to 
calm the situation.” (School 3) 
“Yes, I think as teachers as well, we should teach them to be resilient and have self-
worth” (School 3) 
“We should be able to lead them in order for them to know what is correct.” (School 
1) 
  “There’s the boundaries. Stick to it.” (School 1) 
The above findings are in line with various international researchers, amongst these, 
January, Casey and Paulson (2011), who evaluated various articles regarding programmes 
with the aim of improving social skills. They explained that many of the programmes offer 
conflict management, problem solving, emotional regulation skills, an awareness of the 
emotions of others, and enhancement of positive peer relationships. In support Craig, 
Brown, Upright and DeRosier (2016), who did a study on elementary school learners in the 
United States of America, stated that social skills training programmes may be effective in 
improving the social skills and behaviour of learners and should include problem solving, 
decision making, communication, self-regulation, and the making and keeping of friends. 
Concurrently, the ‘Stop and Think’ social skills programme, as developed by Knoff in 2001, 
includes various skills, namely listening, interpersonal skills, problem solving, and conflict 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 52 
 
resolution skills, and were used for younger primary school learners (McDaniel, Bruhn & 
Troughton, 2016).  
In comparison to numerous international studies on social skills programmes for 
learners, there is a scarcity of evidence-based South African studies. A South African study 
relevant to this study is that of De Villiers and Van den Berg (2012) which entails a positive 
psychology programme with the goal of increasing resilience and wellbeing in 12-year-olds. 
The programme included, for example, the development and maintenance of self-esteem; 
the identification, expression, and management of emotions in the self and others; conflict 
management (including assertiveness); and communication.  
The third theme reveals the skills and competencies to be strengthened amongst 
learners in middle childhood to enhance their social functioning and, ultimately, their 
wellbeing.  
The findings of this qualitative study, presented as three main themes, revealed that 
the social functioning of learners in middle childhood should be understood within the 
framework of context and culture, that both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour are 
displayed by learners in middle childhood in interaction with others, and that various social 
skills and competencies need to be developed and strengthened intentionally.   
 
Recommendation and Limitations 
Despite focus group interviews going well and data saturation being reached, the limitations 
of the study were that some educators in the focus group interviews did not participate as 
actively as hoped (perhaps as a result of them not being comfortable to do so). Additionally, 
the focus group interviews were conducted after school (which might have led to staff being 
tired and in a hurry). It is thus recommended that a preparation sheet or a written 
questionnaire including all the main questions to be asked during the focus group interviews 
be given to participants about a week beforehand with a request to complete and submit it 
after the completion of the focus group interviews. Some semi-structured personal interviews 
with educators as well as individuals skilled in the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood, may also have been beneficial as an additional means of gathering in-depth data.  
 
Conclusion  
The aim of this study was to explore educators’ experiences of the social functioning of 
learners in middle childhood in a particular South African community. Educators emphasised 
factors related to context and culture as central to the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood. The presence or absence of social competencies in learners in middle childhood 
is closely linked to the interaction of those particular systems referred to by Bronfenbrenner 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 53 
 
as the micro- and meso-levels. Within the South African context, it seems that learners in 
middle childhood are exposed to much vulnerability, and support and guidance from their 
schools and educators towards positive social functioning is vital. Educators’ efforts to better 
learners in middle childhood’s pro-social behaviour may be challenged by the practices of 
parents due to different cultures and parenting styles. Being exposed to different cultures in 
the home and learning environment should be clarified for learners in middle childhood, 
since social (interactional) expectations are not necessarily similar in various (cultural) 
contexts. 
 For educators, healthy social functioning of learners in middle childhood is associated 
with a clear distinction between appropriate and inappropriate interacting behaviour. In order 
to nurture the social functioning of these learners, appropriate behaviour should be 
strengthened and inappropriate behaviour should be amended in accordance with the 
school’s code of conduct towards pro-social behaviour.  
As it appears that some educators may be prejudiced towards parents and learners 
living in disadvantaged circumstances, it is recommended that information on the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood should also be obtained from other sources, for 
example, educational psychologists. Furthermore, it is recommended that a programme that 
is applicable to the South African context be designed and developed to intentionally 
strengthen the social functioning of learners in middle childhood. This programme should not 
be seen as a ‘nice to have’ but rather as a necessity, because it cannot be assumed that 
learners are socially competent. Such a programme will be important since learners in 
middle childhood are part of those representing the future of South Africa and the mastering 
of social skills and competencies is integral to a prosperous future. This study is of great 
value as, according to the knowledge of the researchers, it is the first that has been done on 
this particular topic within the theoretical framework of positive psychology in the South 
African context.  
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 54 
 
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Article 2 
 
The development of the Social Treasures Programme to enhance 
the social functioning of learners in middle childhood 
 
Soretha Beets1*, Izanette Van Schalkwyk1 & Doret Karen Kirsten2 
1Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, COMPRES, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa, +27 0832254454, soretha.beets@gmail.com 
(Corresponding author) 
2Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, COMPRES, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa, +27 0723677739, 20977026@nwu.ac.za 
3School of Psychosocial Education, COMBER, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa, +27 0182994766, doret.kirsten@nwu.ac.za 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 58 
 
Author Guidelines – Acta Academica 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 59 
 
Abstract 
The social functioning of learners in middle childhood is vital to their overall wellbeing. Since 
the mere prevention or addressing of risks in the South African context is not sufficient for 
healthy interaction, the intentional protection and promotion of learners’ social functioning in 
this vulnerable life phase is needed. The aim of this study was to develop a school-based 
wellbeing programme called the Social Treasures Programme (STP) for learners in middle 
childhood to enhance their social functioning towards better wellbeing. The skills and 
competencies needed for inclusion in the programme were identified by means of a literature 
review and four focus groups with educators from four sub-areas in an area in the North-
West Province of South Africa. The Social Treasures Programme consists of eight sessions 
covering the following aspects: self-esteem and gratitude, self-regulation and goal setting, 
values and relationships, communication and listening, conflict management, emotional 
competence, and resilient coping. 
 
Keywords: Learners, middle childhood, programme development, social functioning, 
wellbeing 
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 60 
 
1. Introduction  
In a study by Beets, Van Schalkwyk and Kirsten (see Section B, Article 1) where focus group 
interviews were conducted with educators on the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood in a selected area of the North-West Province of South Africa, it was 
recommended that a programme aimed at the intentional enhancement of particular social 
skills and competencies should be developed. Consistent with this thinking, Luiselli et al. 
(2005) state that it is unlikely that learners will develop positive social skills without direction 
and assistance. 
A social skills programme named the Social Treasures Programme (STP) was thus 
developed by the above-mentioned authors for the school context. School communities are 
viewed as important socialisation contexts (Cemalcilar, 2010) as they offer day-by-day social 
interactions that are likely to promote competence and positive development. Furthermore, 
as indicated by Suldo et al. (2015), the school context may develop and strengthen 
wellbeing as school connectedness and strong peer relationships are positively related to 
learners’ subjective wellbeing or happiness. A programme presented at a school may also 
reach more learners (Cemalcilar, 2010).  
The benefits of interventions or programmes are increased if learners are exposed to 
them during times when there are transitions in their development (January et al., 2011), 
such as in middle childhood. Middle childhood is also a favourable time for the identification 
of adjustable factors that may have an association with maladjustment or wellbeing. 
Therefore, this life phase is a favourable time for the implementation of programmes aimed 
at the encouraging of competence and the hindering of problems that may emerge in 
adolescence (Schonert-Reichl et al., 2013). 
According to Ungar et al. (2014), school-based programmes may be successful if 
they either include a cultural component or are sensitive to learners’ contextual differences, 
for example, economic status, access to certain services and support, and the community’s 
size. Successful programmes may then, in turn, change behavioural patterns by changing 
the social ecology of learners (Ungar et al., 2014). The conceptual background of the STP is 
discussed next. 
 
2. Conceptual background 
 
2.1. A Positive Psychology Perspective 
Positive psychology, with its focus on “what is going well” and how wellbeing can be 
increased (Roffey, 2012: 12), was used as a theoretical framework for the development of 
the STP as this programme aims to protect and promote ‘ordinary’ learners’ social 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 61 
 
functioning. In other words, the STP is aimed at all learners and not only at those struggling 
with disorders or other challenges.  
 
2.2. A Developmental Perspective  
Learners in middle childhood (6 years up to adolescence) are in Erikson’s psychosocial 
developmental stage of ‘Industry vs Inferiority’ (Erikson, 1965, 1968, 1982). They face the 
challenges of working with others and learning basic skills (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016), such 
as reading, writing, arithmetic, and social interaction. The development of competence is 
dependent on the social context which provides opportunities for developing intrapersonal 
outcomes as well as defining suitable parameters for accomplishments. Competence can 
thus be viewed in the light of context-specific effectiveness and a competent learner will 
achieve the goals that he or she values and that others sanction. Furthermore, the pursuit of 
personal goals leads to positive developmental outcomes as well as social integration for the 
particular learner (Wentzel, 2014). 
 
2.3. An Eco-Systemic Contextual Perspective 
Sensitivity towards context is important – especially in a country like South Africa which is 
rather diverse with its citizens representing various races and with 11 official languages 
being acknowledged. Furthermore, South Africa has a high incidence of socio-economic 
inequality, poverty, crime, and violence. Learners’ social contexts play an important role in 
their development (Donald et al., 2014) and it was needed to take an ecological approach to 
acknowledge the many interacting factors for the development of the STP. Bronfenbrenner’s 
bio-ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979, 1986), puts the developing child 
in the middle of a sequence of complex and interactive systems (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016), 
and views youngsters as taking their characteristics with them to the settings in which they 
interact and develop. Therefore, the STP was developed specifically for learners in South 
Africa. 
 
2.4. A Social-Constructivist Perspective 
Social constructivism acknowledges the role of social interaction (family and community) 
and, consequently, culture in child development (Mertens, 2005). Vygotsky (1978), in his 
socio-cultural theory, emphasised learners’ thinking being influenced by their socio-cultural 
context as societies aim to enable them to obtain the needed cultural skills and values (Kail 
& Cavanaugh, 2016). All aspects of children’s development must thus be viewed in the 
context of their culture (Louw et al., 2014), and this was taken into consideration in the 
development of the STP. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 62 
 
In summary, the conceptual framework for the STP comprises the theoretical 
framework of positive psychology and emphasises the importance of life phase as well as 
the role of context and culture. The STP, which is a school-based wellbeing programme, is 
discussed next. 
 
3. The Social Treasures Programme (STP) 
 
3.1 Aim of the STP 
The aim of the STP is to enhance the social functioning and, ultimately, the wellbeing of 
learners in middle childhood in the South African context through intentionally strengthening 
appropriate or pro-social behaviour and adapting or redirecting inappropriate behaviour.  
 
3.2 Development of the STP 
A thematic content analysis of the data from focus group interviews that explored educators’ 
experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle childhood (aged 10 to 12 years 
and in grades five and six) indicated, amongst others, that a social skills wellbeing 
programme needed to be developed, and that certain skills and competencies needed to be 
included in this programme to ensure that appropriate behaviour is developed and 
strengthened and inappropriate behaviour is amended (see Section B, Article1). Literature 
reviews to supplement the above were conducted. The steps for doing the above were as 
follows: 
• Keywords were developed for a literature search.  
• Each keyword was thoroughly searched on all the available databases. Books, articles, 
dissertations, theses, and all other available material were used in the literature study. 
• The information obtained from the above was summarised. 
• The results of the thematic content analysis (see Section B, Article 2) were used to inform 
the researcher on educators’ experiences of the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood. 
• The information from the literature study and the thematic content analysis were 
integrated and the information included under each skill or competency, were those that 
the researcher deemed to be the most important to know for children aged 10 to 12 years 
old. 
• Academics in the field of psychology (with knowledge on programme development and/or 
social functioning and/or middle childhood) as well as a registered educational 
psychologist working with children in middle childhood were asked to evaluate the STP. 
Face and content validity were of importance. While face validity refers to appearance, 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 63 
 
content validity refers to the inclusion of the correct content or all the relevant 
components (Bless, Higson-Smith, & Sithole, 2013). The evaluators thus had to ensure 
that the STP was valid for its purpose, and that it included the appropriate components 
and content. Furthermore, the evaluators assisted in determining whether the STP would 
be suitable for the particular age group in terms of the length of the sessions, the duration 
of the programme, and the level of the content.   
 
3.3 Information about the STP 
The STP is a social wellbeing programme developed for learners aged 10 to 12 years. 
Furthermore, as indicated above, the STP was written for all learners and not particularly for 
those with disorders and other challenges. According to Van Vugt et al. (2013), it is 
beneficial when the composition of a group, for the purpose of a social skills programme, is 
diverse, as it will then be impossible for learners to strengthen one another’s problematic 
behaviour and will rather lead to them learning from one another. 
The STP consists of eight sessions. Except for the introductory session that will 
orientate the learners towards the programme and establish group rules, each session 
centres around a key theme(s) identified in literature reviews on social skills programmes as 
well as a thematic content analysis of the experiences of educators regarding the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood (see Section B, Article 1). The themes of the 
sessions include: self-esteem and gratitude, self-regulation and goal setting, values and 
relationships, communication and listening, conflict management, emotional competence, 
and resilient coping. Each session, except for the first one, has a specific logical structure as 
indicated in Figure 1 below. 
 
