A forensic assessment model for the sexually abused child in the South African context S Smith 11312025 BA (MW), MA (MW) (CUM LAUDE) Thesis submitted for the degree Doctor Philosophiae in Social Work Sciences the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University Promoter: Prof CC Wessels Co-promoter: Prof H Strydom May 2014 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Page i I thank all who contributed to making this research possible. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the contributions made by the following:  The Lord, for providing me with the strength and persistence to deliver.  My promoter, Prof CC Wessels who motivated and guided me patiently, without whom I would have never started and ended this research.  My co-promotor Prof H Strydom, for his guidance and support.  My dear husband Jaco Smith who believed in me, encouraged me and supported me.  My lovely daughter Anjané Smith for her kindness.  My dear parents Izak and Petra Smalman for their support and encouragement.  My sisters Herculene and Nicolene for believing in me.  My friends Lizél Pretorius, Taetske Calitz and Sureta Cornelius for all their help and support.  All my colleagues for their support and encouragement.  All the respondents who participated in this research, and their positive feedback.  Mrs Marietjie du Toit for the professional technical layout of my research.  Mrs Cecilia van der Walt for the careful language editing.  Prof Lessing for the careful corrections and editing of my reference list. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FOREWORD Page ii The article format has been chosen in accordance with the regulation A. 12.2 for the PhD (SW) degree. The formulation of the articles is in accordance with stipulations of CARSA (Addendum 8) and Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk (Addendum 9). FOREWORD TABLE OF CONTENTS Page iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................... I FOREWORD .................................................................................................................................................... II TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... III OPSOMMING ................................................................................................................................................. 1 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 SECTION A ...................................................................................................................................................... 9 1. PROBLEM FORMULATION ...................................................................................................................... 9 2. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................... 13 2.1 GENERAL AIM .................................................................................................................................. 13 2.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................... 13 3. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT .................................................................................................... 13 4. THEORETICAL STANCE ......................................................................................................................... 13 5. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION ............................................................................................................... 14 5.1 LITERATURE STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 14 5.2 PILOT STUDY.................................................................................................................................... 15 5.3 RESEARCH MODEL ............................................................................................................................ 16 FIGURE 1: PROCESS AND STEPS OF INTERVENTION RESEARCH ..................................................................... 17 5.3.1 Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning ....................................................................... 17 5.3.2 Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis .......................................................................... 19 5.3.3 Phase 3: Design ....................................................................................................................... 20 5.3.4 Phase 4: Early Development and Pilot Testing .......................................................................... 21 5.3.5 Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development ...................................................................... 23 5.3.6 Phase 6: Dissemination ............................................................................................................ 26 5.4 RESEARCH APPROACH ........................................................................................................................ 27 5.5 THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................... 28 5.6 RESPONDENTS ................................................................................................................................. 29 5.7 DATA GATHERING ............................................................................................................................. 31 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page iv 5.8 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................ 33 5.9 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ........................................................................................ 33 TABLE 1: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS ...................... 33 5.10 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF QUANTITATIVE DATA .................................................................................... 35 TABLE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ........... 35 5.11 ETHICAL ASPECTS .............................................................................................................................. 36 5.12 PROCEDURES ................................................................................................................................... 38 6. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................ 39 7. TERMINOLOGY .................................................................................................................................... 39 7.1 FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK ..................................................................................................................... 39 7.2 FORENSIC INTERVIEW......................................................................................................................... 40 7.3 FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR .................................................................................................................... 41 7.4 HYPOTHESIS .................................................................................................................................... 41 7.5 CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ......................................................................................................................... 42 7.6 PROTOCOL ...................................................................................................................................... 43 7.7 ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................................... 43 7.8 EXPERT WITNESS .............................................................................................................................. 44 7.9 FORENSIC MODEL ............................................................................................................................. 44 7.10 LEGALLY DEFENSIBLE .......................................................................................................................... 45 8. CHOICE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT .......................................................................... 45 8.1 SECTION A: INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 45 8.2 SECTION B: RESEARCH ARTICLES ........................................................................................................... 45 8.2.1 Article 1 ................................................................................................................................... 45 8.2.2 Article 2 ................................................................................................................................... 45 8.2.3 Article 3 ................................................................................................................................... 45 8.2.4 Article 4 ................................................................................................................................... 46 8.3 SECTION C: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................. 46 8.4 SECTION D: ADDENDUMS ................................................................................................................... 46 8.5 SECTION E: CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES ....................................................................................... 46 FIGURE 2: REPORT OUTLINE ......................................................................................................................... 46 9. REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................................................... 47 ARTICLE 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 55 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page v 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 56 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................................................ 56 3. OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................................... 60 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................. 60 4.1 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 60 5. CHILD DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................... 61 5.1 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ................................................................... 62 TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE THEORIES OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY: ............................................ 63 TABLE 2: PHASES OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY ............................................................. 64 5.1.1 Concrete operational thought (7-11 years) ............................................................................... 65 5.1.2 The influence of cognitive development on the outcome of the forensic interview ..................... 68 5.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHILD IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD PHASE........................................... 69 5.2.1 Normal versus abnormal sexual behaviour ............................................................................... 70 TABLE 3 NORMAL VERSUS ABNORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF CHILDREN ................................................. 70 5.3 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................. 74 5.3.1 Phonology ............................................................................................................................... 75 5.3.2 Semantics ................................................................................................................................ 78 5.3.3 Syntax ..................................................................................................................................... 83 5.3.4. Pragmatics and conversational competence......................................................................... 86 6. THE USE OF FORENSIC PROTOCOLS ..................................................................................................... 88 6.1 DIFFERENT PHASES IN A FORENSIC PROTOCOL ........................................................................................... 89 7. DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................... 91 8. SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 92 9. REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................................................... 93 ARTICLE 2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 98 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................ 99 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ..................................................................................................................... 99 3. OBJECTIVE ..................................................................................................................................... 101 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 101 4.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 101 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page vi 4.2 RESEARCH MODEL ........................................................................................................................... 102 FIGURE 1: THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL ..................................................................................... 104 4.3 THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................. 107 4.4 RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................................................... 108 4.4.1 Types of snowball sampling ................................................................................................... 108 4.5 DATA GATHERING ........................................................................................................................... 109 4.6 DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................. 109 4.7 ETHICAL ASPECTS ............................................................................................................................ 110 5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................................. 111 6. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS .......................................................................................................... 111 6.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (SECTION 1) ...................................................................... 112 TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=18 ............................................................ 112 6.1.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................ 113 6.1.2 Gender .................................................................................................................................. 113 6.1.3 First Language ....................................................................................................................... 114 6.2 QUALIFICATIONS COMBINED WITH KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS (SECTION 1 & 2) ................................................ 114 TABLE 2: SHORT COURSES IN RESPECT OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS ...................................................... 115 GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS WHO EXCLUSIVELY PERFORM FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=18 ....................... 115 TABLE 3: EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................. 116 6.3 ASSESSMENT PROCESS (SECTION 3) ..................................................................................................... 118 6.4 CHOOSING A MODEL FOR EVALUATING CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ALLEGATIONS .................................................... 119 GRAPH 2: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL N=18 .................................................. 119 GRAPH 3: SCIENTIFIC MODEL USED BY RESPONDENTS N=18 ................................................................. 120 6.4.1 The child interview model ...................................................................................................... 120 TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CHILD INTERVIEW MODEL ............... 122 6.4.2 The joint investigation model ................................................................................................. 127 TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE JOINT INVESTIGATION MODEL ......... 127 6.4.3 The parent-child interaction model......................................................................................... 130 TABLE 6: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION MODEL .................................................................................................................................................................. 131 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page vii 6.4.4 Comprehensive assessment model ......................................................................................... 133 TABLE 7: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT MODEL .................................................................................................................................................................. 134 6.5 DISCUSSION ON MODELS EMPLOYED BY THE RESPONDENTS ........................................................................ 136 GRAPH 4: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM N=18 ................................................. 136 TABLE 8: MEMBERS FORMING PART OF THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM ................................................... 137 GRAPH 5: CONSULT WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES N=18 ......................................................................... 138 TABLE 9: COLLATERAL SOURCES CONSULTED BY RESPONDENTS ......................................................... 139 GRAPH 6: CONSULT WITH SUSPECT N=18 .............................................................................................. 140 TABLE 10: A MODEL FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT ........................................................................... 142 6.6 CHOOSING A PROTOCOL FOR EVALUATING CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ALLEGATIONS ................................................ 142 GRAPH 7: STRUCTURED, SEMI-STRUCTURED OR UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS N=18 ........................... 144 GRAPH 8: MAKING USE OF A PHASED APPROACH N=18 ........................................................................ 144 GRAPH 9: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL N=18 ............................................ 145 TABLE 11: DIFFERENT PHASES FOLLOWED BY RESPONDENTS .................................................................... 145 GRAPH 10: SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL USED BY RESPONDENTS N=18 .......................................................... 147 6.6.1 National Institute for Child Health and Development (NICHD) Investigative Model .................. 147 6.6.2 Recommendation by the researcher on the use of the NICHD protocol .................................... 147 7. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 148 8. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 149 9. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................... 149 10. REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................. 151 ARTICLE 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 161 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 162 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 162 3. OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 164 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 164 4.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 165 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page viii 4.2 PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................ 165 4.3 RESEARCH MODEL ........................................................................................................................... 166 FIGURE 1: PHASES 4 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL................................................................. 167 5. A SCIENTIFIC MODEL AND PROTOCOL FOR ASSESSING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN ....................... 169 FIGURE 2: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE PHASES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL ........................ 170 5.1 PHASE 1: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN ............................. 171 FIGURE 3: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 1 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 171 5.1.1 Step 1: Qualifications of the forensic investigator ................................................................... 171 5.1.2 Step 2: Choosing a scientific model to work from .................................................................... 174 5.1.3 Step 3: Accepting the referral ................................................................................................. 175 5.1.4 Step 4: Obtaining consent from the parents/primary caregivers ............................................. 176 5.1.5 Step 5: Choosing an environment for the interview ................................................................. 177 5.1.6 Step 6: Documentation during the investigation ..................................................................... 177 5.1.7 Step 7: Determining how many sessions are adequate............................................................ 182 5.1.8 Step 8: Be familiar with the acceptable questioning strategies during the interviewing process184 TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES ............................................................... 187 TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES ......................................................................... 189 TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF LESS PREFERRED QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 193 TABLE 4: LEAST PREFERRED QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 196 5.2 PHASE 2: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING THE PRE-FORENSIC ASSESSMENT OF THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD ........... 196 FIGURE 4: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 2 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 197 5.2.1 Step 1: Starting the interview ................................................................................................. 199 5.2.2 Step 2: Rapport building ......................................................................................................... 199 5.2.3 Step 3: The Competency assessment ...................................................................................... 202 FIGURE 5: ASPECTS OF THE COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 202 5.2.4 Step 4: Establishment of ground rules .................................................................................... 204 5.2.5 Step 5: The developmental assessment .................................................................................. 208 5.2.6 Step 6: Obtaining baseline information from the child ............................................................ 210 5.2.7 Step 7: Identification of different body parts ........................................................................... 211 5.2.8 Step 8: Determining possible risk factors by means of various techniques ............................... 213 5.2.9 Step 9: Closing the interview .................................................................................................. 215 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ix 5.3 PHASE 3: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS .............................................................................. 217 5.3.1 Step 1: Interview with non-offending parents or alleged perpetrator ...................................... 217 FIGURE 6: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 3 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 217 5.3.2 Step 2: Interview with members of the multi-disciplinary team and investigating officer ......... 220 5.4 PHASE 4: CHOOSING A FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL ...................................................................... 221 FIGURE 7: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 4 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 221 5.4.1 Step 1: Conducting a forensic interview employing the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol .. 223 5.5 PHASE 5: INTERVIEW WITH PARENTS/OFFENDER AND OTHER ROLE PLAYERS ................................................... 234 FIGURE 8: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 5 .............................................................................................. 234 5.6 PHASE 6: INVESTIGATING MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES AND FORMULATING AN OPINION .......................................... 235 FIGURE 9: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 6 .............................................................................................. 235 5.7 PHASE 7: REPORT WRITING ............................................................................................................... 237 FIGURE 10: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 7 ............................................................................................ 237 5.8 PHASE 8: EXPERT TESTIMONY IN COURT ............................................................................................... 238 FIGURE 11: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 8 ............................................................................................ 238 5.9 PHASE 9: CLOSING THE CASE ............................................................................................................. 239 FIGURE 12: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 9 ............................................................................................ 239 6. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................................... 240 7. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................... 241 8. REFERENCE LIST ................................................................................................................................. 242 ARTICLE 4 ................................................................................................................................................... 252 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 253 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 253 3. OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 254 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 254 4.1 LITERATURE STUDY .......................................................................................................................... 255 4.2 RESEARCH MODEL ........................................................................................................................... 255 FIGURE 1: PHASES 4, 5 AND 6 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL .................................................. 256 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page x 4.2.1 Phase 4: Early development, implementing and testing .......................................................... 257 4.2.2 Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development .................................................................... 257 4.2.3 Phase 6: Dissemination phase ................................................................................................ 260 4.3 RESEARCH APPROACH ...................................................................................................................... 262 4.4 THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................. 262 4.5 RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................................................... 263 4.5.1 State prosecutors ................................................................................................................... 264 4.5.2 Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse ................................................. 265 4.5.3 Postgraduate students ........................................................................................................... 265 4.6 DATA GATHERING ........................................................................................................................... 266 4.6.1 State prosecutors ................................................................................................................... 266 4.6.2 Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse ................................................. 266 4.6.3 Postgraduate students ........................................................................................................... 267 4.7 RESEARCH PROCEDURE..................................................................................................................... 267 4.8 DATA ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................. 268 4.9 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ...................................................................................... 268 FIGURE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS .................. 268 4.10 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF QUANTITATIVE DATA .................................................................................. 270 4.11 ETHICAL ASPECTS ............................................................................................................................ 272 5. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY MEANS OF A SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 274 5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (SECTION A) ...................................................................... 274 TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (STATE PROSECUTORS) N=4 .......................... 274 5.1.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................ 275 5.1.2 Gender .................................................................................................................................. 275 5.1.3 First Language ....................................................................................................................... 275 5.1.4 Qualifications of the state prosecutors ................................................................................... 276 5.1.5 Province, Geographic area and areas served .......................................................................... 276 5.1.6 Years of experience ................................................................................................................ 276 5.1.7 Type of court ......................................................................................................................... 276 5.2 THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS (SECTION B) ............................................................................................... 276 5.2.1 Utilisation of forensic investigators ........................................................................................ 276 GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR DURING A CASE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSEN=4 .................................................................................................................................................. 277 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xi 5.2.2 General experience of the forensic investigator ...................................................................... 277 5.2.3 Specialised training, specific knowledge, skills and expertise of the forensic investigator ......... 278 TABLE 2: SPECIALISED TRAINING, SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND EXPERTISE OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR ........................................................................................................................................... 