Figure 1: Structure of sessions 
 
1. Special greeting (Hello) 
2. Recap of previous session and introduction to current session 
3. Ice-breaker 
4. Teaching 
5. Class activity or activities 
6. Tools to be added to the treasure chest 
7. Participant feedback 
8. Social experiment (Home activity) 
9. Special greeting (Good-bye) 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 64 
 
The special greetings should include talking and/or singing as well as movement 
and/or dancing that happen simultaneously. The special greetings and its development will 
be discussed further under Session 1 below. The recap of the previous session and 
introduction to the current session should be very short. Regarding the recap of the previous 
session, only the most important information or lessons learnt should be covered. Feedback 
on the social experiment provided in the previous session should also be included here. In 
the introduction to the current session, the facilitator should only indicate what the session is 
about and what will be covered. The ice-breaker, teaching, class activity, and social 
experiment will be discussed per session, from session 2 to session 8, below. A treasure 
chest (Smith, 2006) and tools to be added to it, forms part of the STP and are discussed 
below. Information on the tools to be added to the treasure chest (Smith, 2006) is provided 
under Session 1 below. Learners may voluntarily provide feedback on the session, either 
verbally or in writing. Summaries of all the sessions in the STP have been compiled and 
should be handed out to the learners during the particular sessions and be referred to as 
needed. 
The STP should be presented at the learners’ school, after school hours in order not 
to interfere with the academic programme, and over four to eight weeks depending on the 
school’s schedule and the activities of the learners. The STP should be presented in 
learners’ home language or the language in which they are schooled, and to approximately 
20 learners at a time, as most activities involve all learners participating, which may be time-
consuming. During the presentation of the STP it should be emphasised that sound social 
functioning may differ amongst people of various cultures. Depending on the culture of the 
learners, the examples used in the STP should also be adjusted in order for it to be suitable 
for the particular group, whereas various examples should be used in a diverse group  The 
duration of each session should be approximately 90 minutes and if a facilitator are 
experiencing problems ensuring that a session fits into this time frame, another opportunity 
to complete the session should be scheduled. During the presentation of the STP, debriefing 
should take place if and when necessary. 
Each learner should receive an A4-sized plastic envelope during the first session. 
The purpose of this envelope is to keep all the summaries of the sessions and the activities 
(where it is applicable to write it on paper) together. Even though the envelopes will be taken 
in after every session, learners will be allowed to take the summary of a session home after 
the session has been completed, especially to assist them in doing their social experiment; 
provided that they bring it with them to the next session and put it in their envelopes. During 
the last session of the STP, the learners may take the envelopes with all its contents home.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 65 
 
It is important for learners to generalise the skills they are being taught to all the 
contexts of their lives. To facilitate this, cooperative games and activities are included, 
various situations in which the particular skills may be valuable are discussed, and 
behaviours and responses typical of social situations are provoked (Zhang, 2011). 
To optimise the effect of the STP, appropriate teaching skills are important as the 
mere provision of information does not signify competence. The facilitator of the programme 
should have a post-graduate qualification in psychology and should, furthermore, preferably 
be experienced in working with learners in middle childhood. In addition, it is important for 
facilitators to reside in close proximity to the school where the programme will be presented 
and to have enough time available for the thorough planning, preparation, and facilitation of 
the sessions. Brief orientation and planning conversations (one per session) with one of the 
authors of the programme should take place before a facilitator presents the STP. 
Learners may receive snacks after each session as a token of appreciation for their 
participation, provided that all the parents have provided permission for this. Furthermore, 
attendance certificates (see Appendix 7) are provided to the learners during a function which 
educators and parents or legal guardians may attend.  
Next, the most important aspects of the contents of the sessions are explained. 
  
3.4 Content of the STP and Structure of Sessions  
3.4.1 Session 1: Introduction 
The following takes place during this session: 
• The learners and facilitator introduce themselves to one another. 
• The structure and the content of the STP as well as the structure of the sessions are 
outlined to the participants by the facilitator. 
• A code of conduct or group rules for the particular group of learners doing the STP are 
determined with the learners’ input.  
• The consequences of breaking the code of conduct or group rules are determined with 
the learners’ input. 
• It is indicated that, should a learner not comply with the code of conduct, reference will 
be made to it without implicating the particular learner. However, if the problem persists, 
the particular learner shall be addressed and reminded of the consequences of the 
particular behaviour, which may be imposed if needed. 
• Practical arrangements are made (dates, times, and venues for the STP). 
• Participants are told that the STP may be compared to a treasure chest (Smith, 2006) 
filled with tools; that the tools are the skills that will be learnt in each session of the 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 66 
 
programme and that the treasure chest may be carried with them everywhere they go for 
them to be able to use the tools. 
• Participants receive a picture of a treasure chest; are asked to write their names on it; 
colour it in at home, if they would like to; and bring it back to the second session. 
• It is explained to the participants that, at the end of each session, they will get the 
opportunity to add the skill(s) they have learnt to the treasure chest by writing it 
anywhere on the picture or by drawing a representation of the particular skill(s) on the 
picture. 
• An activity takes place: the group is divided into smaller groups and each smaller group 
is tasked with developing a way in which they would like to greet the facilitator and each 
other at both the beginning (Hello) and end (Good-bye) of each session. Each group 
presents what they have come up with after a while and the learners pick the greetings 
that they perceive to be the best. These greetings are then known as the special 
greetings and will be used during all the sessions. 
 
3.4.2 Session 2: Self-esteem and gratitude 
3.4.2.1 Materials needed  
• Three R20-notes. 
• A large shell or an unusual or beautiful object. 
• A small shell for every learner. 
 
3.4.2.2 Ice-breaker 
Learners are instructed to draw pictures of themselves and to indicate their good and bad 
features or qualities on the pictures (adapted from Prevatt & Prevatt-Hyles, 2012). After the 
above is finished, a game named ‘I can, I can’t’ is played. According to this game, each 
learner gets a turn to say his or her name and to share one strength and one weakness of 
him- or herself (Badegruber, 2005: 18). The goal of this activity is, amongst others, to 
improve self-esteem, develop honesty, and learn to trust others (Badegruber, 2005). It may 
furthermore assist learners not only to experience themselves as being special and unique 
with both positive and negative characteristics but also to realise that everyone has positive 
and negative characteristics. 
 
3.4.2.3 Teaching 
The meaning of self-esteem is explained, and self-esteem’s influence on behaviour is 
highlighted. A person’s value is compared to that of money (for example a R20-note) that is 
crumpled and then trampled to the ground, with the lesson being that, irrespective of what 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 67 
 
happens to an individual, the individual still has the same value. Furthermore, it is indicated 
that, even though people differ, everyone is special and unique and of equal importance, 
meaning that everyone should be treated worthily. It is further explained that self-esteem can 
be improved in various ways. Lastly, the importance of showing appreciation and how this 
may lead to improved social relationships are indicated.  
 
3.4.2.4 Class activity 
The name of the activity is ‘Pass the shell’. For this activity, all the learners sit in a circle. The 
facilitator holds a large shell or an unusual or beautiful object and then praises or gives a 
compliment to the learner sitting on his or her left. The facilitator then passes the shell or 
object to the learner who received the praise or the compliment and this learner must then, 
while holding the shell or object, praise or give a compliment to the learner sitting on his or 
her left. This game continues until everybody has had a chance to give and receive praise or 
a compliment. Each learner may also be given a small shell that they may carry with them 
for a week to remind them about the praise or compliment they received. The goals of this 
activity are to teach learners to give and receive praise, to take turns, to develop empathy, to 
listen, and to learn to trust others (Plummer, 2008: 109). It also teaches gratitude which may 
lead to improved self-esteem.  
 
3.4.2.5 Social experiment 
Learners are instructed, for the next week before they go to sleep at night, to make a list of 
all the good things that they have done during the particular day, to read it to themselves, 
and to reflect on how it makes them feel (adapted from Greeff, 2005). The aim of this activity 
is to create awareness that everyone has some good in them and is doing good deeds on a 
daily basis, and to increase self-esteem.   
 
3.4.3 Session 3: Self-regulation and purpose in life (setting goals) 
3.4.3.1 Materials needed  
• Balloons. 
• Pens. 
• A CD-player. 
• A suitable CD (lively music). 
 
3.4.3.2 Ice-breaker 
This ice-breaker’s name is ‘Balloon Dance’. It commences by letting each learner pick out a 
balloon that he or she likes. Learners are then instructed to blow it up, knot it, draw their 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 68 
 
faces on it, and write their names on it. Furthermore, learners are instructed to let the 
balloons “dance above their heads” as soon as music starts to play (Badegruber, 2005: 66). 
All learners should then assist in keeping their own and others’ balloons from falling to the 
floor. When the music stops, every learner has to catch any balloon, find its owner, and hand 
it back to him or her (Badegruber, 2005). The aim of this game is to teach learners that part 
of everyone’s purpose in life is to help others and that if we assist others, these good deeds 
will come back to us (reciprocity or mutual benefit). Learners will also be taught that if they 
do something in a group, they must consider others and control themselves in order to not 
be a bother to others or to create discomfort for others which might lead to them becoming 
upset. According to Badegruber (2005), this game further assists learners to, amongst other 
things, relax, reduce their inhibitions, make contact, and animate the group.  
 
3.4.3.3 Teaching 
The functions and value of self-regulation are explained. It is indicated that self-regulation 
may assist individuals in reaching their goals. Furthermore, the process for setting goals, 
important aspects to remember when setting goals, and the importance of goals are 
outlined. The discussion continues by indicating that individuals may achieve their purpose 
in life if they work continuously and diligently until they reach their goals. 
 
3.4.3.4 Class activities 
This session includes two class activities. In the first activity, learners need to state the goals 
they have for their social life for the next six months (or year; Mougey et al., 2009). The aim 
of this activity is to ensure that learners establish goals for themselves in order to 
purposefully work towards success. The second activity’s name is ‘Pass a smile’. It starts by 
instructing all the learners to sit in a circle. The learner to start off the activity (1st player) is 
chosen, and he or she must then send a smile to the person on his or her left side (2nd 
player) by turning to and smiling at him or her. The 2nd player then receives or catches the 
smile and ‘zips’ his or her lips to hold the smile. The 2nd player then turns to the 3rd player 
and ‘unzips’ his or her lips and smiles. The 3rd player receives the smile, ’zips’ his or her lips 
to hold the smile, turns to the 4th player, ‘unzips’ his or her lips and smiles. This activity 
continues until everyone has had a chance and may be adapted by letting the smiles go 
faster or across the circle or to use frowns or surprised faces (Plummer, 2008: 78). This 
game is suitable for teaching learners self-control, self-awareness, non-verbal 
communication, concentration, and to take turns (Plummer, 2008).  
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 69 
 
3.4.3.5 Social experiment 
Learners are instructed to make two lists: one of everything they need to do after school to 
be ready for the next school day, and one of what they actually do after school. The lists 
should then be compared, with a difference potentially indicating that not enough attention is 
paid to the achievement of goals. Furthermore, learners are instructed to draw up a schedule 
for themselves to indicate how they should spend their time to reach their goals. They should 
also test these schedules and adapt them where needed. This activity teaches learners an 
awareness of self-regulation and its benefits, as well as the value of making good decisions.  
 
3.4.4 Session 4: Values and relationships  
3.4.4.1 Materials needed 
• A poster displaying the steps for choosing an appropriate friend. 
• Flash cards with characteristics of possible friends listed on them. 
 
3.4.4.2 Ice-breaker 
The name of the ice-breaker is ‘Signs and signatures’. It starts off by all learners sitting or 
standing in a circle. Every learner then gets a chance to introduce him- or herself by stating 
his or her name accompanied by a movement or gesture (adapted from Plummer, 2008: 65). 
This game teaches, amongst others, self-awareness, awareness of others, non-verbal 
communication, taking turns, and listening (Plummer, 2009).   
 
3.4.4.3 Teaching 
Values are explained by defining the concept and stating its purpose. Furthermore, values 
are compared to a GPS navigation system in the sense that it guides individuals in making 
good choices. In addition, it is indicated that an individual’s values determine his or her 
interactions and interpersonal relationships. It is also highlighted that the behaviour of friends 
and that which is seen or heard in the media are not always good examples, and that if there 
is doubt about the suitability of a particular behaviour, a responsible adult may be asked. 
Furthermore, steps for choosing appropriate friends as well as the benefits of having 
appropriate friends are explained. Examples of appropriate and inappropriate behaviour are 
also provided.  
 
3.4.4.4 Class activities 
This session encompasses two class activities. In the first activity, a list of values is provided 
and learners need to identify the three values that are most important to them to live by and 
rank it in order of importance. The aim of this activity is for learners to determine the values 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 70 
 
that are of great importance to them and according to which they should live. In the second 
activity, learners have to create two lists: one containing characteristics that a good friend 
should have, and one containing characteristics that an inappropriate friend would probably 
have (learners mention the characteristics aloud and it is written on a board). Two to three 
characteristics are then grouped together and written on separate flash cards. Some 
learners are picked to participate in the role play by being either a ‘new student’ or a 
‘possible friend’. The ‘possible friend’ is handed a flash card and has to use the 
characteristics written on it in the role play (it may be said or acted out). The ‘new learner’ 
introduces him- or herself to the ‘possible friend’ by saying: “Hello! My name is 
___________________, and I am a new student.” The ‘possible friend’ answers with: “Hello! 
My name is ___________________”, and states that he or she has the characteristics that is 
written on the card: “I am _______________”. The ‘new learner’ then decides whether he or 
she would like to have the ‘possible friend’ as a friend. If the ‘new learner’ does not want the 
‘possible friend’ as a friend, he or she should provide an explanation for his or her choice. If 
the ‘new learner’ wants to be friends with the ‘possible friend’, he or she should continue with 
the conversation and talk about his or her hobbies and interests (Mougey et al., 2009: 226). 
The aim of this activity is to create an awareness of desirable and undesirable behaviour and 
to learn to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate friends. 
 