278 5.2.4 Caseload of respondents ........................................................................................................ 279 GRAPH 2: CASELOAD OF STATE PROSECUTORS PER MONTH N=4 .......................................................... 280 5.2.5 Working as part of the multidisciplinary team ........................................................................ 280 GRAPH 3: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM N=4 .................................................... 281 TABLE 3: MEMBERS THAT MUST FORM PART OF THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM .................................... 281 5.2.6 Making use of a scientific protocol during the investigation .................................................... 282 GRAPH 4: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL DURING THE INVESTIGATION N=4 ....................... 282 5.2.7 Making use of a scientific model during the investigation ....................................................... 283 GRAPH 5: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL DURING THE INVESTIGATION N=4 ............................. 283 GRAPH 6: REASONS OF STATE PROSECUTORS FOR MAKING USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS N=4 .... 284 5.2.9 Reasons of state prosecutors for not making use of forensic investigators .............................. 285 GRAPH 7: REASONS STATE PROSECUTORS DO NOT MAKE USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS N=4 ........ 285 5.2.10 Approach during forensic investigation .............................................................................. 286 GRAPH 8: THE PREFERRED ASSESSMENT PROCESS N=4 ......................................................................... 287 5.2.11 Expectations of a forensic investigator ............................................................................... 287 TABLE 4: EXPECTATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR ....................................................................... 288 5.2.12 How the forensic investigator can be of assistance in easing the state prosecutors’ task ..... 288 TABLE 5: HOW FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS CAN ASSIST STATE PROSECUTORS IN MAKING THEIR TASK EASIER .................................................................................................................................................................. 288 5.2.13 Video recordings of interviews with the child ...................................................................... 289 GRAPH 9: VIDEO RECORDINGS OF INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILD N=4 ................................................... 289 5.3 TRAINING OF STATE PROSECUTORS WITH REGARD TO CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE CASES ............................................ 290 GRAPH 10: TRAINING OF STATE PROSECUTORS N=4 ............................................................................. 290 5.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM STATE PROSECUTORS ............................................................ 290 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xii 6. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY EXPERTS IN THE FIELD OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE CASES ............................................................................................................................................. 293 6.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (SECTION 1) ...................................................................... 293 TABLE 6: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=7 .............................................................. 294 6.1.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................ 294 6.1.2 Gender .................................................................................................................................. 294 6.1.3 Highest qualification .............................................................................................................. 295 6.1.4 Province................................................................................................................................. 295 6.1.5 Geographic area .................................................................................................................... 295 6.1.6 Years of experience as forensic investigator............................................................................ 295 6.1.7 Workplace ............................................................................................................................. 296 6.2 PHASE 1: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT (SECTION 2) ..................................................... 296 6.2.1 Qualifications of the forensic investigator .............................................................................. 296 GRAPH 11: VIEWS OF EXPERTS ON A POSTGRADUATE QUALIFICATION FOR THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR N=7 ............................................................................................................................................................ 296 TABLE 7: QUALIFICATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR .................................................................... 297 6.2.2 Working in accordance with a forensic assessment model ...................................................... 297 GRAPH 12: EXPERT’S OPINION ON WORKING IN ACCORDANCE WITH A SCIENTIFIC FORENSIC MODEL N=7 ............................................................................................................................................................ 298 6.2.3 Approach to follow during forensic investigation .................................................................... 298 GRAPH 13: APPROACH TO FOLLOW DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N= 7 ........................................ 298 6.2.4 Consent from parents prior to the assessment of children ....................................................... 299 GRAPH 14: CONSENT FROM PARENTS PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN N=7 .......................... 300 6.2.5 Record keeping during interviews with the children ................................................................ 300 GRAPH 15: RECORD KEEPING DURING INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILDREN N=7 ...................................... 301 6.2.6 Multiple interviews with children ........................................................................................... 302 GRAPH 16: MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=7 ....................................... 303 TABLE 8: MAKING USE OF MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS WITH A CHILD DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS .... 303 6.2.7 Questioning of children .......................................................................................................... 304 GRAPH 17: QUESTIONING OF CHILDREN N=7 ......................................................................................... 304 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xiii TABLE 9: MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS DURING A FORENSIC INTERVIEW ................................................ 305 6.3 PHASE 2: THE PRE-FORENSIC ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................ 305 6.3.1 Introduction during forensic investigations ............................................................................. 305 GRAPH 18: INTRODUCTION DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=7 ................................................... 306 6.3.2 Rapport building with children ............................................................................................... 306 GRAPH 19: RAPPORT BUILDING WITH CHILDREN N=7 ........................................................................ 307 TABLE 10: ROLE AND PURPOSE OF RAPPORT BUILDING ............................................................................. 307 6.3.3 The competency test .............................................................................................................. 308 GRAPH 20: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TRUTH AND LIES N=7 308 GRAPH 21: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO GIVE INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF A NARRATIVE N=7 ......................................................................................................................................... 309 6.3.4 The establishment of ground rules ......................................................................................... 309 GRAPH 22: ESTABLISHMENT OF GROUND RULES N=7 ............................................................................ 310 GRAPH 23: GROUND RULES EMPLOYED BY RESPONDENTS N=7 ............................................................. 310 6.3.5 Determining the child’s cognitive functioning ......................................................................... 311 GRAPH 24: DETERMINING THE CHILD’S COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING N=7 ............................................. 311 6.3.6 Obtain baseline information from children ............................................................................. 311 GRAPH 25: OBTAIN BASELINE INFORMATION FROM CHILDREN N=7.................................................. 312 TABLE 11: BASELINE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE CHILD.............................................................. 312 6.3.7 Identification of different body parts ...................................................................................... 313 GRAPH 26: IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT BODY PARTS N=7 ................................................................ 313 TABLE 12: REASONS FOR BODY PART IDENTIFICATION .............................................................................. 313 6.3.8 Evaluation of techniques during the forensic investigation ...................................................... 314 TABLE 13: EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N=7 ......................... 314 6.3.9 Closing an interview with the child ......................................................................................... 315 GRAPH 27: CLOSING STATEMENTS WHEN TERMINATING THE INTERVIEW N=7 ..................................... 315 6.4 PHASE 3: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS .............................................................................. 316 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xiv 6.4.1 Consultations with collateral sources ..................................................................................... 316 GRAPH 28: CONSULTATIONS WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES N=7 ............................................................. 316 TABLE 14: COLLATERAL SOURCES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION ................................................ 316 6.5 PHASE 4: THE FORENSIC INTERVIEW .................................................................................................... 317 6.5.1 Scientific forensic interviewing protocol.................................................................................. 317 GRAPH 29: FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL N=7 ........................................................................... 317 GRAPH 30: CHOICE OF FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL N=7 .................................................... 317 6.6 PHASE 5: INTERVIEW WITH PARENTS ................................................................................................... 318 6.6.1 Interview with the offender .................................................................................................... 318 GRAPH 31: INTERVIEW WITH THE OFFENDER N=7 ................................................................................. 318 6.6.2 Interview with non-offending parent ...................................................................................... 319 GRAPH 32: INTERVIEW WITH NON-OFFENDING PARENT/PARTY N=7 ................................................ 319 TABLE 15: REASONS FOR INTERVIEWING PARENTS/OFFENDER.................................................................. 320 6.7 PHASE 6: THE INVESTIGATION OF ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES ..................................................................... 320 GRAPH 33: THE INVESTIGATION OF ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES N=7..................................................... 321 6.8 PHASE 7: REPORT WRITING DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS .................................................................. 321 GRAPH 34: REPORT WRITING DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N=7........................................... 321 6.9 PHASE 8: EXPERT TESTIMONY IN CASES OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ................................................................. 322 GRAPH 35: EXPERT TESTIMONY IN CASES OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE N=7 .............................................. 322 6.10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE EXPERTS IN THE FIELD OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS INTO CASES OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE .................................................................................................................................... 322 7. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS ..................... 325 7.1 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (SECTION A) ...................................................................... 325 TABLE 16: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=12 ........................................................... 325 7.1.1 Age ........................................................................................................................................ 326 7.1.2 Gender .................................................................................................................................. 326 7.1.3 Highest Qualification ............................................................................................................. 326 7.1.4 Geographic area .................................................................................................................... 327 7.1.5 Years of experience ................................................................................................................ 327 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xv 7.1.6 First language ........................................................................................................................ 327 7.2 EVALUATION OF THE ASSESSMENT MODEL (SECTION B) ............................................................................ 327 7.2.1 Reasons respondents enrolled for Master’s in Forensic Practice .............................................. 327 TABLE 17: REASONS FOR ENROLLING IN MASTER’S IN FORENSIC PRACTICE ............................................... 328 7.2.2 Strong points of the forensic assessment model...................................................................... 328 TABLE 18: STRENGTHS OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL ................................................................. 328 7.2.3 Weaknesses of the forensic assessment model ....................................................................... 329 TABLE 19: WEAKNESSES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL .............................................................. 329 7.2.4 Aspects of the forensic assessment model respondents would handle differently .................... 330 7.2.5 Recommendations with regard to the forensic assessment model........................................... 330 7.2.6 Investigation of multiple hypotheses ...................................................................................... 