3.4.4.5 Social experiment 
Learners are instructed to thank a family member for something nice he or she has done for 
them. The learners then have to tell the person that they appreciate his or her kindness, 
support, etc. This activity teaches learners to express appreciation and thereby to strengthen 
relationships.  
 
3.4.5 Session 5: Communication and listening 
3.4.5.1 Materials needed 
• A mirror. 
• A CD-player. 
• A suitable CD (classical music). 
• Two posters displaying the rules of interaction with others (one indicating what should be 
done and one indicating what should not be done). 
 
3.4.5.2 Ice-breaker 
The ice-breaker’s name is ‘You reflect me’. It starts by instructing learners to pair up and 
stand opposite a partner with a small distance between them. The facilitator then holds up a 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 71 
 
mirror and explains its functions and practically demonstrates it. One learner from each pair 
starts moving with slow and small arm movements while soft music is playing in the 
background. The second learner imitates the movements of the first learner as if he or she is 
a mirror. After a while, the learners switch roles. The game may be adapted for players to 
use leg movements and also facial expressions (Badegruber, 2005: 51). This game can be 
played to improve communication skills and visual perception and also to develop 
partnership and sensitivity (Badegruber, 2005).  
 
3.4.5.3 Teaching 
Communication is explained by first defining it, distinguishing between the various types of 
communication and identifying the barriers to communication. Listening is discussed next by 
indicating that it is different from hearing in the sense that listening goes together with 
concentration (Chweu, 2015). The rules of communication, that is, what should and should 
not be done during interaction, are then discussed. 
 
3.4.5.4 Class activities 
This session includes two class activities. The name of the first activity is ‘Pass the 
message’. In this activity, all the learners sit in a circle. The first learner whispers a short 
sentence to the second learner. The second learner whispers this sentence (or what he or 
she heard) to the third learner. The activity continues in this fashion until the message 
reaches the first learner, who should then compare the received message to the original one 
(Plummer, 2008: 90). This activity is suitable for teaching learners to concentrate, listen 
carefully, reflect on behaviour, take turns, and tolerate frustration (Plummer, 2008). In the 
second activity, learners are divided into groups, and each smaller group must act out an 
interaction where something went wrong to the bigger group. The bigger group must then 
indicate or guess what the problem was and may also be asked if they have previously been 
in situations like those acted out, and how it felt. Certain situations may be provided to the 
various groups, for example, person A interrupts person B a few times, leading to person B 
losing his or her train of thought and getting frustrated and angry with person A. 
 
3.4.5.5 Social experiment 
It is explained to learners that sometimes individuals’ verbal and non-verbal communication 
give conflicting messages. Learners are instructed to be attentive of the communication 
between other people and/or between themselves and others, and to try to pick up on 
situations where the verbal and non-verbal communication do not give the same message. 
They are also instructed to think about what happens when double messages are given and 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 72 
 
how this can be corrected. The goal of this activity is for learners to realise and remember 
that differences between the messages given by verbal and non-verbal communication can 
create a lot of confusion, misunderstandings, and conflict, and that they should make sure 
that their words are in line with what they are saying with their bodies. 
 
3.4.6 Session 6: Conflict management (environmental mastery) 
3.4.6.1 Materials needed 
• A poster displaying the different conflict styles as represented by various animals (see 
Appendix 6). 
 
3.4.6.2 Ice-breaker 
The name of the ice-breaker is ‘Anger Ball Toss’. A soft ball is used and everyone stands in 
a circle. The facilitator starts the ice-breaker by holding the ball and saying: “I feel angry 
when…” (the facilitator completes the sentence). He or she then throws the ball to a learner 
and this learner must indicate what makes him or her angry by saying: “I feel angry when…” 
The last-mentioned learner must then throw the ball to another learner. This ice-breaker 
continues until everyone has had a turn. Learners will be asked to sit down after they have 
had a turn to make it easier for the other learners to see who still has to get a turn (adapted 
from Quinonez, 2013). Through this game, learners will discover what angers their peers 
and might try to avoid this in future. Learners may also discover that they are like certain 
peers in terms of what angers them (Quinones, 2013).  
 
3.4.6.3 Teaching 
It is indicated to the learners that interaction may lead to conflict as people differ and also 
that conflict is normal (Brokensha, 2015). The facilitator explains possible strategies to use 
when conflict arises, the most suitable time for handling conflict, and different styles for 
handling conflict. In addition, it is indicated that conflict should be managed by acting 
assertively. Assertiveness is discussed and the formula to be followed when acting 
assertively (Prevatt & Prevatt-Hyles, 2012) is described.  
 
3.4.6.4 Class activities 
This session encompasses two class activities. In the first activity, learners need to identify 
their conflict handling styles and indicate why they think the styles they have chosen are 
those they use. Learners who have chosen the same style are then grouped together and 
the small groups need to act out the animal representing their conflict handling style. The 
goal of this activity is for learners to understand that various people handle conflict 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 73 
 
differently, to identify their own conflict style and thus learn more about themselves, to 
practice cooperation and taking turns, and to use their imagination. In the second activity, 
conflict scenarios are prepared, for example, a learner takes another learner’s eraser without 
asking, and then solved using the formula for assertiveness. The goal with this activity is to 
practise being assertive. 
 
3.4.6.5 Social experiment 
Learners are instructed to be attentive to conflict situations between others or between 
themselves and another, and to determine the conflict handling styles used by those 
involved. They have to motivate why they think the conflict styles that they have identified 
are those that occurred. Furthermore, they have to indicate whether the conflict has been 
resolved and how. The goal of this activity is for learners to become aware that conflict is 
part of daily life, to identify and understand various conflict styles, and to realise that conflict 
can be solved most of the time. 
                               
3.4.7 Session 7: Emotional competence 
3.4.7.1 Materials needed 
• A poster on the ABCDE model (Ellis, 1977; Ellis & Ellis, 2011).  
 
3.4.7.2 Ice-breaker 
The name of the ice-breaker is ‘I fell in the well’. It starts of by letting all the learners stand in 
a circle. One learner moves to the centre of the circle, quickly sits down and says: “I fell in 
the well”. All the other learners as a group then ask: “Who should pull you out?” The learner 
in the centre of the circle decides on the emotion that the individual pulling him or her out 
must display best and answers by saying, for example, the happiest individual in the room. 
Everyone acts happy and the learner in the middle of the circle decides who looks the 
happiest to him or her and calls on this person to assist him or her to get out of the well. The 
learner who assists then falls into the well and the ice-breaker is repeated a few times with 
other emotions, for example, being sad, angry, excited, etc. (adapted from Badegruber, 
2005: 105). This game teaches learners to help others, show affection, enhance creativity, 
develop partnerships (Badegruber, 2005), as well as recognise and understand the display 
of emotions. 
 
3.4.7.3 Teaching 
It is indicated that emotions are experienced with all interactions and that all emotions are 
normal. Furthermore, it is explained that emotions are not long-lasting and that they should 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 74 
 
not lead to poor behaviour. The ABCDE model (Ellis, 1977; Ellis & Ellis, 2011), with which 
negative thinking can be converted into positive thinking to achieve better outcomes, is then 
explained. 
 
3.4.7.4 Class activity 
The name of the class activity is ‘If feelings were colours’. It starts of by the facilitator 
explaining that different feelings may be represented by different colours. Every learner 
should then indicate which colour he or she currently chooses to be and explain why. The 
learners may also move around the room as a specific colour at a specific time. 
Furthermore, learners may be asked, for example, whether all the ‘blues’ move in a similar 
way, how the movements of the different colours differ, and whether it is difficult to change 
colours or moods and when this might happen. It may also be explored why the same 
emotion has been linked to different colours by the various participants (Plummer, 2008: 
124). This game is suitable for teaching self-awareness, empathy, non-verbal 
communication, the use of imagination, and to be observant (Plummer, 2008). It also 
teaches that a variety of emotions exist, and that the same emotion can be experienced and 
acted upon differently by various individuals. 
 
3.4.7.5 Social experiment 
Learners are instructed to identify individuals who assist them in experiencing positive 
emotions and to think about the reason(s) why this happens. This activity will help learners 
to identify positive influences in their lives and also to realise that positive emotions can be 
created easily and through the simple things in life. 
 
3.4.8 Session 8: Resilient coping 
3.4.8.1 Materials needed 
• A poster displaying the steps in the problem-solving process. 
 
3.4.8.2 Ice-breaker 
The name of the ice-breaker is ‘Sort us out’. In this ice-breaker, the learners arrange 
themselves in a line according to the criteria given by the facilitator, for example, 
alphabetically in terms of learners’ names or numerically according to the time they get out 
of bed in the mornings. The learners may be asked which line took the least or most time to 
organise and also what the reasons for this are. Learners may also be asked what the 
similarities and differences among them are (Plummer, 2008: 146). This ice-breaker may 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 75 
 
assist learners in learning to tolerate frustration or disappointment and to stay positive 
despite it. 
 
3.4.8.3 Teaching 
It is stated that no individual always has control over what happens to him or her, but that the 
individual can choose his or her reaction (Jones, 2007). Furthermore, it is indicated that 
negative events do not have to hold individuals back forever and that it should be attempted 
to turn these setbacks into experiences that can be learnt from (Greeff, 2005). Resilience as 
well as ways in which it may be increased are explained. In addition, it is stated that if 
individuals have positive thoughts and beliefs, problem solving and decision making may be 
easier. The process for making good decisions to solve problems are discussed. It is then 
highlighted that individuals cannot exercise control over all problems and that this should just 
be accepted (Greeff, 2005). Furthermore, it is stated that individuals should take 
responsibility for their actions and should be willing to both apologise and forgive.  
 
3.4.8.4 Class activity 
Learners are divided into groups and each group receives a certain scenario that they are 
instructed to solve using the problem-solving process. A scenario may be, for example, that 
some learners want to participate in a talent show on television and have to come up with 
something entertaining that is worthwhile to watch. Furthermore, the learners must ensure 
that they are able to be on the show (adapted from Greeff, 2005). The aim of this activity is 
to teach learners to cooperate in a group situation and to make plans (and adapt, if 
necessary) to solve problems. 
 
3.4.8.5 Social experiment 
As the STP has been concluded, no social experiment is given.  
 
4. Recommendations 
It is recommended that the STP be presented to learners in middle childhood, at their 
schools, by trained individuals with the relevant qualifications and backgrounds as a way of 
giving back to the community. If, despite this, only a limited number of learners benefit from 
the STP due to significant time, financial, and opportunity barriers (compare Craig et al., 
2016), it is recommended that voluntary community workers or parents be trained to present 
a simplified version of the STP. Regular monitoring should then be done by an appointed 
professional person in the particular community. In future, participatory action research may 
be used to further refine the STP and make it user-friendly for other contexts.   
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 76 
 
5. Conclusion  
The STP was developed to enhance the social functioning and, ultimately, the wellbeing of 
learners in middle childhood in the South African context. This was needed as it cannot be 
assumed that most learners will automatically attain healthy social functioning. Also, many 
learners in middle childhood face serious environmental risks that may inhibit their socio-
emotional development. The content of the STP was informed by existing literature as well 
as empirical research conducted prior to the design of the programme in the form of focus 
groups with educators of learners aged 10 to 12 years (see Section B, Article 1). Sessions 
on the following themes were included in the STP: self-esteem and gratitude, self-regulation 
and purpose in life, values and relationships, communication and listening, conflict 
management, emotional competence, and resilient coping. As the mere information of such 
a programme in itself cannot change the social functioning and behaviour of learners, 
implementation of the STP is recommended in order to evaluate and determine its effect.   
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 77 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 80 
 
Article 3 
 
An evaluation of the effect of the Social Treasures Programme 
aimed at enhancing the social functioning of learners in middle 
childhood 
 
Soretha Beets1, Izanette Van Schalkwyk2 & Doret K Kirsten3 
1Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, COMPRES, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa, soretha.beets@gmail.com (Corresponding author) 
2Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, COMPRES, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa. 
3School of Psychosocial Education, COMBER, North-West University, 
Potchefstroom, South Africa. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 81 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 86 
 
Abstract 
The aim of this study was to evaluate a school-based wellbeing programme called the Social 
Treasures Programme (STP) which was developed for learners in middle childhood in the 
South African context. A repeated measures design was used to evaluate the effect of the 
STP. Learners, educators, and parents or legal guardians from an area in the North-West 
Province participated by completing psychometric scales at various time intervals. Data were 
analysed using SPSS Version 25 and AMOS Version 25. Results indicated that the STP was 
successful in decreasing social anxiety and improving social skills (including adherence to 
social rules and politeness) and self-esteem, as rated by the learners. The STP also 
succeeded in increasing assertiveness and social skills with peers, as rated by educators. 
The developed programme can thus be used in the South African context to enhance the 
social functioning and wellbeing of learners in middle childhood.  
 
Keywords: middle childhood, programme evaluation, school, social functioning, South 
African context, wellbeing programme, wellbeing 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 87 
 
Introduction 
Based on preliminary research (see Section B, Article 1) and informed by existing literature, 
a school-based wellbeing programme called the Social Treasures Programme (STP) was 
developed (see Section B, Article 2). This article focuses on the evaluation of the effect of 
the STP which is intended to enhance the social functioning and thereby the social-
emotional wellbeing of learners in middle childhood in the South African context.  
Learners in middle childhood are in Erikson’s phase of ‘Industry vs Inferiority’ (six 
years up to adolescence). During this phase, they are preoccupied with gaining proficiency, 
competence, and mastery in tasks. In middle childhood, learners also receive more feedback 
on their performance in various activities than previously and their self-evaluations will lead 
to the development of their self-esteem (Erikson, 1963; Erikson, as cited in Hook, 2013). 
Social functioning is one of the key areas of evaluation by the self and others in which 
competence needs to be gained. 
Social functioning refers to those processes of relating where humans interact with 
one another, and these processes may offer opportunities for wellbeing (Wissing, 2013). In 
this study, social functioning refers to a continuum of the processes of relating where the 
upper levels of social functioning indicate pro-social functioning, and the lower levels indicate 
poor social functioning.  
The social functioning of learners in middle childhood can be understood in terms of 
the perspectives on wellbeing or happiness that, according to Wissing (2014a, p. 7), include 
the hedonic perspective (“feeling good”) and the eudaimonic perspective (“functioning well”). 
Research further supports the notion of various levels of wellbeing, namely flourishing 
(indicating high levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing); moderate mental 
health (indicating moderate levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing); and 
languishing (indicating low levels of psychological, emotional, and social wellbeing; Keyes, 
2005; Wissing, 2014b). Therefore, within the positive approach of psychology, the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood is integral to the presence of wellbeing, while 
different levels of functioning are understood. Lower levels of social functioning might hold 
vulnerabilities for mental health (Ryff, 1989) and, for example, lead to psychological 
disturbances later in life (Verduyn, Lord, & Forrest, 1990), including depression and social 
anxiety. In addition, Lewis, Brock, and Lazarus (2002) state that training in social skills may 
prevent various problem behaviours and may serve as an early intervention for these. 
Mental health problems as well as problem behaviours may thus be curbed by 
effective programmes for obtaining the necessary social skills. No evidence-based 
programmes targeting the improvement of social functioning (usually expressed as 
programmes improving social skills) could be found for the South African or even the African 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 88 
 
context. Furthermore, most programmes aimed at the improvement of social functioning 
have been developed for specific groups; for example, learners with social anxiety, attention-
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorders. Examples of social 
skills programmes aimed at learners with social anxiety include those of Caballo, Carrillo, 
and Ollendick (2015) and Yoshinaga and Shimizu (2014), while examples of social skills 
programmes aimed at learners with ADHD include those of Hannesdottir, Ingvarsdottir, and 
Bjornsson (2017); Jijina and Sinha (2016); and Wilkes-Gillan, Bundy, Cordier, and Lincoln 
(2016). In addition, examples of social skills programmes aimed at learners with autism 
spectrum disorders include those of Cotugno (2009); Dekker et al. (2018); Radley, McHugh, 
Taber, Battaglia, and Ford (2015); and Einfeld et al. (2018).  
January, Casey, and Paulson (2011) indicate that social skills programmes are more 
effective when, amongst others, they are implemented early in learners’ development, 
engagement in hands-on tasks and activities are included, and they are applied during times 
of transitions in development. Furthermore, Cartledge and Loe (2001) indicate that skills 
included in programmes should be selected based on their cultural appropriateness for the 
learners’ context. It is worth mentioning that Sklad, Diekstra, De Ritter, Ben, and Gravesteijn 
(2012) indicate that most programmes aim at achieving various positive outcomes 
simultaneously and are successful in achieving some of their outcomes. However, even 
though the effects of social skills programmes aimed at all learners are usually positive, it 
should be noted that not all programmes are successful (January et al., 2011) or evidence-
based. 
 
Method 
Research design 
A repeated measures design was followed.  
 
Participants 
Although middle childhood comprises the ages of six years to about 12 years (Louw & Louw, 
2014), only learners aged 10 to 12 years (in grades 5 and 6) were included in this study as 
psychometric scales were used for data collection, and learners younger than 10 years old 
would have struggled to complete it in the available time. Participants to the pre-testing 
included 221 learners aged 10 to 12 years from four public primary schools in a specific area 
in the North-West Province of South Africa. The reasons for the large group (n > 200) were 
that the reliability and validity of the psychometric scales and sub-scales (that have been 
translated from English to Afrikaans, Setswana, and Sesotho) had to be determined for the 
particular context.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 89 
 
Sixty-six learners (45 learners in the experimental group and 21 learners in the 
control group) from one public primary school in a certain area in the North-West Province of 
South Africa participated in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the STP (attendance of the 
STP, post-testing, and follow-up testing). A parent or legal guardian (n = 66) and educators 
(n = 13) of the abovementioned 66 learners also participated. All the participants had to 
comply with certain inclusion criteria.  
 
Sampling strategy 
The four participating schools were selected using cluster sampling. Convenience sampling 
was applied for the selection of learners for the pre-testing at the four public primary schools. 
For purposes of the evaluation of the effect of the STP, stratified random sampling was used 
for the selection of learners at one school, while purposive sampling was used for the 
selection of parents or legal guardians and educators.  
 
Procedure 
Learners 
All the psychometric scales were completed by 221 learners from four public primary schools 
in an area in the North-West Province to determine the reliability and validity of these scales. 
This served as the pre-testing and also determined which scales and sub-scales could be 
used further in the study. Furthermore, the scores that learners obtained on the 
psychometric scale in the pre-testing were used to divide the learners of the school chosen 
for the evaluation of the effect of the STP into three categories (low, moderate, and high 
scores) which enabled the researcher to randomly select equal percentages of learners from 
each category for both the experimental and control groups. Gender did not play a role in the 
selection of learners for the experimental- and control groups. Furthermore, twice as many 
learners as included in the control group, was included in the experimental group. This was 
done to make provision for learners from the experimental group withdrawing or not 
attending all the sessions and to despite this, still have enough particpants for the statistics 
not to be compromised. 
Both the experimental and control groups completed post-tests and follow-up tests 
on the same occasions, with the post-testing being done directly after the presentation of the 
STP to the experimental group. The follow-up testing was done three months later, 
whereafter the STP was presented to the control group. The STP was presented by an 
educational psychologist who is currently in private practice. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 90 
 
Educators and parents or legal guardians 
The register class educators (educators acting as guardians for learners allocated to their 
class and who also handle the overall administration for these learners) and parents or legal 
guardians participated in pre-testing and follow-up testing three months after the 
presentation of the STP to the experimental group by completing psychometric scales 
concerning the learners in the experimental and control groups. 
 
The development and content of the STP 
The STP was developed based on literature reviews and information from four focus groups 
with the educators (n = 29) of 10- to 12-year-old learners, on the educators’ experiences of 
the social functioning of these learners as well as the skills and competencies the learners 
need to enhance their social functioning (see Section B, Article 1 and Article 2).  
The STP consists of eight sessions, with the following skills and competencies being 
included: self-esteem, gratitude, self-regulation, goal setting, values, relationships, 
communication, listening, conflict management, emotional competence, and resilient coping. 
The duration of each session was approximately 90 minutes (see Section B, Article 2).  
As the STP was developed for all learners and not only those with certain pathology 
and/or challenges, a positive psychology approach was used. This implies that the 
intentional development of positive cognition, emotions, and behaviours were of great 
importance in this programme (Guse, 2014).   
As previously indicated, the focus of the STP is on learners in middle childhood as 
this life phase focuses on competency, including social competence.  
 
Psychometric scales  
Quantitative data were collected by using the following psychometric scales for the learners:   
The Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised (SASC–R; La Greca, 1998; La Greca 
& Stone, 1993). This scale incorporates 18 items (Brumariu & Kerns, 2008) and three 
factors, namely fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance and distress in new situations, 
and social avoidance and distress in general (Brumariu & Kerns, 2008; Storch, Masia-
Warner, Dent, Roberti, & Fisher, 2004). The SASC–R has good test-retest reliability and 
internal consistency (Storch et al., 2004). In a study by Findlay, Coplan, and Bowker (2009), 
a Cronbach alpha of 0.9 was obtained for the SASC–R. In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 
0.76 was obtained.  
The School Short-Form Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–Revised (Coopersmith, 
1967; Hills, Francis, & Jennings, 2011). This scale consists of 19 items and four factors, 
namely personal self-esteem, self-esteem derived from parents, self-esteem derived from 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 91 
 
peers, and self-esteem derived from school. The internal consistency of the scale is 
adequate with a Cronbach alpha of 0.83 and the factor structure is deemed psychometrically 
sound (Hills et al., 2011). In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 0.72 was obtained.  
Children’s Self-Report Social Skills Scale (CS4; Danielson & Phelps, 2003). This 
scale measures learners’ view of their own social skills. It consists of 21 items, with 14 items 
measuring pro-social skills and the remaining seven, poor social skills, on a five-point Likert-
type scale. The CS4 has been found to have good internal consistency (with a Cronbach 
alpha coefficient of 0.96) and test-retest reliability, with a test-retest coefficient of 0.74 
(Danielson & Phelps, 2003). In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 0.59 was obtained.  
The Children’s Depression Inventory Short Form (CDI 2; Kovacs, 2011). The CDI 2 
measures symptoms of depression and includes 12 items. According to Kovacs (2012), the 
CDI 2 displays acceptable to high levels of internal consistency with Cronbach alphas 
ranging from 0.67 to 0.91. Kovacs (2012) also indicates that the CDI 2 displays convergent 
validity. In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 0.71 was obtained. 
The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). This scale 
measures total subjective happiness and consists of four items. The SHS has high internal 
consistency that is stable across samples and good to excellent reliability as suggested by 
test-retest correlations as well as self-peer correlations. It also has good convergent and 
discriminant validity (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 0.16 
was obtained.  
 
The following psychometric scale was used for the educators: 
The Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1 (T-CRS 2.1; Children’s Institute, 2002a) 
measures children’s social, behavioural, emotional, and general school adaptation. It 
encompasses 32 items that are grouped into 4 sub-scales, namely peer social skills, 
assertiveness, behaviour control, and task orientation, with each of these sub-scales 
consisting of eight items (four negative and four positive). The reliability of this psychometric 
scale varies from 0.87 to 0.94 (Children’s Institute, 2002b). In this study, a Cronbach alpha 
of 0.89 was obtained.  
 
The following psychometric scale was used for the parents or legal guardians:  
The Child Social Preference Scale (CSPS; Coplan, Prakash, O’Neil, & Armer, 2004) 
assesses shyness and social disinterest (unsociability) in learners (Coplan & Arbeau, 2008; 
Coplan, Arbeau, & Armer, 2008; Coplan & Armer, 2005; Coplan et al., 2004) and consists of 
11 items. According to Coplan et al. (2004), the CSPS has high internal consistency, a 
reliable factor structure, and strong construct validity. In a study done by Rubin, 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 92 
 
Wojslawowics, Rose-Krasnor, Booth-La Force, and Burgess (2006), alpha coefficients 
ranging from 0.87 to 0.95 were found for the subscales. In this study, a Cronbach alpha of 
0.66 was obtained. 
 
Validity and reliability of psychometric scales 
Even though the reliability and validity of the various psychometric scales are not the focus 
of the study, it is reported to indicate which scales and sub-scales are applicable for use in 
the South African context. Reliability was determined through the calculation of Cronbach 
alpha coefficients. While a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.60 is an indication of acceptable 
reliability for a scale measuring a psychological construct, a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 
0.70 and above indicates good reliability for such a scale (Field, 2009). 
Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3 show descriptive statistics and Cronbach alpha 
coefficients for the various psychometric scales and sub-scales that have been used for the 
learners, educators, and parents or legal guardians, respectively. For the psychometric 
scales and sub-scales where the Cronbach alpha coefficients were too low to be reliable, the 
means and standard deviations were not calculated as these scales and sub-scales could 
not be used further.  
 