331 GRAPH 36: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12 ............................................................... 331 7.2.7 Confidence to go to court when model is followed .................................................................. 331 GRAPH 36: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12............................................................ 331 7.2.8 The value of the different phases............................................................................................ 332 GRAPH 37: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD N=12 . 332 GRAPH 38: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING THE PRE-FORENSIC ASSESSMENT N=12 ............................. 333 GRAPH 39: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS N=12 ............................................................. 334 GRAPH 40: THE FORENSIC INTERVIEW N=12 .......................................................................................... 334 GRAPH 41: INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS AND OTHER ROLE PLAYERS N=12............................................ 335 GRAPH 42: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12 ............................................................... 335 GRAPH 43: REPORT WRITING N=12........................................................................................................ 336 GRAPH 44: EXPERT TESTIMONY ................................................................................................................. 337 7.2.9 Conclusion and recommendations from responses of postgraduate students .......................... 337 8. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 338 9. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................... 339 10. REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................. 340 SECTION C .................................................................................................................................................. 350 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xvi 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 350 2. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................... 351 2.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................... 351 2.1.1 General aim ........................................................................................................................... 351 2.1.2 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 352 2.2 SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 352 2.2.1 Central theoretical statement ................................................................................................ 354 2.3 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION .............................................................................................................. 354 2.3.1 Literature review ................................................................................................................... 354 2.3.2 Empirical research ................................................................................................................. 355 2.3.3 Research design ..................................................................................................................... 355 2.3.4 Respondents .......................................................................................................................... 356  STATE PROSECUTORS ........................................................................................................................... 356  EXPERT FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS IN THE FIELD OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ........................................................... 357  POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS.................................................................................................................... 357 2.4 SECTION B: ARTICLES....................................................................................................................... 358 2.4.1 Article 1: Interviewing the sexually abused child in the middle childhood ................................ 358 2.4.2 Article 2: Viewpoints of forensic investigators on international forensic models and protocols for interviewing sexually abused children. ................................................................................................ 361 2.4.3 Article 3: The process of a forensic assessment model in the South African context. ................ 364 2.4.4 Article 4: The evaluation of the forensic assessment model in the South African context. ........ 366 3. TESTING THE CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT ............................................................................. 369 4. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 370 5. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS RESEARCH ................................................................................................. 371 6. LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 372 SECTION D .................................................................................................................................................. 376 ADDENDUM 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 377 ADDENDUM 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 387 ADDENDUM 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 388 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ............................................................................................................................... 390 ADDENDUM 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 397 ADDENDUM 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 411 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xvii QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................................................................ 413 ADDENDUM 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 417 ADDENDUM 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 419 ADDENDUM 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 421 ADDENDUM 9 ............................................................................................................................................ 425 SECTION E .................................................................................................................................................. 428 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xviii LIST OF TABLES Number Page Section A TABLE 1: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS ...................... 33 TABLE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ........... 35 Article 1 TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE THEORIES OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY: ............................................ 63 TABLE 2: PHASES OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY ............................................................. 64 TABLE 3 NORMAL VERSUS ABNORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF CHILDREN ................................................. 70 Article 2 TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS ..................................................................... 112 TABLE 2: SHORT COURSES IN RESPECT OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS ...................................................... 115 TABLE 3: EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS .................................................................................................... 116 TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CHILD INTERVIEW MODEL ............... 122 TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE JOINT INVESTIGATION MODEL ......... 127 TABLE 6: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION MODEL .................................................................................................................................................................. 131 TABLE 7: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT MODEL .................................................................................................................................................................. 134 TABLE 8: MEMBERS FORMING PART OF THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM ................................................... 137 TABLE 9: COLLATERAL SOURCES CONSULTED BY RESPONDENTS ................................................................ 139 TABLE 10: A MODEL FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT ........................................................................... 142 TABLE 11: DIFFERENT PHASES FOLLOWED BY RESPONDENTS .................................................................... 145 Article 3 TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES ............................................................... 187 TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES ......................................................................... 189 TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF LESS PREFERRED QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 193 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xix TABLE 4: LEAST PREFERRED QUESTIONS .................................................................................................... 196 Article 4 TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (STATE PROSECUTORS) ................................. 274 TABLE 2: SPECIALISED TRAINING, SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND EXPERTISE OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR ........................................................................................................................................... 278 TABLE 3: MEMBERS THAT MUST FORM PART OF THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM .................................... 281 TABLE 4: EXPECTATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR ....................................................................... 288 TABLE 5: HOW FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS CAN ASSIST STATE PROSECUTORS IN MAKING THEIR TASK EASIER .................................................................................................................................................................. 288 TABLE 6: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS ...................................................................... 294 TABLE 7: QUALIFICATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR .................................................................... 297 TABLE 8: MAKING USE OF MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS WITH A CHILD DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS .... 303 TABLE 9: MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS DURING A FORENSIC INTERVIEW ................................................ 305 TABLE 10: ROLE AND PURPOSE OF RAPPORT BUILDING ............................................................................. 307 TABLE 11: BASELINE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE CHILD.............................................................. 312 TABLE 12: REASONS FOR BODY PART IDENTIFICATION .............................................................................. 313 TABLE 13: EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION ............................... 314 TABLE 14: COLLATERAL SOURCES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION ................................................ 316 TABLE 15: REASONS FOR INTERVIEWING PARENTS/OFFENDER.................................................................. 320 TABLE 16: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS .................................................................... 325 TABLE 17: REASONS FOR ENROLLING IN MASTER’S IN FORENSIC PRACTICE ............................................... 328 TABLE 18: STRENGTHS OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL ................................................................. 328 TABLE 19: WEAKNESSES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL .............................................................. 329 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xx LIST OF FIGURES Number Page Section A FIGURE 1: PROCESS AND STEPS OF INTERVENTION RESEARCH ..................................................................... 17 FIGURE 2: REPORT OUTLINE ......................................................................................................................... 46 Article 1 Article 2 FIGURE 1: THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL ..................................................................................... 104 Article 3 FIGURE 1: PHASES 4 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL................................................................. 167 FIGURE 2: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE PHASES OF THE FORENSIC INTERVIEWING MODEL ................. 170 FIGURE 3: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 1 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 171 FIGURE 4: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 2 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 197 FIGURE 5: ASPECTS OF THE COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT ............................................................................ 202 FIGURE 6: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 3 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 216 FIGURE 7: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 4 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS ................................................. 221 FIGURE 8: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 5 .............................................................................................. 234 FIGURE 9: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 6 .............................................................................................. 235 FIGURE 10: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 7 ............................................................................................ 237 FIGURE 11: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 8 ............................................................................................ 238 FIGURE 12: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 9 ............................................................................................ 239 Article 4 FIGURE 1: PHASES 4, 5 AND 6 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL .................................................. 256 FIGURE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS .................. 268 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xxi LIST OF GRAPHS Number Page Section A Article 1 Article 2 GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS WHO EXCLUSIVELY PERFORM FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS ................................ 115 GRAPH 2: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL ........................................................... 119 GRAPH 3: SCIENTIFIC MODEL USED BY RESPONDENTS ........................................................................... 120 GRAPH 4: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM ......................................................... 136 GRAPH 5: CONSULT WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES .................................................................................. 138 GRAPH 6: CONSULT WITH SUSPECT ....................................................................................................... 140 GRAPH 7: STRUCTURED, SEMI-STRUCTURED OR UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS ..................................... 144 GRAPH 8: MAKING USE OF A PHASED APPROACH ................................................................................. 144 GRAPH 9: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL ...................................................... 