<insert Table 1 here> 
 
<insert Table 2 here> 
 
<insert Table 3 here> 
 
 The reliability coefficients of the Childen’s Depression Inventory 2 (CDI 2), Social 
Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised (SASC−R), Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–
Revised (CSI−R), Teacher Child Rating Scale 2.1 (TCRS 2.1), Task Orientation (TO) sub-
scale, Assertiveness (AS) sub-scale, Peer Social Skills (PSS) sub-scale, and the Child 
Social Preference Scale (CSPS) are good, while the reliability coefficients of the Fear of 
Negative Evaluation from Peers (FNE) sub-scale, Social Avoidance and Distress specific to 
New Situations (SAD−N) subscale, Children’s Self-Report Social Skills Scale (CS4), 
Adherence to Social Rules and Politeness (ASRP) sub-scale, Self-esteem regarding the 
General Self (GS) sub-scale, School or Academic Self-esteem (S) sub-scale, Behaviour 
Control (BC) sub-scale, and Social Disinterest (SoD) sub-scale are acceptable. The other 
scales and sub-scales unfortunately seem not to be reliable for the context. It is interesting to 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 93 
 
note that scales or sub-scales with fewer or a limited number of items tend to have low 
Cronbach alpha coefficients (Pallant, 2010).  
The validity of scales was determined by conducting exploratory and confirmatory 
factor analyses. S. M. Ellis (personal communication, 20 July 2018) stated that, for validity to 
be in order, the minimum sample discrepancy divided by degrees of freedom (CMIN/DF) 
should be as close as possible to two, but according to Mueller (1996), ratios of three, four, 
and five may also still be representative of good validity. Furthermore, Mueller (1996) states 
that the comparative fit index (CFI) must be higher than 0.90 for good validity. According to 
Blunch (2008), models with values of 0.10 and higher for the root mean square error of 
approximation (RMSEA) are not acceptable, and thus not indicative of good validity. Table 4, 
Table 5, and Table 6 indicate the various measures of validity for the psychometric scales 
used for the learners, the educators, and the parents, respectively. 
 
<insert Table 4 here> 
 
According to Table 4, all the scales except for the SHS were valid, with a 90 percent 
confidence interval.  
 
<insert Table 5 here> 
 
According to its CMIN/DF, the TCRS 2.1 has good validity, but in contrast to this and 
according to the CFI and RMSEA, the scale does not display good validity, with a 90 percent 
confidence interval. It is thus advisable that the TCRS 2.1 be re-evaluated in a larger study 
in the South African context. 
 
<insert Table 6 here> 
 
According to its CMIN/DF, CFI, and RMSEA, the validity of the CSPS is in order. 
 As psychometric scales and sub-scales that are not reliable and/or valid could not be 
used further, it is excluded from further discussions. 
 
Data analysis 
Data was analysed by the Statistical Consultation Services of the North-West University. 
AMOS version 25 (AMOS Development Company, 2017) was used for the analysis of the 
validity of the psychometric scales while SPSS version 25.0 (IBM Corporation, 2017) was 
used for the analysis of the rest of the quantitative data.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 94 
 
  The reliability and validity of all the psychometric scales were calculated and 
descriptive statistics (means and standard deviation) were determined for all the reliable and 
valid psychometric scales.  
  For the determination of the differences between the experimental and control groups 
before the STP, independent t-tests were used. To determine the differences between the 
experimental and control groups directly after (only in the case of the psychometric scales 
and sub-scales for the learners) as well as three months after the presentation of the STP, 
repeated measures t-tests were used. To determine the within-group differences based on 
the psychometric scales and sub-scales for the learners, repeated measures analysis of 
variance was done. To determine the within-group differences for both the experimental and 
control groups over time based on the psychometric scales and sub-scales for the educators 
and parents or legal guardians, paired t-tests were performed. If differences existed, it was 
determined whether these were statistically or practically significant. For differences to be 
statistically significant, p < 0.05 (Ellis & Steyn, 2003). As the size of the group was rather 
small, it was better to use Cohen’s d (effect size or practical significance; Rosenthal, 
Rosnow, & Rubin, 2000). Practical significance (d) can take various values according to 
Cohen (1988): if d ≤ 0.2, a small effect is indicated; if d ≤ 0.5, a medium effect is indicated; 
and if d ≥ 0.8, a large effect is indicated.  
 
Ethical considerations  
Approval for the study was obtained from the research focus area Community Psychosocial 
Research (COMPRES; see Appendix 2) and the Health Health Research Ethics Committee 
(HREC; see Appendix 3) of the North-West University. Furthermore, permission for the study 
was obtained from the Department of Education and Sport Development of the North-West 
Province (see Appendix 1) and the principals of the relevant schools. Before the completion 
of the psychometric scales, the written consent of parents or legal guardians and educators, 
and in the case of learners, their written assent and one of their parents’ consent, were 
obtained. All other important ethical principles have been applied to the study and special 
attention was given to informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity. 
 
Results 
Differences between the experimental and control groups before the STP (pre-test); after the 
presentation of the STP (only applicable for scales completed by learners); and three 
months after the presentation of the STP; as well as differences within the experimental and 
control groups over time are discussed below, as rated by the learners (see Table 7), 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 95 
 
educators (see Table 8), and parents (see Table 9) by means of various psychometric 
scales.  
 
<insert Table 7 here> 
 
<insert Table 8 here> 
 
<insert Table 9 here> 
 
Pre-test differences  
Learners 
The scores for the CDI 2, CSI−R, and GS were initially better for the experimental group, 
while the scores for the SASC−R, FNE, SAD−N, CS4, ASRP, and S were initially better for 
the control group. For GS, there was a practically significant difference with a large effect 
size (d = 0.79) between the groups. For the CS4, there was a practically significant difference 
with a medium effect size (d = 0.47) between the groups. For the CDI 2, SASC−R, FNE, 
SAD−N, ASRP, and CSI−R, there were practically significant differences between the 
experimental and control groups, with small effect sizes (d = 0.22, d = 0.37, d = 0.16, d = 
0.34, d = 0.31, and d = 0.24, respectively).  
 
Educators 
As the sub-scales of the TCRS 2.1 do not add up to a total score for this psychometric scale, 
only the sub-scales are discussed. The results indicated that the scores for TO and AS were 
initially better for the experimental group, while the control group initially had better scores 
on BC and PSS. 
 The differences between the groups were not statistically significant for any of the 
sub-scales, while there were practically significant differences with a small effect for TO (d = 
0.23) and BC (d = 0.19). 
 
Parents or legal guardians 
The scores for SoD were exactly the same for the experimental and control groups, and 
statistical and practical significance were thus not of relevance. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 96 
 
Differences between the experimental and control groups directly after (T2) as well as 
three months after the presentation of the STP (T3)  
Learners 
Differences between the groups at T2 were only determined for learner’s ratings of 
themselves. The experimental group’s scores on the CDI 2, SASC−R, and FNE were better 
than those of the control group at both T2 and T3. For the CDI 2, SASC−R, and FNE, the 
scores for both groups were better at T3 than at T2. For the CDI 2, the scores between the 
groups differed practically significantly, with a small effect at T2 (d = 0.23), while the scores 
for the two groups did not differ practically significantly at T3. For the SASC−R and FNE, the 
scores between the two groups differed practically significantly with a small effect at T2 (d = 
0.09 for the SASC−R and d = 0.33 for the FNE) and T3 (d = 0.26 for the SASC−R and d = 
0.15 for FNE).  
For SAD−N, the scores for the control group were better than those of the 
experimental group at both T2 and T3, with the scores being the best at T3. There were 
practically significant differences with a small effect between the groups for T2 (d = 0.41) 
and T3 (d = 0.2). 
For the CS4, the scores for the experimental group were better than those of the 
control group at T2 and T3, with the scores for T2 being the best. There were practically 
significant differences with a small effect between the two groups at T2 (d = 0.31) and T3 (d 
= 0.23). 
For ASRP, the scores of the experimental group were better than those of the control 
group for both T2 and T3. However, the scores weakened from T2 to T3 for the experimental 
group, while it improved from T2 to T3 for the control group. The differences between the 
two groups at T2 were practically significant with a medium effect (d = 0.56), while the 
difference between the two groups at T3 were practically significant with a small effect (d = 
0.15).   
For the CSI−R, the scores for the experimental group were better than those of the 
control group at both T2 and T3, with the scores for both groups being the best at T2. The 
differences between the two groups were practically significant with a large effect for both T2 
(d = 0.93) and T3 (d = 0.97). 
For GS, the scores for the experimental group were lower than those of the control 
group at T2, while it was higher for the experimental group than for the control group at T3. 
For the experimental group, the scores at T3 were the highest, while the scores for the 
control group were the highest at T2. The differences between the groups were practically 
significant with a medium effect (d = 0.74) at T3, while there were no practically significant 
differences between the groups at T2. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 97 
 
For S, the scores at both T2 and T3 were better for the experimental group than for 
the control group, with the scores for the experimental group being the highest at T2 and 
those for the control group being the same for T2 and T3. The groups differed practically 
significantly with a small effect at both T2 (d = 0.43) and T3 (d = 0.23). 
 
Educators 
The differences between the groups at T2 were not determined for educators’ ratings of the 
learners. At T3, the scores for TO, BC, AS, and PSS were better for the experimental group 
than for the control group. The differences between the two groups were statistically 
significant for AS (p = 0.004) and PSS (p = 0.037), while the differences between the groups 
were practically significant with a medium effect for AS (d = 0.64) and PSS (d = 0.52), and 
practically significant with a small effect for TO (d = 0.31) and BC (d = 0.32). 
 
Parents or legal guardians 
The differences between the groups directly after the presentation of the STP were not 
determined for parents’ ratings of the learners. At T3, the score for SoD was better for the 
experimental group than for the control group, with this difference not being statistically 
significant, even though it is practically significant with a small effect (d = 0.23).  
 
Differences within the experimental and control groups over time (T1, T2, and T3)  
Learners 
The scores for the CDI 2 have weakened practically significantly with a large effect from T1 
to T2 for both the experimental and control groups (d = 0.85 and d = 0.87 respectively), and 
improved practically significantly with a large effect from T2 to T3 for both the experimental 
and control groups (d = 1.10 and d = 1.28, respectively). From T1 to T3, the scores for the 
CDI 2 improved practically significantly for both the experimental and control groups with 
small effects (d = 0.25 and d = 0.41, respectively).  
The scores for the SASC−R weakened for both groups from T1 to T2 and then 
improved from T2 to T3, also for both groups. For the experimental group, the change in the 
scores from T2 to T3 were practically significant with a large effect (d = 0.84), while for the 
control group, the change in the scores from T1 to T2 were practically significant with a 
medium effect (d = 0.74). For the experimental group, the scores from T1 to T2 changed 
practically significantly with a small effect (d = 0.29), while from T1 to T3, the scores 
changed practically significantly with a medium effect (d = 0.59). For the control group, the 
scores changed practically significantly with a medium effect (d = 0.69) from T2 to T3.   
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 98 
 
 For FNE, the scores weakened from T1 to T2 and then improved from T2 to T3 for 
both the experimental and control groups. For the control group, a practically significant 
change with a large effect occurred from T1 to T2 (d = 0.91) and also from T2 to T3 (d = 
0.82). For the experimental group, a practically significant change with a medium effect (d = 
0.63) occurred from T2 to T3, while a practically significant change with a small effect (d = 
0.21) occurred from T1 to T3.  
For SAD−N, the scores for both the experimental and control groups weakened from 
T1 to T2 and improved from T2 to T3. For the experimental group, from T2 to T3, there was 
a practically significant change with a medium effect (d = 0.49), while from T1 to T2 and also 
from T1 to T3, there were practically significant changes with small effects (d = 0.19 and d = 
0.30, respectively). For the control group, there was a practically significant difference with a 
small effect from T1 to T3 (d = 0.16) and also from T2 to T3 (d = 0.28).   
For the CS4, the scores improved from T1 to T2 and then decreased (weakened) 
from T2 to T3 for both the experimental and control groups. There was a practically 
significant change with a large effect in the experimental group from T1 to T2 (d = 1.08) and 
also from T1 to T3 (d = 0.8). For the experimental group, there was a practically significant 
change with a small effect from T2 to T3 (d = 0.28) and also for the control group from T1 to 
T2 and T2 to T3 (d = 0.3 and d = 0.21, respectively).  
For ASRP, the scores for the experimental group improved from T1 to T2 and then 
weakened from T2 to T3, while it improved for the control group over time. For ASRP, there 
are practically significant changes with a large effect in the scores of the experimental group 
from both T1 to T2 (d = 1.20) and also from T1 to T3 (d = 0.89). There was a practically 
significant change with a small effect (d = 0.31) in the experimental group from T2 to T3. 
There were also practically significant changes with small effects in the control group from 
T1 to T2 (d = 0.34) and from T1 to T3 (d = 0.43).  
The scores for the CSI−R improved from T1 to T2 and then slightly weakened from 
T2 to T3 for both the experimental and control groups, with the changes in the scores of the 
experimental group from both T1 to T2 and T1 to T3 being practically significant with a large 
effect (d = 0.97 and d = 0.92, respectively). For the control group, practically significant 
changes with a small effect occurred from T1 to T2 and also from T1 to T3 (d = 0.28 and d = 
0.19, respectively).  
For the experimental group, GS improved from T1 to T2 to T3, while it improved from 
T1 to T2 and then weakened from T2 to T3 for the control group. For the control group, the 
change in GS from T1 to T2 was practically significant with a large effect (d = 1.01). 
Practically significant changes with a medium effect occurred for the experimental group 
from T1 to T3 (d = 0.53) and for the control group from T1 to T3 (d = 0.58). Practically 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 99 
 
significant changes with a small effect occurred in the experimental group from T1 to T2 (d = 
0.17) and T2 to T3 (d = 0.36), and in the control group from T2 to T3 (d = 0.43).    
S improved from T1 to T2 and then weakened from T2 to T3 for the experimental 
group, and decreased from T1 to T2 and then stayed the same from T2 to T3 for the control 
group. Practically significant changes with a small effect occurred for the experimental group 
from T1 to T2 (d = 0.26) and T2 to T3 (d = 0.21), and for the control group from T1 to T2 (d = 
0.25) and T1 to T3 (d = 0.25).   
 