145 GRAPH 10: SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL USED BY RESPONDENTS ................................................................... 147 Article 3 Article 4 GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR DURING A CASE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ........................................................................................................................................................ 277 GRAPH 2: CASELOAD OF STATE PROSECUTORS PER MONTH .................................................................. 280 GRAPH 3: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM ............................................................ 281 GRAPH 4: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL DURING THE INVESTIGATION .............................. 282 GRAPH 5: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL DURING THE INVESTIGATION .................................... 283 GRAPH 6: REASONS OF STATE PROSECUTORS FOR MAKING USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS .......... 284 GRAPH 7: REASONS STATE PROSECUTORS DO NOT MAKE USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS .............. 285 GRAPH 8: THE PREFERRED ASSESSMENT PROCESS ................................................................................. 287 GRAPH 9: VIDEO RECORDINGS OF INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILD .......................................................... 289 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xxii GRAPH 10: TRAINING OF STATE PROSECUTORS .................................................................................... 290 GRAPH 11: VIEWS OF EXPERTS ON A POSTGRADUATE QUALIFICATION FOR THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR .................................................................................................................................................................. 296 GRAPH 12: EXPERT’S OPINION ON WORKING IN ACCORDANCE WITH A SCIENTIFIC FORENSIC MODEL 298 GRAPH 13: APPROACH TO FOLLOW DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATION ............................................... 298 GRAPH 14: CONSENT FROM PARENTS PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN ................................. 300 GRAPH 15: RECORD KEEPING DURING INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILDREN ............................................. 301 GRAPH 16: MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS .............................................. 303 GRAPH 17: QUESTIONING OF CHILDREN ................................................................................................ 304 GRAPH 18: INTRODUCTION DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS .......................................................... 306 GRAPH 19: RAPPORT BUILDING WITH CHILDREN ....................................................................................... 307 GRAPH 20: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TRUTH AND LIES .... 308 GRAPH 21: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO GIVE INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF A NARRATIVE ................................................................................................................................................ 309 GRAPH 22: ESTABLISHMENT OF GROUND RULES ................................................................................... 310 GRAPH 23: GROUND RULES EMPLOYED BY RESPONDENTS .................................................................... 310 GRAPH 24: DETERMINING THE CHILD’S COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING ............................................................ 311 GRAPH 25: OBTAIN BASELINE INFORMATION FROM CHILDREN ................................................................. 312 GRAPH 26: IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT BODY PARTS ...................................................................... 313 GRAPH 27: CLOSING STATEMENTS WHEN TERMINATING THE INTERVIEW ............................................ 315 GRAPH 28: CONSULTATIONS WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES .................................................................... 316 GRAPH 29: FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL .................................................................................. 317 GRAPH 30: CHOICE OF FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL .................................................................... 317 GRAPH 31: INTERVIEW WITH THE OFFENDER ........................................................................................ 318 GRAPH 32: INTERVIEW WITH NON-OFFENDING PARENT/PARTY ............................................................... 319 GRAPH 33: THE INVESTIGATION OF ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES ............................................................ 321 GRAPH 34: REPORT WRITING DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION .................................................. 321 GRAPH 35: EXPERT TESTIMONY IN CASES OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE........................................................... 322 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page xxiii GRAPH 36: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES ............................................................................. 331 GRAPH 37: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD ........... 332 GRAPH 38: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING THE PRE-FORENSIC ASSESSMENT ...................................... 333 GRAPH 39: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS ....................................................................... 334 GRAPH 40: THE FORENSIC INTERVIEW ................................................................................................... 334 GRAPH 41: INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS AND OTHER ROLE PLAYERS ..................................................... 335 GRAPH 42: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES ........................................................................ 335 GRAPH 43: REPORT WRITING ................................................................................................................. 336 GRAPH 44: EXPERT TESTIMONY ................................................................................................................. 337 OPSOMMING Page 1 ’N FORENSIESE ASSERINGSMODEL VIR DIE SEKSUEEL MISBRUIKTE KIND IN DIE SUID-AFRIKAANSE KONTEKS Die doel van hierdie studie is om ʼn forensiese assesseringsmodel te ontwerp en te evalueer vir seksueel misbruikte kinders in Suid-Afrika. Sleutelterme Forensies, assesseringsmodel, seksueel misbruikte kind, Suid-Afrika Tans bestaan daar geen riglyne vir professionele persone in Suid-Afrika wat met seksueel misbruikte kinders werk nie. Professionele persone op hierdie gebied is dringend op soek na riglyne. Afdeling A bevat die probleemstelling, navorsingsdoelwitte, navorsingsprosedure en navorsingsmetodologie. Die sleutelterme en die beperkinge van die studie word ook bespreek. Die navorsing is in twee fases gedoen. In die eerste fase het die navorser internasionale forensiese modelle en protokolle vergelyk en ook vergelyk hoe dit relevant in Suid-Afrika is. In die tweede fase het die ontwikkeling, implementering en evaluering van die forensiese assesseringsmodel plaasgevind. Die probleemstelling in afdeling A was op die volgende gebaseer: In Suid-Afrika bestaan daar tans geen riglyne vir professionele persone wat met seksueel misbruikte kinders werk nie. Daar is ʼn wanpersepsie, selfs onder maatskaplike werkers, dat alle maatskaplike werkers gekwalifiseerd is om met seksueel misbruikte kinders te kan werk. Dikwels is die kind en die oortreder die enigste getuies in die misdaad en daarom is dit belangrik dat die ondersoek effektief moet wees. Indien ʼn onopgeleide professionele persoon die ondersoek onderneem, kan dit daartoe lei dat ʼn kind wat die gevaar loop om seksueel misbuik te word nie beskerm word nie, aangesien dit blyk dat daar geen misbruik plaasgevind het nie, of dit kan daartoe lei dat ʼn onskuldige persoon verkeerdelik van seksuele misbruik beskuldig word. Dit is belangrik dat professionele persone wat sodanige ondersoeke onderneem, gebruik moet maak van wetenskaplike en wetlik verdedigbare modelle en protokolle. Soos reeds OPSOMMING OPSOMMING Page 2 genoem, is daar geen sodanige riglyne vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks nie. In hierdie stadium kan enige professionele persoon sodanige ondersoek onderneem. Hierdie probleemstelling het aanleiding gegee tot die navorsingsdoel van die ondersoek asook tot die volgende vier navorsingsdoelwitte: Doel: Die ontwikkeling en evaluering van ʼn forensiese assesseringsmodel vir die assessering van seksueel misbruikte kinders in Suid-Afrika. Doelwitte:  Om deur middel van ʼn literatuurstudie te bepaal oor watter gespesialiseerde kennis die forensiese ondersoeker moet beskik om ʼn onderhoud met die seksueel misbruikte kind te kan voer (Artikel 1).  Om deur middel van ʼn literatuurstudie sowel as ʼn empiriese ondersoek internasionale forensiese modelle en protokolle te vergelyk en in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks te evalueer (Artikel 2).  Om deur middel van „n literatuurstudie, sowel as die inligting wat tydens die vorige fase van die deskundiges bekom is, die inhoud van „n forensiese assesseringsmodel vir kinders in middel kinderjare in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks te bepaal (Artikel 3).  Om deur middel van ʼn empiriese ondersoek die ontwikkelde forensiese assesseringsmodel te evalueer (Artikel 4). Die ontwerp- en ontwikkelingsmodel (D & D) is as ʼn oorkoepelende navorsingsmodel gebruik. Die model bestaan uit ses fases. Daar is van kwalitatiewe sowel as kwantitatiewe data gebruik gemaak. Die literatuurstudie het gefokus op belangrike inligting ten opsigte van die ontwikkeling van kinders waaroor forensiese ondersoekers moet beskik alvorens hulle ʼn forensiese ondersoek kan doen, asook die proses wat tydens ʼn forensiese ondersoek gevolg moet word. Afdeling B bevat vier artikels waarin die doelwitte en uitkomste van die navorsing weergegee word. Elke artikel is as ʼn afsonderlike entiteit hanteer; elk met ʼn spesifieke navorsingsdoelwit. Hierdie ondersoeke is aan die hand van spesifieke navorsingsmetodes gedoen. Hiervolgens is data bekom en die forensies assesseringsmodel ontwerp en geëvalueer. OPSOMMING Page 3 Artikel 1 Die navorsingsdoelwit van hierdie artikel was om deur middel van ʼn literatuurstudie te bepaal wat die belangrikste ontwikkelingsaspekte is wat ʼn invloed kan hê op die ondersoek van sake rakende seksuele misbruik van kinders in hul middel kinderjare. Beskikbare literatuur is geraadpleeg oor belangrike ontwikkelingaspekte wat ʼn invloed op ondersoeke van seksuele misbruik van kinders in hul middelkinderjare kan hê. Die resultate het daarop gedui dat kognitiewe ontwikkeling, seksuele ontwikkeling en taalontwikkeling ʼn invloed op die forensiese ondersoek kan hê. Daar is ook na onderhoudvoeringsprotokolle gekyk. Artikel 2 Daar is hoofsaaklik vier wetenskaplike forensies modelle wat die basis van ʼn forensiese ondersoek vorm. ʼn Tweede belangrike aspek is die forensiese onderhoudvoeringsprotokol wat forensiese ondersoekers tydens hulle ondersoek gebruik. Dit was belangrik om vas te stel watter model en protokol die geskikste is vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks, aangesien daar tans geen sodanige model en protokol vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks bestaan nie. Die doelwit van hierdie artikel was om deur middel van ʼn literatuurstudie sowel as ʼn empiriese ondersoek effektiewe internasionale en forensiese modelle en protokolle te vergelyk en in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks te evalueer. Tydens hierdie artikel het die navorser bevindinge van die respondente aangebied, geanaliseer en geïnterpreteer na aanleiding van die terugvoer soos ontvang van 18 (N=18) respondente. Die navorsingsvrae het gefokus op die wyse waarop hulle forensiese ondersoeke onderneem, sowel as die modelle en protokolle waarvan hulle tydens forensiese ondersoeke gebruik maak. Die doel was om te bepaal watter modelle en protokolle geskik is vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Tydens hierdie navorsing is die 18 (N=18) respondente deur die sneeubalstreekproef- metode geselekteer. Die resultate van hierdie navorsing het daarop gedui dat die omvattende assesseringsmodel en die NICHD forensiese protokol die beste in die Suid- Afrikaanse konteks aangewend kan word. Artikel 3 Die navorsingsdoelwit van hierdie artikel was om ʼn forensiese assesseringsmodel vir die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks te ontwikkel. Hierdie assesseringsmodel bestaan uit verskillende fases en sal forensiese ondersoekers tydens ondersoeke lei van die oomblik dat hulle ʼn aanmelding ontvang totdat die saak afgehandel is. Die model is na aanleiding van die OPSOMMING Page 4 resultate wat tydens die vorige artikel ontvang is, sowel as deur ʼn in-diepte literatuurstudie, ontwikkel. Artikel 4 Die navorsingsdoelwit van hierdie artikel was om die ontwikkelde forensiese assesseringsmodel te evalueer. Dit is gedoen deur ʼn paneel van respondente wat bestaan het uit vier (N=4) staatsaanklaers, sewe (N=7) forensiese deskundiges en 12 (N=12) nagraadse studente in Forensiese Praktyk. Semi-gestruktureerde en selfopgestelde vraelyste is vir hierdie doel gebruik. Die staatsaanklaers is deur die sneeubalstreekproef- metode geselekteer en die forensiese deskundiges is deur die doelgerigte steekproefmetode geselekteer. Die totale populasie van die nagraadse studente is betrek en dus is daar vir hulle van geen steekproef gebruik gemaak nie. Die resultate van die navorsing het daarop gedui dat die ontwikkelde assesseringsmodel effektief is vir ondersoeke van sake rakende seksuele misbruik in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Dit stem ooreen met die verwagtinge van staatsaanklaers, is in ooreenstemming met wat die literatuur aanbeveel en hoe deskundiges in Suid-Afrika tans sodanige ondersoeke doen en het ook nagraadse studente voldoende toegerus met die nodige kennis, vaardighede en kundigheid om forensiese ondersoeke te onderneem. In Afdeling C is ʼn samevatting van die vernaamste bevindinge en gevolgtrekkings van die ondersoek in die geheel aangebied. In Afdeling D is die bylaes tot die navorsingsverslag, soos meetinstrumente wat vir data- insameling gebruik is, aangeheg. In Afdeling E is die saamgestelde bronnelys weergegee. ABSTRACT Page 5 A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL FOR THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT The goal of this study is to design, compile and evaluate a forensic assessment model for the assessment of the sexually abused child in South Africa. Keywords: Forensic, assessment, model, sexually abused child, South Africa Currently no guidelines exist for South African professionals that work with sexually abused children. Professionals in this field are in desperate need of such guidelines. Section A refers to the problem statement, research objectives, research procedures and research methodology. The keywords as well as the limitations of the research are investigated. The research was conducted in two phases. In phase one the researcher compared international forensic assessment models and protocols and compared it with what is relevant in South Africa and in phase two the development, implementation, and evaluation of the forensic assessment model took place. The problem statement in section A is based on the following: Currently no guidelines exist for professionals in South Africa that work with children that have been sexually abused. There is a misconception, even among social workers, that all social workers are equipped to work with sexually abused children. Often the child and the offender are the only witnesses to the crime and therefore it is crucial that the investigation must be conducted effectively. If untrained professionals conduct such an investigation it can lead to a child that is at risk of being sexually abused not being protected because it seems that no abuse had taken place, or it can lead to an innocent person being wrongfully accused of sexual abuse. It is important for professionals to use scientific and legally defensible models and protocols when conducting forensic investigation. As previously mentioned, no such guidelines exist for South Africa. At this stage, any professional can conduct such an investigation. ABSTRACT ABSTRACT Page 6 This problem statement resulted in the following research goal, namely to develop and evaluate a forensic assessment model for the assessment of the sexually abused child in South Africa. It further resulted in the four research objectives indicated below:  To investigate by means of a literature study the specialised knowledge a forensic investigator must possess before interviewing a sexually abused child (Article 1).  