Educators 
The scores for TO, BC, AS, and PSS improved from T1 to T3 for the experimental group, 
while the scores for BC, AS, and PSS weakened from T1 to T3 and the score for TO 
improved from T1 to T3 for the control group. For the experimental group, the score for AS at 
T1 differs statistically significantly from those at T3 (with the p-value for AS being 0.02). 
There were practically significant differences with a small effect between T1 and T3 for TO 
(d = 0.30), BC (d = 0.27), AS (d = 0.44), and PSS (d = 0.25) for the experimental group. 
There were practically significant differences with small effects for TO, BC, AS, and PSS 
between T1 and T3 (d = 0.26, d = 0.35, d = 0.16, and d = 0.42 respectively) for the control 
group. 
 
Parents or legal guardians 
For the experimental group, the score for SoD stayed the same over time and practically and 
statistically significant differences were thus not applicable. For the control group, the scores 
for SoD decreased slightly from T1 to T3, with this difference not being statistically or 
practically significant.  
A short discussion of the results is presented next. 
 
Discussion 
It was the aim of this study to evaluate the effect of the STP on an experimental group of 
learners in middle childhood in comparison with a control group. Statistically and practically 
significant changes, according to the learners’ rating of themselves, indicate that the STP 
had a positive effect, as it reduced learners’ levels of social anxiety and improved their social 
skills (including adherence to social rules and politeness) and self-esteem. Statistically and 
practically significant changes, according to the educators’ ratings of the learners, indicated 
that the STP had a positive effect on learners, as it increased their assertiveness and peer 
social skills. According to the parents’ ratings of the learners, the STP did not show any 
significant effects. This is probably as a result of the CSPS measuring a preference and not 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 100 
 
a concept. Furthermore, according to learners’ ratings of themselves, the effect of the STP 
was, in most cases, larger directly after its presentation to the experimental group than it was 
three months thereafter. The STP thus had an impact, to a certain extent. This may be 
because it aimed at addressing the various needs of all 10- to 12-year old learners 
simultaneously even though social functioning is a rather complex concept. 
 Seven- to 11-year-old learners rated themselves as having better social skills and 
behaviour control after they had went through either one of two school-based social skills 
programmes (namely ‘Peer Mentoring’ or ‘Skills Training’) developed for learners in the 
United Kingdom with the aim of promoting social inclusion. Even though educators also 
rated learners’ social skills as better after they have completed one of the above 
programmes, parents did not seem to think that changes occurred in the behaviour of the 
learners (Denhan, Hatfield, Smethurst, Tan, & Tribe, 2006). These studies support the 
findings of the current study.  
Many studies indicate that intervening does support the notion that learners’ social 
skills can be enhanced. These studies include the ‘Peer Mentoring’ and ‘Skills Training’ 
programmes (Denham et al., 2006). Furthermore, a school-based social skills programme in 
the United Kingdom promoting resilience showed sustained and significant improvements in 
friendships and pro-social behaviour of learners (Sheppard & Clibbens, 2015). A study 
conducted by Van Vugt, Deković, Prinzie, Stams, and Asscher (2013) indicated that a social 
skills programme (‘Star Camp’) aimed at seven- to 13-year-old learners from the 
Netherlands with behavioural problems resulted in a small but positive change in social 
anxiety, and a continuation programme on the last-mentioned camp, named ‘Moon Camp’, 
resulted in large and positive changes in, amongst others, social anxiety and self-esteem. A 
meta-analysis on after-school programs aiming at the enhancement of social and personal 
skills of learners (including adolescents) showed that these programs decreased problem 
behaviours and increased, amongst others, positive social behaviours and self-perceptions 
(Durlak & Weissberg, 2010). Lastly, an evaluation of the school-based ‘Social Skills Training 
Program’ for elementary school learners in Korea aimed at improving peer relations of 
learners, indicated that this programme achieved its aim (Hong-Shik et al., 2018).  
In the evaluation of ‘We Have Skills’, a video-based social skills programme for 
elementary school learners in the United States aimed at addressing poor social skills, 
educators indicated that this programme improved the social skills of learners (Marques et 
al., 2014). In addition, in a study by DiPerna, Lei, Bellinger, and Cheng (2015) in the United 
States of America, educators rated the internalising behaviour and social skills of learners as 
better after they went through the ‘Social Skills Improvement System Classwide Intervention 
Programme’ which focused on learners’ social behaviour in the classroom.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 101 
 
In the evaluation of ‘Zoo U’, an interactive online social skills game developed in the 
United States of America for seven- to 12-year-old learners with the aim of assessing and 
building pro-social skills, parents indicated that it improved, amongst other aspects, their 
children’s assertiveness, while it also reduced aggressive and anti-social behaviour (Craig, 
Brown, Upright, & DeRosier, 2016). 
In a meta-analytic review of previous research, Sklad et al. (2012) found that most 
programmes lead to positive effects that are in line with the particular programme’s 
outcomes, even though the immediate effects were much better than those obtained over a 
period of time. This is in line with the current study. However, in the previously mentioned 
study by Van Vugt et al. (2013), the effect of the social skills programme increased with time.  
Evidently, the overall positive effect of the STP is supported by many evidence-based 
programmes developed mainly in first-world countries.  
 
Limitations of the study 
The evaluation of the STP only involved black learners aged 10 to 12 in a particular area in 
the North-West Province of South Africa. However, the South African demography includes 
other races and cultures, and middle childhood includes other ages than 10 to 12 years old. 
 Furthermore, the reliability and validity of the psychometric scales used for educators 
(TCRS 2.1) and parents (CSPS) were only tested on a small group (n = 66). 
 
Recommendations from the study 
It is recommended that the study be replicated with learners of other races and cultures and 
with learners who are younger than 10 years old in order to determine whether this will lead 
to different results. 
 The reliability and validity of the TCRS 2.1 and the CSPS have to be tested on larger 
groups to determine whether this will lead to different results for the particular context. 
Furthermore, it is important to determine why the short-term effect (post-test scores) 
of the STP were better than its longer-term effect (follow-up scores). It is also recommended 
to establish the effect of the STP longitudinally in order to determine whether it is 
sustainable. 
To enrich the results obtained from the analysis of the quantitative data, qualitative 
data regarding the effect of the STP can also be collected from learners, educators, and 
parents or legal guardians.  
It is further suggested that similar programmes be offered to parents or learners and 
parents within the school environment to improve parent-child inter-connectedness and to 
prevent possible risk behaviours during adolescence.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 102 
 
Conclusion  
The STP had a positive effect on the group of 10- to 12-year-old learners, as significant 
increases in learners’ self-esteem, assertiveness, and social skills (including adherence to 
social rules and politeness as well as peer social skills) were found. These are essential 
components of social functioning. Evidently, 10- to 12-year-old learners’ social functioning 
and thereby their wellbeing can thus be promoted intentionally in the South African context. 
These efforts are vital seeing that many youngsters in this country are continuously exposed 
to environmental stressors which may negatively impact their levels of psychosocial 
functioning over time. This is in line with the positive psychology stance that a different 
approach is needed to enhance levels of social functioning and, in particularly, wellbeing, as 
indicated in the expression of “Ubuntu” (through others we are).   
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 103 
 
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      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 108 
 
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scales used for learners 
 
Psychometric scales Mean Standard deviation Cronbach alpha 
coefficients 
CDI 2 4.17 3.45 0.71 
SASC-R 56.88 7.96 0.76 
FNE  
(sub-scale of SASC-R) 
 2.93 0.70 0.64 
SAD-N  
(sub-scale of SASC-R) 
 3.06 0.75 0.59 
SAD-G  
(sub-scale of SASC-R) 
  0.42 
CS4 82.82 7.96 0.59 
ASRP (sub-scale of CS4)  4.18 0.45 0.59 
L (sub-scale of CS4)   0.53 
SI (sub-scale of CS4)   0.10 
CSI-R 166.70           19.09 0.72 
GS (sub-scale of CSI-R)    1.65 0.25 0.58 
SS (sub-scale of CSI-R)   0.35 
H (sub-scale of CSI-R)   0.46 
S (sub-scale of CSI-R)   1.70 0.38 0.57 
SHS   0.16 
 
CDI 2 = Children’s Depression Inventory 2; SASC−R = Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised;  
FNE = Fear of negative evaluation from peers; SAD−N = Social avoidance and distress specific to 
new situations; SAD−G: Generalised social avoidance and distress; CS4 = Children’s Self-Report 
Social Skills Scale; ASRP = Adherence to social rules and politeness; L = Likeability (perceived 
popularity); SI = Social ingeniousness (poor recognition and/or comprehension of social interaction’s 
finer details); CSI−R = Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–Revised; GS = General self; SS = Social 
self (peers); H = Home (parents), S = School (academic); SHS = Subjective Happiness Scale. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 109 
 
Table 2: Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scale used for educators 
 
Psychometric scales Mean Standard deviation Cronbach alpha 
coefficients 
TCRS 2.1 3.93 0.38 0.89 
TO  
(sub-scale of TCRS 2.1) 
3.87 0.55 0.83 
BC  
(sub-scale of TCRS 2.1) 
3.84 0.44 0.64 
AS  
(sub-scale of TCRS 2.1) 
3.92 0.48 0.80 
PSS  
(sub-scale of TCRS 2.1) 
4.17 0.48 0.74 
 
TCRS 2.1 = Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1, TO = Task orientation, BC = Behaviour control,  
AS = Assertiveness; PSS = Peer social skills. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 110 
 
Table 3: Descriptive statistics and reliabilities of psychometric scale used for parents or 
legal guardians 
 
Psychometric scales Mean Standard deviation Cronbach alpha 
coefficients 
CSPS 2.10 0.65 0.66 
SH (sub-scale of CSPS)   0.49 
SoD (sub-scale of CSPS) 2.03 0.98 0.63 
 
CSPS = Child Social Preference Scale; SH = Shyness; SoD = Social disinterest (Unsociability). 
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 111 
 
Table 4: Validity of psychometric scale used for learners 
 
Scale CMIN/DF CFI RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 
CDI 2 1.89 0.86 0.06 0.04 0.08 
SASC-R 1.64 0.81 0.05 0.04 0.07 
CS4 1.24 0.91 0.03 0.00 0.05 
CSI-R 1.22 0.92 0.03 0.01 0.05 
SHS 6.68 0.00 0.23 0.17 0.30 
 
CDI 2 = Children’s Depression Inventory 2; SASC−R = Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised;  
CS4 = Children’s Self-Report Social Skills Scale; CSI−R = Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–
Revised; SHS = Subjective Happiness  
CMIN / DF = minimum sample discrepancy / degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index;  
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation, LO 90 / HI 90 = 90 percent confidence interval  
 
 
 
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 Table 5: Validity of psychometric scale used for educators 
 
Scale  CMIN/DF CFI RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 
TCRS 2.1 2.08 0.49 0.13 0.1 0.14 
 
TCRS 2.1 = Teacher Child Rating Scale 2.1 
CMIN / DF = minimum sample discrepancy / degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index;  
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation, LO 90 / HI 90 = 90 percent confidence interval  
 
 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 113 
 
Table 6: Validity of psychometric scale used for parents or legal guardians 
 
Scale CMIN/DF CFI RMSEA LO 90 HI 90 
CSPS 0.97 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 
 
CSPS = Child Social Preference Scale 
CMIN / DF = minimum sample discrepancy / degrees of freedom; CFI = comparative fit index;  
RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation, LO 90 / HI 90 = 90 percent confidence interval
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 114 
 
Table 7: Descriptive statistics and statistical- and practical significances (pre-, post-, and follow-up) for experimental- and control groups 
 
Scale/ 
Sub-
Scale 
Experimental Group Control Group MSE p Experimental Group Control Group Differences between groups 
Mean 
T1 
Mean 
T2 
Mean 
T3 
Mean 
T1 
Mean 
T2 
Mean 
T3 
d 
T1 & T2 
d 
T1 & T3 
d 
T2 & T3 
d 
T1 & T2 
d 
T1 & T3 
d 
T2 & T3 
d 
T1 
d 
T2 
d 
T3 
CDI 2 2.74 4.81 2.14 3.29    5.38 2.28 5.87 0.87 0.85***   0.25*  1.10***   0.87***  0.41*  1.28*** 0.22* 0.23*  0.06 
SASC-R 43.72 45.30 40.49 41.67 45.78 41.94 30.50 0.26    0.29* 0.59**   0.84***   0.74*** 0.05  0.69** 0.37* 0.09*  0.26* 
FNE 2.59 2.77 2.49 2.52 2.92 2.56 0.19 0.46    0.42*   0.21*  0.63**   0.91*** 0.09 0.82*** 0.16* 0.33*  0.15* 
SAD-N 2.51 2.61 2.38 2.36 2.42 2.28 0.22 0.86    0.19*   0.30*  0.49**   0.12    0.16* 0.28* 0.34* 0.41*  0.20* 
CS4 81.65 88.58 86.77 84.67 86.61 85.28 41.00 0.10 1.08***  0.80*** 0.28*   0.30*    0.10 0.21* 0.47** 0.31*  0.23* 
ASRP 3.95 4.36 4.25 4.05     4.17 4.20 0.12 0.10 1.20*** 0.89*** 0.31*   0.34*    0.43*   0.09 0.31* 0.56**  0.15* 
CSI-R 76.45 86.61 86.12 73.93   76.85 75.98 110.3 0.10 0.97*** 0.92***    0.05   0.28*  0.19*   0.08 0.24* 0.93***  0.97*** 
GS 0.81 0.83 0.89 0.68 0.84 0.77 0.03 0.06    0.17* 0.53**  0.36*   1.01***    0.58**   0.43* 0.79*** 0.05 0.74** 
S 0.87 0.93 0.88 0.89 0.83 0.83 0.05 0.44    0.26*   0.05  0.21*   0.25*   0.25*   0.00 0.08 0.43*  0.23* 
 
CDI 2 = Children’s Depression Inventory 2; SASC−R = Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised; FNE = Fear of negative evaluation from peers; SAD−N = Social avoidance and distress specific to 
new situations; CS4 = Children’s Self-Report Social Skills Scale; ASRP = Adherence to social rules and politeness; CSI–R = Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–Revised; GS = General self; S = 
School (academic) self. 
T1 = before the presentation of the STP, T2 = directly after the presentation of the STP, T3 = three months after the presentation of the STP. 
p = statistical significance, + if p < 0.05  
d = practical significance, * if d ≥ 0.2 (small effect), ** if d ≥ 0.5 (medium effect), *** if d ≥ 0.8 (large effect) 
MSE = mean square error 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 115 
 
Table 8: T-tests for psychometric scale used for educators 
 
Scale Experimental group Control group p-values Effect size (d) 
Time 1 Time 3 Time 1 Time 3 Pre-
test 
Paired 
test: 
EG 
Paired 
test: 
CG 
Post-
test 
Pre-
test 
Paired 
test: 
EG 
Paired 
test: 
CG 
Post-
test 
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD 
TO 3.91 0.58 4.09 0.56 3.78 0.51 3.91 0.51 0.356 0.076 0.387 0.222 0.23* 0.30* 0.26* 0.31* 
BC 3.81 0.46 3.94 0.42 3.90 0.40 3.76 0.55 0.433 0.174 0.303 0.200 0.19* 0.27* 0.35* 0.32* 
AS 3.92 0.50 4.14 0.48 3.91 0.46 3.84 0.47 0.920 0.022+ 0.614 0.004+  0.03 0.44* 0.16* 0.64** 
PSS 4.16 0.52 4.29 0.47 4.20 0.40 4.04 0.44 0.717 0.132 0.242 0.037+  0.08 0.25* 0.42* 0.52** 
 
TCRS 2.1 = Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1, TO = Task orientation, BC = Behaviour control, AS = Assertiveness, PSS = Peer social skills 
T1 = before the presentation of the STP, T3 = three months after the presentation of the STP. 
p = statistical significance, + if p < 0.05  
d = practical significance, * if d ≥ 0.2 (small effect), ** if d ≥ 0.5 (medium effect), *** if d ≥ 0.8 (large effect) 
SD = standard deviation 
EG = experimental group; CG = control group 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 116 
 
Table 9: T-tests for psychometric scale used for parents 
 
Scale Experimental group Control group p-values Effect size (d) 
Time 1 Time 3 Time 1 Time 3 Pre-
test 
Paired 
test: 
EG 
Paired 
test: 
CG 
Post-
test 
Pre-
test 
Paired 
test: 
EG 
Paired 
test: 
CG 
Post-
test Mean SD Mean SD Mean 
 
SD Mean SD 
SoD 1.88 0.90 1.88 0.87 1.88 0.87 1.85 0.89 0.99 0.066 1.00 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23* 
 
CSPS = Child Social Preference Scale, SoD = Social disinterest (Unsociability) 
T1 = before the presentation of the STP, T3 = three months after the presentation of the STP. 
p = statistical significance, + if p < 0.05  
d = practical significance, * if d ≥ 0.2 (small effect), ** if d ≥ 0.5 (medium effect), *** if d ≥ 0.8 (large effect) 
SD = standard deviation  
EG = experimental group; CG = control group
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 117 
 
SECTION C 
 
CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 118 
 
Aim and Outline of the Study 
This study aimed to develop and evaluate a school-based wellbeing programme to promote 
the social functioning of learners in middle childhood and thereby their wellbeing. This was done by 
determining educators’ experiences of the social functioning (social skills and competencies) of 
learners in middle childhood in a certain area of the North-West Province of South Africa (Section 
B, Article 1); developing a school-based wellbeing programme (called the Social Treasures 
Programme; STP) to enhance the social functioning of these learners (Section B, Article 2); and by 
determining the effect of the STP on the abovementioned learners’ social functioning (Section B, 
Article 3). 
The first article explored the positive and negative experiences of educators regarding the 
social functioning of learners in middle childhood, aged 10 to 12 years old, in a particular area in 
the North-West Province of South Africa. Focus groups were conducted with 29 educators of 10- to 
12-year-old learners from four schools that each represented one sub-area into which schools of a 
selected area in the North-West Province of South Africa are divided. Thematic analysis of the data 
indicated that matters regarding context and culture are very important in the social functioning of 
learners, that both appropriate and inappropriate behaviour are displayed by learners in middle 
childhood in interaction with others, and that various social skills need to be developed and 
strengthened intentionally. It was recommended that a school-based wellbeing programme 
targeting certain social skills and competencies should be developed for learners in middle 
childhood (aged 10 to 12 years) in the South African context, to assist them in managing ordinary 
daily social interactions more effectively.   
The second article’s aim was to develop a school-based wellbeing programme called the 
Social Treasures Programme (STP) to improve 10- to 12-year-old learners’ social functioning and 
thereby their wellbeing. The content of the STP was compiled from the findings of the focus groups 
with educators (as indicated under article one above) and also information gained through a 
thorough literature review on existing social skills programmes. The STP was written from a 
positive psychology perspective as it was developed for all learners and not only those dealing with 
disorders and/or challenges. The STP encompasses eight sessions that cover the following 
themes: self-esteem and gratitude, self-regulation and goal setting, values and relationships, 
communication and listening, conflict management, emotional competence, and resilient coping. 
Furthermore, the STP should be presented to small groups of about 20 learners at a time, at their 
school and after school hours. The duration of the STP is four to eight weeks, depending on the 
number of sessions conducted per week, with the duration of each session being about 90 minutes 
(including activities and games). As the mere provision of information about a school-based 
wellbeing programme such as the STP in itself does not change those behaviour/actions 
associated with the sound social functioning of learners, it was recommended that the STP be 
implemented to evaluate its effectiveness.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 119 
 
The third article’s aim was thus to evaluate the effect of the STP. A repeated measures 
design was used and learners, educators, and parents or legal guardians from an area in the 
North-West Province participated by completing psychometric scales at various time-intervals. 
First, all learner participants completed the Social Anxiety Scale for Children–Revised (La Greca, 
1998; La Greca & Stone, 1993), the School Short-Form Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory–
Revised (Coopersmith, 1967; Hills, Francis, & Jennings, 2011), the Children’s Self-Report Social 
Skills Scale (Danielson & Phelps, 2003), the Children’s Depression Inventory Short Form (Kovacs, 
2011), and the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999). Two-hundred-and-
twenty-one learners participated in the pre-testing (and not only the learners in the experimental 
and control groups), as the abovementioned psychometric scales were not developed in South 
Africa and its reliability and validity had to be determined for the particular context. Furthermore, 
the scores that learners obtained on the psychometric scales in the pre-testing were used to divide 
the learners of the school chosen for the evaluation of the effect of the STP into three categories 
(high, moderate, and low scores), with the aim of ensuring that more or less equal percentages of 
learners from all the categories could be selected randomly for both the experimental and control 
groups.  
Sixty-six learners were part of the experimental and control groups (with 45 learners in the 
experimental group and 21 in the control group) and thus participated in the evaluation of the STP 
(the attendance of the STP by the experimental group, the post-testing [involving both the 
experimental and control groups] directly after the presentation of the STP to the experimental 
group, and the follow-up testing [involving both the experimental and control groups] three months 
after the presentation of the STP to the experimental group). Thirteen educators completed the 
Teacher-Child Rating Scale 2.1 (Children’s Institute, 2002) and 66 parents or legal guardians 
completed the Child Social Preference Scale (Coplan, Prakash, O’Neil, & Armer, 2004) before and 
also three months after the presentation of the STP to the experimental group. According to an 
analysis of the quantitative data, as provided by the psychometric scales and sub-scales, the STP 
impacted positively on the learners in the sense that it decreased their social anxiety and increased 
their social skills (including adherence to social rules and politeness) and self-esteem, according to 
the ratings of the learners, and also increased their assertiveness and peer social skills, according 
to the ratings of the educators. The null hypothesis, as stated in Section A, is thus rejected. 
 Spontaneous positive feedback on the sessions of the STP was provided by the learners 
and was expressed in the following ways:   
“I learnt to be myself and believe in myself. I learnt to be good to other people. I learnt to 
say positive things to other people.” 
“I learnt about self-regulation, take control of myself, take control of my emotions, take 
control of my thoughts, take control of my behaviour, take control of my energy, and be smart.” 
“I learnt what to do to achieve my dream which is to work hard and set myself a goal.” 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 120 
 
“Today I learnt about values and relationships, and I learnt to have values and boundaries 
and I must not be selfish to my friends and gossip about them. I must be kindness, trustworthy, 
gratitude and thankfulness.” 
“I learnt conflict management. Conflict means disagree with other person. And I learn a 
style for handling conflict. It is just like a tortoise, teddy bear, shark, fox, and owl.” 
“I learnt about assertiveness – mean to stand up for your rights in a good way.” 
“I learnt about how to communicate which is to listen, speak afterwards, make eye contact. 
I learned about communicating with words and body language.” 
“I can change my feel about someone and not be sad when something bad happen. I need 
to take control and remember we are unique and special.” 
“Today I learnt about resilience and about problem solving and that resilience means not 
giving up but bouncing back again like a ball and not to be negative in life but to be positive and if 
life gives you lemon you must make a sweet lemonade.” 
“I want you to know that you taught me a lot of things. You taught me about self-esteem 
and gratitude, self-regulation and goal setting, values and relationships.” 
“This programme will help me to achieve something in life because it teaches me to live a 
good life.” 
These responses of the experimental group emphasised the positive effect of the STP in 
enhancing learners’ social functioning as established through the quantitative methods. 
In summary, the qualitative findings of this study (see Section B, Article 1) indicate that 
many of the learners in the selected area of the North-West Province of South Africa who are in 
middle childhood (aged 10 to 12 years) face challenges regarding their social functioning. 
Furthermore, the sound social functioning of all learners in middle childhood is central to their 
positive development. All learners in this developmental phase should thus be supported in 
acquiring the social skills that would assist them in functioning socially soundly. Given the above, a 
school-based wellbeing programme, the STP, was developed from a positive psychology 
perspective. The STP includes social skills and competencies aimed at enhancing the social 
functioning of learners in middle childhood. The STP was implemented and its effect was 
evaluated. It improved social skills, self-esteem and assertiveness, while it reduced social anxiety. 
These successes, as well as learners’ expressions of the value of the STP, indicate that the 
programme is likely to improve the social functioning and thereby the wellbeing of learners in 
middle childhood. 
 Limitations of the Study 
During the first data collection opportunity, some educators did not participate actively in the 
focus groups interviews conducted at the four different schools. These data collection opportunities 
were held after school as this was the only available time. This might have led to educators being 
tired and in a hurry and not providing the best information. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 121 
 