To identify by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate their use in the South African context (Article 2).  To identify by means of a literature study as well as the information gathered from experts in the field of forensic investigations during the previous phase, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for children in middle childhood (Article 3).  To evaluate the developed forensic assessment model by means of an empirical study with professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse (Article 4). The Design and Development model (D & D) was implemented. The model comprises six phases, which all have been used during this study. Qualitative as well as quantitative data were utilized. The literature studies focused on important child developmental aspects forensic investigators should be knowledgeable about before they can conduct forensic investigations as well as the process that needs to be followed during forensic investigations. Section B consists of the four articles in which the research goals and research outcomes are reported. Each article is dealt with as a self-contained unit focusing on specific research objectives achieved via specific research methods. These methods were employed to collect the necessary data for designing and evaluating the forensic assessment model. Article 1 The objective of this article was to identify and discuss, by means of a literature study, the most important developmental aspects that have an influence on the investigation of child sexual abuse of children in middle childhood. An investigation into the existing literature on important developmental aspects of children in middle childhood was carried out, which could possibly influence the outcome of a forensic investigation. The results of this research indicated cognitive, sexual and language development as being important ABSTRACT Page 7 developmental aspects that forensic investigators must be knowledgeable about, as this can influence the outcome of a forensic investigation. Interviewing protocols were also reviewed. Article 2 There are mainly four scientific forensic models that form the basis of a forensic investigation. A second important aspect is the forensic interviewing protocol forensic investigators employ during their investigations. It was important to establish what model and protocol would be the most suitable in the South African context, since currently, no such model or protocol exists for the South African context. The objective of this article was to compare and evaluate by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, effective international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate it in the South African context. In this article the researcher presented, analysed and interpreted research findings based on responses provided by 18 (N=18) experts from the country in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse. The research questions focused on how they conduct forensic investigations as well as what models and protocols they employ during their forensic investigations. The purpose was to determine what protocols and models will be suitable for the South African context. In this research, Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling was applied in order to identify participants. The results of this research indicated that the comprehensive assessment model, as well as the NICHD forensic protocol, will be the best to employ in the South African context. Article 3 The research goal of this article was to develop a forensic assessment model for the South African context. This assessment model consists of different phases and will guide forensic investigators from the moment they receive a referral, until the cases is closed. The model was developed from the results obtained during the previous article, as well as in-depth literature study. ABSTRACT Page 8 Article 4 The purpose of this article was to evaluate the developed forensic assessment model. This was done by a panel of respondents that consisted of four (N=4) state prosecutors, seven (N=7) forensic experts, as well as 12 (N=12) postgraduate students doing their Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice. This was done by means of semi-structured interviews, as well as self-structured questionnaires. The state prosecutors were selected by means of the Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling method and the forensic experts were selected by means of judgemental sampling. The total population of the postgraduate students was involved and therefore no sampling method was employed. The results of this research indicated that this developed forensic assessment model is effective for investigating cases of child sexual abuse. It correlates with the expectations of state prosecutors, it is in line with what literature recommends and how experts in the field are currently conducting forensic investigations and it equipped post-graduate students with the necessary skills, knowledge and expertise in order to conduct forensic investigations. In Section C is a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research report are drawn and some recommendations are made. Section D consists of various addenda such as questionnaires that were used. Section E contained an integrated bibliography. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 9 1. PROBLEM FORMULATION Sexual abuse is a tendency that is constantly on the increase. Concerned parents, teachers and community members, suspecting possible sexual abuse, refer cases to the South African Police Service, welfare organizations or private practitioners on a daily basis. In return, these professionals may refer the child to social workers and psychologists with specialised knowledge and training in forensic interviewing of children. Berliner (2003:13) is of the opinion that intervention in cases of child sexual abuse has several important goals, namely:  To assess the risk children are exposed to and to establish a safe environment.  In order to identify sexual offenders, to hold them accountable and to protect the community.  To treat the psychological consequences of the sexual abuse experience.  For the promotion of healthy development that will reduce the risk of long-term negative outcomes because of the sexual abuse. Richter, Dawes and Higson-Smith (2007:318) agree that the South African Police Service (SAPS) plays an important role in the collection of important and adequate evidence. However, they also found that the SAPS, as well as the judicial system, do not always protect the rights of children and that they are exposed to secondary trauma on a regular basis because of insensitive and untrained personnel. This is inconsistent with the Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996, 28 (1) (d)) that states that every child has the right to be protected against maltreatment, neglect, abuse and degradation. Sub-article 2 of the same Act, also states that the child‟s best interest is of utmost importance in all matters concerning the child. The majority of professionals in South Africa, that conduct assessments on sexually abused children and testify on this matter in court, do so without proper qualifications or specialization in this field (Kaliski, 2006:62). This can cause a dilemma, because if the SECTION A GENERAL INTRODUCTION Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 10 professional that interviews the child is not equipped to perform these kinds of interviews, it may simply seem that there is not enough evidence to prosecute someone. The public and even some professionals such as social workers, attorneys and psychologists are under the impression that all social workers are qualified to conduct child sexual abuse investigations. A South African study that was done by the North-West University‟s Potchefstroom Campus, confirmed this statement (Smith, 2007:1). South Africa has a very high number of sexual abuse cases; therefore the researcher is of the opinion that South Africa cannot afford children to be exposed to untrained forensic investigators. The reality is that approximately a quarter of South African children has been or will be sexually abused before their eighteenth birthday (Richter et al., 2007:6). When the researcher was rendering services at the South African Police Services, the majority of the victims were between the ages of seven to twelve years and therefore the researcher decided to focus on this age group during this study. The court sees children as miniature adults and they evaluate their evidence in the same way. This often leads to misunderstandings in court (Müller, 2003:2). This problem can be addressed by making use of experts to educate the court about child development, child language, and behaviour of children (Müller, 2003:9). The researcher is of the opinion that for the judicial system to communicate more effectively with children, it is necessary for experts to inform the court about these misunderstandings when they work with sexually abused children. Müller (2003:9) supports this statement and has the following to say in this regard: “Judicial officers have very little knowledge about these topics and no training to deal with specialised cases of this nature. If we are to see justice being done, the courtroom will have to become more of a place of learning for the judicial officer”. If this is established, communication with children will be more effective. Another problem with the court is that the judicial system regards children as unreliable witnesses, because the courts are not aware of the influence children‟s cognitive and language development might have on the child‟s ability to give testimony. These and other additional factors such as high caseloads, poor investigations and unprepared witnesses, cause a low prosecution rate for sexual abusers. However, specialised facilities in court, can improve the testimony of victims that will in turn, lead to a higher prosecution rate (Richter et al., 2007:227). The purpose of the forensic interview is to gather facts regarding the incident that is being investigated (APSAC, 2012:4; Faller, 2007:6; Fouché, 2006:205; Müller, 2001:8; Poole & Lamb, 1998:108; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114). As already mentioned by the researcher, misunderstandings occur in the child‟s statement, when the child is questioned as if speaking with an adult, and the child‟s responses are interpreted in that way. Müller Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 11 (2001:8) as well as Fouché (2006:206) state that the purpose of the forensic interview is to obtain an account from the child that is truthful and in a manner which will best serve the interests of the child while, at the same, legally acceptable. The APSAC code of ethics also states that forensic investigators should conduct a forensic interview in a manner that is consistent with the child‟s best interest (APSAC, 2012:4). The child‟s statement of the sexual abuse experience with adults is often the only available evidence that the sexual abuse had actually occurred and the way the child is questioned is often the most critical component of the investigation process (APSAC, 2012:3; De Voe & Faller, 2002:6; Hewitt, 2012:121-122). Because of this, Wilson and Powell (2001:xiv) are of the opinion that investigators are often criticized about sexual abuse interviews and that these interviews often form the basis of government inquiries into child protection practice. Saywitz and Camparo (1998:1) are of the opinion that investigators are facing a dilemma, because increasingly more professionals come to realise that interviewing sexually abused children requires specialised knowledge and skills that are not gained in undergraduate studies. In order to interview a child, the investigator must have basic knowledge of the way children think and communicate. The child‟s thinking patterns are influenced by his memory, conceptual development, emotional development as well as language abilities (Wilson & Powell, 2001:1). It is often possible to obtain valuable information from the child, but in order to succeed in doing so, a realistic awareness of the child‟s cognitive abilities as well as thorough investigation methods is needed (Lamb, Hershkowitz, Orbach & Esplin, 2009:85). Questioning is an important aspect of an interview. Questioning will encourage the child to talk about a certain topic. The most important skill during the interviewing process is knowing how to encourage the child to honestly talk about a certain topic, by asking questions that stimulate the conversation (Wilson & Powell, 2001:41). The investigator should, however, take into consideration the child‟s limited cognitive abilities as well as poorly developed language abilities and that these aspects have an influence on their abilities to answer questions (Kuehnle & Connell, 2009:275). The child‟s ability to recall certain events and the interviewer‟s ability to obtain all the relevant information, contributes to the success of the investigation process (Aldridge & Wood, 1998:2). Professional people questioning children with regard to sexual abuse are from a variety of backgrounds with different training regarding the structure of the interview (Faller, 2007:66; Wilson & Powell, 2001: xiii-xiv). Professionals questioning children on sexual abuse are subjected to a large amount of criticism and the manner it is done is often debated on. These issues influenced the development of the proposed sequencing stages in interviews. The sequencing structure is Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 12 also known as the interview structure or a protocol (Faller, 2007:66). It is important though that the child should not be bombarded with questions concerning the extent and nature of the alleged sexual abuse. It is a well-known fact that investigators should apply non-leading questions or open-ended questions. However, research has indicated that even highly trained forensic investigators still make use of closed-ended questions or suggestions. Because of this problem, Lamb and his colleagues designed a structured interviewing protocol known as the “National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Investigative Protocol (NICHD)”. Their research recommendations are converted into workable steps. These researchers also found that when investigators made use of a protocol, they obtained more accurate information because it was freely recalled by the child (Lamb et al., 2009: 3, 281). Several other international protocols were also designed for the purpose of interviewing the sexually abused child. These include the “Step-Wise” forensic interview protocol developed by Yuille (Poole & Lamb, 1998:95) and the “Child Forensic Interviewing Structure” developed by the National Children‟s Advocacy Center in America (Cordisco-Steele, 2003:2). However, these protocols only guide forensic investigators in terms of the interview with the child. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must be guided by guidelines that will assist them in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases. These guidelines should inform them on what to do from the moment they receive a referral of child sexual abuse until they close such case. In the South African context no such model exists. Therefore, during this study, the researcher wishes to focus on the investigation, compilation and evaluation of a research-based forensic assessment model that will develop and evaluate all aspects that form part of the assessment process. With reference to the above statements, the researcher answered the following questions.  What specialised knowledge must a forensic investigator possess before interviewing the sexually abused child?  What do international forensic investigations consist of and how do they compare to the South African context?  What should the process of a South African forensic assessment model be for the investigation of child sexual abuse cases?  How will South African professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse evaluate the developed forensic assessment model? Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 13 2. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES 2.1 General aim The general aim of this study was to develop and evaluate, based on the findings of the empirical investigation and literature study, a forensic assessment model for assessing the sexually abused child in South Africa. 2.2 Specific objectives To achieve the general aim, the following objectives were set:  To investigate by means of a literature study the specialised knowledge a forensic investigator must possess before interviewing a sexually abused child (Article 1).  To identify by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate their use in the South African context (Article 2).  To identify by means of a literature study as well as the information gathered from experts in the field of forensic investigations during the previous phase, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for children in middle childhood (Article 3).  To evaluate the developed forensic assessment model by means of an empirical study with professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse (Article 4). 3. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT Currently no guidelines exist in South Africa for professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. A phased forensic assessment model that gives structure to the assessment process and that is applicable in the South African context will provide forensic investigators with the necessary skills, knowledge and expertise to conduct forensic assessments in cases of child sexual abuse. This will lead to more effective forensic investigations by forensic investigators, which in turn can lead to a larger number of successful prosecutions. 4. THEORETICAL STANCE During this research project the researcher followed an empowerment approach. Empowerment can be defined as the process of helping individuals, families, groups and communities to increase their personal, interpersonal, socioeconomic, and political strength and to develop influence toward improving their circumstances (Zastrow, 2010:587). The empowerment approach in social work practice enables practitioners to co-investigate reality and challenge obstacles with people that are poor, the working poor, people of Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 14 colour, women and those oppressed by virtue of sexual orientation, physical or mental challenges, youth or age (Lee & Hudson, 2011:159). From this definition it is clear that child belongs to this category. By means of this developed forensic assessment model, the researcher will empower forensic investigators to conduct proper forensic investigations, which in turn will help to protect innocent victims of child sexual abuse and will improve these victims‟ living conditions. 5. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION By means of a literature and empirical study, this research attempted to develop a forensic assessment model that will provide forensic investigators with the necessary skills, knowledge and expertise for conducting forensic assessments in cases of child sexual abuse. 5.1 Literature Study A literature review helps the researcher to decide whether the topic is worth studying (Creswell, 2014:25). The researcher determined that the topic of forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse is worth studying, since this is a relatively new field in South Africa. The majority of social researchers start the design of a research project with a literature review (Babbie, 2014:463). According to Delport, Fouché and Schurink (2011:297), the first step of research is to undertake a literature study in order to select an appropriate paradigm. The researcher explored this paradigm by studying several sources such as textbooks, journals and other data bases. First, the researcher conducted an in- depth literature study on the proposed topic. It is important to undertake a literature study; it improved the researcher‟s insight into dimensions and complexities of the subject (Rubin & Babbie, 2001:120). The literature study also contextualised the research program. The literature study served as a framework for the proposed study. Areas of knowledge that needed to be elaborated on during the research were also investigated (Neuman, 2000:446). The central focus of study was to develop a forensic assessment model in the South African context that could assist forensic investigators during forensic investigations. The researcher identified and studied a wide range of literature, including books, academic studies, government and informal publications and scientific journals. Literature regarding child development, forensic investigations and forensic interviewing protocols was readily available although literature regarding forensic models was limited and equally so literature regarding forensic social work in the South African context. The researcher obtained most literature from related professions including social work, psychology, medicine, and Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 15 sociology. In order to identify appropriate sources, the following databases were used: NEXUS; Scholarly journal; Social Science Index: Social Work Abstracts; ERIC; RSAT; EbscoHost; PsycLit; Questia online library; Catalogue – Ferdinand Postma Library, North- West University, Potchefstroom Campus. The results obtained were used for developing the measuring instruments (questionnaires and schedules) and the interpretation of data. The literature study was conducted throughout the research study. 5.2 Pilot study The pilot study is a way in which researchers can orientate themselves to the proposed project. The function of the pilot study was the exact formulation of the research problem as well as tentative planning of the modus operandi and range of the investigation (Strydom, 2011a:236). It was important to conduct a pilot study, regardless of whether it was quantitative or qualitative research. During the pilot study, a few respondents possessing the same characteristics as those of the main investigation were involved in the study, merely to ascertain particular trends (Strydom & Delport, 2011a:394). The purpose was to determine whether the relevant data could be obtained from the respondents (Royse, 1995:172). Four important aspects of a pilot study were identified, namely (Strydom & Delport, 2011a:395):  Studying the literature The researcher conducted a thorough literature study. Literature on developmental aspects of children was readily available. The researcher found a large amount of literature on different forensic interviewing protocols, but not in the South African context. Literature on different forensic models was extremely limited and there was no literature in the South African context.  The experience of experts in the field For purposes of this study it was forensic social workers as well as state prosecutors that were contacted for expert knowledge.  The feasibility of the study The researcher undertook a careful feasibility study and it emerged that the study is feasible. The researcher established that there are experts in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse that are willing to participate in the research project and to share their knowledge with the researcher. The researcher established that there is no forensic assessment model for the South African context, but that there is a great need Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 16 for such model. The researcher also established that professionals feel the need to be trained in forensic investigations into child sexual abuse, seeing that 12 students had enrolled for their Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice, during 2013.  Testing the methods for data gathering All methods for data gathering were tested on a smaller sample of the population before distributing it among the respondents. Before the researcher distributed the questionnaires among the respondents, the researcher selected professionals representative of the proposed respondents and requested them to complete the questionnaires. 5.3 Research Model For purposes of this study, Intervention Research was utilised (D & D model). The New Dictionary for Social Work (1995:35) describes intervention research as “[r]esearch directed at the establishment of procedures for designing, testing, evaluating and refining techniques and instruments with a view to intervention in social problems in communities and groups”. De Vos and Strydom (2011:475) define the intervention research model as research targeted at addressing the practice application of research. Rothman and Thomas (1994:12), maintain that the D & D model may be conceptualized as a problem-solving process for seeking effective intervention and helping tools to deal with given human and social difficulties. The following figure is a graphic outline of the process and steps of Intervention Research. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 17 FIGURE 1: PROCESS AND STEPS OF INTERVENTION RESEARCH Adapted from De Vos and Strydom (2011:476-487) 5.3.1 Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning Problem analysis and project planning involves identifying the needs and involving clients. It further entails identifying concerns and analysing identified problems and thereafter setting Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 18 goals and objectives for the study. The rest of the project and planning emanates from this first phase (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:477). In the first article the researcher utilised phase 1 of the Intervention model. During the problem analysis, the most important developmental aspects that may have an influence on the forensic investigation of the sexually abused child were identified by means of a literature study. The researcher gathered information on the identified developmental aspects and how these aspects need to be applied during the forensic investigation. When the researcher compared and evaluated effective international forensic models and protocols in the South African context, as reported in the second article, she utilised phase 1 following the steps as indicated below (De Vos and Strydom, 2011:477):  Step 1: Identifying and involving clients In this phase, the researcher chose a population with whom to collaborate – a population of which issues were of current or emerging interest to the society. The researcher, together with the population, identified the specific targets and goals of the intervention. In this case, the population was forensic social workers across the whole of South Africa, both male and female.  Step 2: Gaining entry and cooperation from settings The researcher identified a few possible respondents, phoned them and explained to them the purpose as well as the goals and objectives of the research. The researcher asked these respondents to identify other suitable respondents for the study and to provide the researcher with their contact details in order to contact them to request their participation in the research.  Step 3: Identifying concerns of the population Once the setting was accessed, the researcher attempted to understand the issues of importance to the population. Qualitative and quantitative data on forensic social workers‟ skills, qualifications, models and protocols they employ during their assessment processes were gathered with this design. Information on different scientific models and protocols and the outcome it has on their forensic investigations was gathered through exploratory research. Areas needing development in order to develop a forensic interviewing model for the South African context were identified by the researcher. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 19  Step 4: Analysing identified problems The researcher analysed the problems of the social workers as well as aspects that needed to be further explored. The researcher also analysed the literature. Social work has become a scarce skill because social workers cannot be recruited or retained in the profession, and forensic social workers even more so. Training opportunities in South Africa for forensic social work are also very limited. Apart from the South African Police Service who also employs forensic investigators, the majority of the forensic investigators are in private practice, which occasionally makes their services unaffordable for clients. This causes a problem for the organizations needing their services as well as the clients that are dependent on the forensic social services. The researcher developed an interviewing schedule in which both quantitative and qualitative questions were posed. The researcher clustered the data according to the most interesting view, topics, and data belonging to separate categories.  Step 5: Setting goals and objectives A last operation of this phase is setting measurable as well as ultimate goals and objectives (Neuman, 2006:545). Goals refer to the outcomes desired by the community of interest (in this case participating forensic social workers), whereas objectives refer to those specific changes in programmes, policies or practices believed to contribute to the broader goal (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:479). The aims of the programme or intervention are clarified by the goals and objectives set, and give clear structure and guidelines. Objectives provide concrete steps, explaining how to manifest concepts and theories. The objectives were linked to the design and format of the survey which was later distributed to the social workers. The goal of this study was to investigate, develop and evaluate, by means of the findings of the literature study and empirical research, a forensic investigative model for interviewing South African sexually abused children. 5.3.2 Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis When an intervention research project is planned, it is crucial to determine what other researchers have done to address the problem (Fraser, Richman, Galinsky & Day, 2009:30); therefore the wheel will not be reinvented. Knowledge acquisition involves identifying and selecting relevant types of knowledge and using integrated appropriate sources of information. Specifically existing forms of archival information and natural examples of successful practices of individuals and organizations are appropriate (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:480). Since no acknowledged forensic assessment model currently exists Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 20 in South Africa, the researcher analysed different international assessment models in Article 2 by means of information gathering. Functional elements of successful assessment models were also analysed. Furthermore, the researcher analysed information on functional elements of forensic interviewing protocols (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:480-481). In this phase a literature study as well as information gathered from professionals working with child sexual abuse cases on a regular basis was also used to gather information on the phenomenon. The steps in this phase included:  Step 1: Using the existing information sources A thorough literature study identified concerns from the population involved. Data on international scientific models and interviewing protocols were studied intensively.  