Although educators provided valuable information regarding the social functioning of 
learners during the focus group interviews, the information obtained was limited to an extent, as all 
educators are not necessarily well-equiped in providing information on the social functioning of 
learners, as initially assumed. 
The STP was presented in English without it being interpreted in the learners’ home 
language. The main reason for this was that the learners were against interpretation as they are 
schooled in English (even though it is only from grade four) and indicated that interpretation would 
make them feel inferior. This is in line with a study done by Jefferis and Theron (2017) in which 
Sesotho-speaking adolescent girls from the Free State Province of South Africa seemed to prefer 
using English, the language in which they are schooled, despite interpreters being present during 
the research. Secondly, learners had different home languages, which would have made the use of 
another language than English unfair to some. The above might have affected the results of the 
evaluation of the effect of the STP.  
The reliability and validity of the psychometric scales used for educators and parents or 
legal guardians have only been tested on small groups as larger groups were not available. 
The effect of the STP was only tested on black learners (in a particular school), while the 
South African demography also includes other races and cultures.  
Recommendations from the Study 
A preparation sheet or a written questionnaire including all the main questions to be asked 
during a focus group interview should be given to participants about a week beforehand, with the 
request to fill it out and submit it after the completion of the focus group interview. A couple of 
semi-structured personal interviews, as an additional means of gathering in-depth data, should 
also be conducted.   
It is recommended to consult professional persons, such as educational psychologists, as a 
valuable source of information when socio-emotional research is planned with learner-participants.   
It might be beneficial to provide in-depth training on the social functioning of learners to 
educators as part of their continuous career development as this may contribute to the 
development of competent school communities. Furthermore, since it cannot be assumed that all 
educators are experts of learners’ social functioning, it is suggested that some training on the 
optimal levels of social functioning of learners is given to educators if they are asked to evaluate 
the learners’ social functioning.     
As bias is always a sensitive matter in qualitative research, it is a given that researchers 
should be cautious about the judgmental attitudes of participants as well as their personal 
prejudices. It is recommended that special measures should be in place when researchers are 
investigating matters related to many cultures and different sosio-economic statuses.  
South African learners in middle childhood (aged 10 to 12 years) should be supported to 
acquire certain social skills and competencies by means of a school-based wellbeing programme 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 122 
 
such as the STP, which includes sessions on, for example, communication and listening, conflict 
management, and problem solving. It is recommended that the STP be presented to all learners in 
middle childhood (aged 10 to 12) at their schools, after school-hours, and by trained individuals 
with the relevant backgrounds and qualifications, as a supplement to the social skills training that 
are taught in the CAPS Life Orientation Curriculum in schools, and as a way of giving back to the 
community. If, despite this, only a limited number of learners benefit from the STP due to 
significant financial, time, and opportunity barriers (compare Craig, Brown, Upright, & DeRosier, 
2016), it is recommended that parents or voluntary community workers be trained to present a 
simplified version of the STP with regular monitoring by an appointed professional person in the 
particular community. In addition, similar programmes may be offered to parents or learners and 
parents within the school environment to improve parent-child inter-connectedness and to prevent 
possible risk behaviours during adolescence.  
The evaluation of the effect of the STP over a longer period of time may be beneficial, and 
the reasons for it having better effects over the short term than over the longer term should be 
determined. Furthermore, in-depth qualitative data regarding the effects of the STP (and perhaps 
each session in the particular programme) should be obtained from learners, educators, and 
parents or legal guardians in order to supplement the quantitative findings. 
The study should be replicated with learners from other races and culture groups and with 
learners in middle childhood that are younger than 10 years old to determine whether different 
results are obtained. 
The reliability and validity of the TCRS 2.1 and the CSPS should be evaluated on larger 
groups. 
Contribution of the Study 
This study is of great value as, according to the knowledge of the researchers, it is the first 
of its kind on the topic in question amongst learners in middle childhood (aged 10 to 12 years) 
within the theoretical framework of positive psychology, and in the South African context - this 
study thus improves the knowledge base in psychology.  
As a result of this study, information on educators’ experiences of the social functioning of 
learners in middle childhood, in the particular community, is available. Furthermore, a school-
based wellbeing programme to enhance the social functioning of learners in middle childhood aged 
10 to 12 years, namely the STP, has been developed for the South African context. In addition, the 
effect of the STP has been evaluated and the STP is thus an evidence-based programme that can 
be used not only to enhance social skills (including peer relations and adherence to social rules 
and politeness), but also to improve self-esteem and assertiveness as well as decrease social 
anxiety. 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 123 
 
This study further determined the validity and reliability of various psychometric scales and 
sub-scales for the South African context and thus indicates which of these can be used 
successfully in the particular context.  
The results of Article 1 were presented as a poster at the Africa Positive Psychology 
Conference at the North-West University during April 2018. 
Implications of the Study for Learners, Educators, and Parents 
This study has implications for the learners who have completed the STP and also for those 
with whom they are in contact with or interact with, for example, their fellow learners, their 
educators, their school, their parents or legal guardians, their families, and their communities. 
Learners 
The learners who completed the STP are likely to reap the benefits thereof, for example, 
having more positive social interactions with other individuals or being seen as leaders from which 
a lot can be learnt as a result of their changed social behaviour. Furthermore, learners who 
completed the STP are likely to transfer the skills and competencies they have learnt to their fellow 
learners, with this having positive consequences for everyone involved.  
Educators 
Educators may, for example, be able to spend less time on learners’ problem behaviour 
and more time on academic work, enabling them to reach their timelines and experience less work-
related stress and more work satisfaction as they are working in a more conducive environment. 
School 
A school may, for example, become known as a good school if learners in the school show 
appropriate social skills and good behaviour. This may lead to the school being popular among 
prospective learners and parents of the school, and current learners and parents being proud to be 
associated with the school and wanting to be involved in the activities of the school. Furthermore, 
being known as a good school may also attract sponsorships for sport and cultural activities to the 
school.  
Parents or Legal Guardians 
Parents or legal guardians may, for example, experience less problem behaviours 
regarding household tasks, homework, and general attitude from the learners who have been 
exposed to the STP in some way. This may lead to changes in the whole family, for example, more 
support and cooperation in the family and less fights between family members as they have learnt 
to respect and appreciate one another.  
Community 
Regarding the community, learners who have participated in the STP may also, for 
example, teach some of the good values that they have learnt to some members of the community. 
This may have a snowball effect leading to more and more people learning these values with the 
outcome possibly including that crime is lowered in the particular community.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 124 
 
Reflection 
Many lessons were learnt during this study. The following aspects are highlighted:  
It is crucial to build relationships with and obtain the trust and commitment of the 
gatekeepers (persons who provide a researcher with access to a particular community and who 
give permission to a researcher to have interaction with possible participants to his or her study in 
the community, for example, the principal of a school), mediators (persons who serve as a point of 
contact between the researcher and participants to the study, for example, a head of a department 
at a school), and participants before the commencement of the research process, to prevent them 
from feeling used and to ensure the best possible cooperation from them. 
  It is advisable to inform all of the involved parties of the timeline of the research and the 
importance of sticking to it, and to then make all appointments and arrangements well ahead of 
time, but also to be willing to make adjustments on short notice, should the need for this arise. It is 
thus best to try to adapt to the schedules of the school, educators, and learners and to recognise 
and show appreciation for their involvement in the research on a continuous basis.  
 Constant persuasion and motivation, based on the value of the research and its 
advantages, are needed, as even though participants are interested in the research and 
passionate about its objectives, they may give it a low priority as a result of other commitments.  
A lot of patience is needed when it comes to consent and assent letters for participants as 
well as psychometric scales that need to be completed at home. It is rather likely that a lot of 
participants will fill it out only partially or wrongly, despite instructions, and that it will have to be 
sent back to them for full and correct completion (in this study, the mediators and researcher 
assisted in such situations at the particular schools). Furthermore, when working with learners or 
individuals with a low level of schooling, they may be unfamiliar with psychometric scales and have 
feelings of discomfort and uncertainty regarding it. In order to get the most accurate research 
results, it may thus be valuable to also use qualitative research, for example, personal interviews. 
In addition, the rate at which the completed and/or signed documentation is submitted back may be 
rather slow and longer than the time allowed for this. The research process may thus be delayed 
and planning will have to be amended. In addition, a lot of unexpected situations may also occur, 
and it may thus be necessary to quickly come up with possible solutions, considering others in this 
and staying on track and positive.  
 Permission is needed to use the psychometric scales developed by others. Furthermore, if 
no psychometric scales that have been developed in South Africa are available for a particular 
construct, psychometric scales developed overseas have to be used. Rather large groups of 
participants will thus be needed to determine the reliability and validity of these psychometric 
scales and sub-scales and, as the South African context is quite unique, it may happen that some 
scales and sub-scales are not reliable and valid and thus cannot be used in the study. In addition, 
fees for using psychometric scales have to be paid, and using psychometric scales from overseas 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 125 
 
may be expensive as a license or licenses may have to be purchased in the currency of the 
country where the particular psychometric scale has been developed and sometimes also for every 
person the scale is administered to, with the understanding that if a scale is administered more 
than once on the same person, a license is needed for each administration. Some licenses are 
only valid for a couple of months after they have been purchased, and more licenses may have to 
be purchased for later use, as may be the case with follow-up testing.  
In addition, if psychometric scales are not in the home language(s) of those who need to 
complete it, as is the case when scales developed overseas are used, the scales may have to be 
translated to these home language(s). This is a time-consuming and expensive process as scales 
have to be translated from its original language to the preferred language by one person, then from 
the preferred language to its original language again by a second person, after which a comparison 
of the two versions in the original language must be undertaken by a third person who should then 
make amendments as needed. It may also happen that when a scale is translated to a certain 
language, there are a word(s) in the original scale for which no words with the same meaning exist 
in the language to which the scale must be translated, in which case the word with the closest 
meaning is used. Unfortunately, this may lead to a different interpretation than what was originally 
intended and a scale or sub-scales being less reliable and valid.  
When working with learners in middle childhood, it must be taken into consideration that, as 
time passes, they tend to forget the skills and competencies that they have learnt, and frequent 
revision in the form of short repetitions of the basics skills and competencies as well as practising it 
often may be needed in order for these learners not to lose the skills.  
Field and reflective notes should be made during the research process in order to 
remember important information that may add value to the research when results are written up. 
Conclusion 
The focus of this study was on developing and evaluating the effect of a school-based 
wellbeing programme, the Social Treasures Programme (STP), with the aim of enhancing the 
social functioning and thereby the wellbeing of South African learners in middle childhood, aged 10 
to 12 years. While certain limitations were indicated, the important contributions and positive 
implications for learners, educators, schools, parents or legal guardians, and communities were 
shown. Furthermore, valuable lessons have been learnt from this study and these may serve as a 
guide for other researchers working on the development and evaluation of programmes for the 
South African context.  
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 126 
 
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APPENDICES 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 141 
 
Appendix 1 
Permission for the study from the North-West Province’s Department of Education and 
Sport Development 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 142 
 
Appendix 2 
Permission for the study from the research focus area, Community Psychosocial Research 
(COMPRES) 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 143 
 
Appendix 3 
Ethics Approval Certificate from the Health Research Ethics Committee (HREC) 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 144 
 
Appendix 4 
Focus group interview guide 
 
• An opening statement will be used, such as: “A focus group can be seen as a group 
interview. This focus group will last approximately an hour and I would like to learn more 
about your experiences regarding the social functioning of learners aged 10 to 12 years in the 
classroom situation; the social skills that you think can enable these learners to improve their 
social functioning; and social or relational challenges that these learners experience that may 
affect their social functioning and wellbeing. I want to emphasise that social functioning 
entails the interaction between the social demands or challenges presented by the 
environment and the learner’s competencies to meet these demands or challenges”.   
• An open-ended question will be used to explore social functioning in middle childhood, for 
example: “How do you experience the social functioning of learners aged 10 to 12 years old 
in the classroom?” or “According to your experience, what is the difference in terms of social 
functioning between a 10- to 12-year-old learner who does not function well socially and a 
learner of the same age who functions well socially?” 
• Participants will be encouraged to recount experiences of interaction with learners. The 
following questions will be asked in this respect:  
o Please tell me about any positive experiences that you have had with learners in middle 
childhood regarding their social functioning, in your career, to date. 
o Please tell me about any negative experiences that you have had with learners in middle 
childhood regarding their social functioning, in your career, to date. 
o Please provide examples of when you felt helpless in working with a 10- to 12-year-old 
learner who experiences challenges regarding social functioning, during your career, to 
date. 
o How, do you think, can negative experiences be prevented or lessened, with specific 
reference to the competencies and social skills that learners in middle childhood need in 
order to manage social situations more effectively in future?  
o Please tell me about your best techniques in the learning environment to protect (and 
promote) the social functioning of learners in middle childhood. 
• These questions will be followed up with various prompts requesting examples, also paying 
attention to possible cultural differences. 
• Closure and explanation of the completion of the research process for phase 1. 
 
 
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Appendix 5 
An example of the coding of the qualitative data  
 
Codes Sub-Theme Main Theme 
Kind (comment nicely, 
assist) 
Appropriate behavior Quality of connecting in 
terms of behavior 
Respectful (accept 
discipline) 
Supportive (look after one 
another, involved with peers) 
Disrespectful (disruptive, 
interrupt, don’t accept 
authority, inform educators 
about things instead of 
asking) 
Inappropriate behavior 
No boundaries (take-over, 
bossy, don’t think before 
speaking, using vulgar 
language) 
Conflict (fighting, 
argumentative, aggressive) 
Unaccomodative / 
Inconsiderate 
Bullying (teasing, spread 
rumours, belittle) 
  
 
 
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Appendix 6 
An example of a poster used in the Social Treasures Programme 
Conflict management styles 
Avoidance (Tortoise) 
 
 
 
• Avoids conflict: withdraws/distances him-
/herself.  
• Does not assert his/her wants. 
• Does not help the other party to get what 
he/she wants. 
Accommodative (Teddy Bear) 
 
 
 
 
• Helps the other party to get what he/she 
wants (pleases other party). 
• Gives up on his/her own ideas/needs. 
 
Competitive (Shark) 
 
 
 
 
• Wants to resolve conflict his/her way. 
• Finds it difficult to understand why other 
people do not see things the same way he/she 
does. 
Compromising (Fox) 
 
 
 
 
• Both parties are willing to give and take. 
• Both win a little and lose a little. 
Collaborative (Owl) 
 
 
 
• All the parties work together to get the best 
solution for everyone (to meet everyone’s needs 
as much as possible) and to make everyone as 
happy as possible. 
 
 
 
      A SCHOOL-BASED WELLBEING PROGRAMME TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING 147 
 
Appendix 7 
Attendance certificate for the Social Treasures Programme 
 
 
This is to certify that 
 
__________________________________ 
 
has attended 
 
THE SOCIAL TREASURES PROGRAMME  
TO PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD 
 
   
__________________ ___________________ __________________ 
Researcher Presenter Date