Step 2: Studying natural examples Further information on scientific models and interviewing protocols utilized by South African social workers and how it influences their current forensic investigations into child sexual abuse was also studied.  Step 3: Identifying the functional elements of successful models. The researcher studied existing models and interviewing protocols in order to determine what could be useful elements for an intervention. This data was linked to the data gathered in Phase 1 to formulate the content for the planned forensic interviewing model in the South African context. 5.3.3 Phase 3: Design Fawcett, Suarez-Balcazar, Balcazar, White, Paine, Blanchard and Embree (1994:34) stated that this phase is of crucial importance. An observational system is of crucial value. Researchers must design a way of naturalistically observing the problem, events related to the problem, as well as a method system for discovering the extent of the problem and detecting effects following the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482). By observing the problem and studying naturally occurring innovations and other prototypes, researchers can identify procedural elements for use in the intervention. From the literature study and information received from professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse on a regular basis, the researcher has identified forensic assessment procedures that need to be adhered to during forensic investigations. Scientific models, interviewing protocols, assessment methods as well as assessment procedures were identified as helpful areas Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 21 within the forensic investigation process that can assist the court in making fair decisions. This phase consists of the following operations and was utilised in Article 3, in which the development of the forensic assessment model was reported on (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482):  Step 1: Designing an observational system An observational system is of crucial value. Researchers must design a way of naturalistically observing the problem, events related to the problem, as well as a method system for discovering the extent of the problem and detecting effects following the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482). From the literature study and information received from professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse on a regular basis, the researcher has identified forensic assessment procedures that must be adhered to during forensic investigations. Scientific models, interviewing protocols, assessment methods as well as assessment procedures were identified as helpful areas within the forensic investigation process that can assist the court in making fair decisions.  Step 2: Specifying procedural elements of the intervention By observing the problem and studying naturally occurring innovations and other prototypes, researchers can identify procedural elements for use in the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482). The researcher studied components and requirements of legally defensible forensic investigations and how it can assist the court in making fair decisions. The procedural elements of an intervention often become part of an eventual practice model, which is the final product of the research (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:483). 5.3.4 Phase 4: Early Development and Pilot Testing Development can be defined as the process by which an innovative intervention is implemented and used on a trial basis, developmentally tested for its adequacy, and refined and redesigned as necessary (Thomas, 1989:584-587). This phase includes the important operations of developing a prototype or preliminary intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:483). The forensic assessment model was developed while compiling Article 3. In Article 4, the evaluation of the designed model, as done by different role players was portrayed in Article 4. This phase included the following operations (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:483): Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 22  Step 1: Developing a prototype or preliminary intervention The preliminary intervention procedures were selected and specified. In order to develop a prototype for use in pilot testing, the researcher needed to establish ways of communicating the intervention to intended users. Feedback from consumers and implementers was obtained to help refine and simplify the prototype for the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:484). In Article 3, where the development of the forensic assessment model was reported on, the researcher did a literature study as well as an empirical study, in which the views of forensic investigators were evaluated in terms of forensic assessment models and protocols they employ during forensic investigations. In Article 4, the part where the forensic assessment model was evaluated, the researcher‟s renewed thorough literature study was reported on as well as the results from the previous phases she had considered with a view to develop and refine a forensic interviewing model suitable for the South African context. From the results of the previous phases it became evident that no such model exists for the South African context. It also became evident that some respondents by no means employ a forensic model while conducting forensic investigations. This is alarming, since it can lead to improper forensic investigations that can result in a low successful prosecution rate.  Step 2: Conducting a pilot test Pilot tests are implemented in settings convenient for the researcher and are somewhat similar to ones in which the intervention will be used. These pilot tests assist in determining the effectiveness of the intervention and in identifying which elements of the prototype may need to be revised (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:484). There is always the possibility of error when collecting data. The surest protection against such errors is by testing the questionnaire fully or partly on a representative sample. The programme must form part of the culture of evaluation, specifically outcome evaluation, where researchers must be honest and must be prepared to make the necessary amendments to the programme (Cozby, 2009:206). The full programme was not pilot tested, but the content of the programme was given to external social workers in the field of forensic investigations to comment on prior to finalization of the design.  Step 3: Applying design criteria to the preliminary intervention concept The researcher needs assurance that the programme is doing what it is intended to do and this process is also known as evaluation (Adler & Clark, 2008:409; Cozby, 2009:207). The appropriate community intervention is determined by using common guidelines and values. Relevant questions include: Is the intervention effective? Is it replicable by end-users? Such Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 23 criteria assist in guiding the design of interventions that are subjected to pilot testing and formal evaluation (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:485). It was determined that the appropriate community for this programme intervention will be the professionals involved in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases. During the implementation of the forensic assessment model, the researcher collaborated with the participants to adapt the programme so as to make it more effective. 5.3.5 Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development Rothman and Thomas (1994:37) believe that the use of pilot tests and field replications to test and refine the intervention distinguishes intervention research from programme evaluation. There are four major operations or activities in the evaluation and advanced development phase: selecting an experimental design, collecting and analysing data, replicating the intervention under field conditions and refining the intervention (Rothman & Thomas, 1994:37-39). However, during this study, the researcher changed step 1 “Selecting an experimental design” to “Selecting an evaluation purpose”. The researcher is of the opinion that an experimental design will not be appropriate for this study, as it will be unethical to subject sexually abused children to an assessment performed by untrained professionals. The researcher was also of the opinion that the assessment model must first be evaluated by other relevant role players prior to implementation thereof. The researcher conducted phase 5 as represented in Article 4 and included the following steps:  Step 1: Selecting an evaluation purpose Normally, when employing Intervention research, “selecting an experimental design” would be the first step of phase 5, which is the phase of Evaluation and advanced development (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:485). The purpose of evaluation can be summarised as follows (Fouché, 2011:452-453):  The gathering of information in order to improve the design. The researcher constantly gathered information throughout the research project, from the respondents as well as literature studies, in order to improve the design.  Development, formation and implementation of a programme (formative evaluation).  Describing the process of a programme as it is being developed (process evaluation). Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 24  Assessing the impact, outcome or worth of a programme (summative evaluation). During this research, the researcher did not make use of summative evaluation. A discussion will follow on the different forms of evaluation the researcher used:  Development, formation and implementation of a programme (formative evaluation) The purpose of formative evaluation is to gather information for forming or improving a programme. Researchers can reach this goal by means of a needs assessment or by means of an evaluability assessment (Fouché, 2011:455). The purpose of a needs- assessment is to objectively determine if a programme that is being considered is actually needed or whether an existing programme is still necessary (Fouché, 2011:455). Barker (2003:291) explains that a needs assessment is a systematic appraisal made by professionals in evaluating their clients for problems, existing resources, potential solutions, and obstacles to problem solving. The researcher is aware of the fact that there are currently no guidelines in South Africa for professionals conducting forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse. Hence professionals in this field are experiencing problems to perform this task as there is a lack of resources to do so. The researcher presented the forensic assessment model to postgraduate students of the North-West University currently enrolled for a Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice. All these respondents were previously confronted with forensic investigations into child sexual abuse and were of the opinion that they lack the skills and expertise for performing legally defensible forensic investigations. Hence one can say a need exists among professionals to be capable of performing forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse. These students performed blind assessments on children (only the child‟s name and age was known to them prior to the assessment) during the normal course of the students‟ work, by making use of the designed assessment model. The researcher gathered information from these participants in order to improve the design of the forensic assessment model. The researcher also involved state prosecutors working on a regular basis with cases of child sexual abuse in order to evaluate whether the designed assessment model will address their needs. Kreuger and Neuman (2006:425) differentiate between different needs. According to them, a normative need refers to a circumstance, situation or condition that is identified by an expert that has been able to determine a gap in existing services related to the needs of a sub-population. During this study, it became evident that no forensic assessment model exists that has been designed to fit the South African context. It was also evident that Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 25 forensic investigations into child sexual abuse is a specialised field which requires postgraduate training, but in many instances it is performed by professionals that lack the necessary training, skills and expertise. Hence the researcher developed a forensic assessment model to address this need. Kreuger and Neuman (2006:425) also state that the demand for an intervention or services by the actual clients or those that have received services, or are awaiting the service, is defined as an expressed need. The state prosecutors as well as the postgraduate students expressed the need for a forensic assessment model. From this discussion it is clear that the researcher employed formative evaluation in order to evaluate the designed forensic assessment model.  Describing the process of a programme as it is being developed (process evaluation: programme monitoring) The purpose of process evaluation is to gain information for describing and delivering (Fouché, 2011:455). Programme monitoring is an on-going process and responses to this assessment allow problems to be addressed as they are identified. Patton (2002:159-160) states that a focus on process involves looking at how something happens rather than examining the outcomes. Programme monitoring has one goal and that is to improve the program (Fouché, 2011:455). Apart from the postgraduate students and state prosecutors who evaluated the programme, the researcher also involved experts in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse so as to evaluate the assessment model so that she could make improvements to the model. Hence the researcher also employed process evaluation.  Step 2: Collecting and analysing data While testing and evaluating an intervention, data is continuously collected and analysed (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:486). The effectiveness of the programme was determined by professionals involved in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases. The researcher involved three groups, namely postgraduate students in the process of being trained, state prosecutors that prosecute offenders in child sexual abuse cases and experts in the field of forensic social work that conduct child sexual abuse investigations on a regular basis. The researcher utilised self-structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to evaluate the assessment model. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 26  Step 3: Replicating the intervention under field conditions The programme was presented to forensic social work students of the North-West University. The main goal of the intervention, according to De Vos and Strydom (2011:486), is to develop an intervention that is effective in a variety of real-life contexts. The students used the assessment model to assess children and evaluated the effectiveness of the model afterwards. Replication under different field conditions helps to assess the validity of the effects of the intervention.  Step 4: Refining the intervention This final evaluation question addresses efficiency assessment (Cozby, 2009:207). Errors are helpful and the results of full field-testing are used to resolve problems with the measurement system and intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:486). Feedback from the participants that participated in this programme as well as their recommendations, were recorded in order to adapt and refine the programme. 5.3.6 Phase 6: Dissemination The last phase of this research process was to prepare research reports in order to communicate findings to the appropriate audience. This is called dissemination. Dissemination further indicates that potential markets for the intervention are selected and identified, a demand for the intervention is created, appropriate adaptation is encouraged and finally adopters are provided with technical support. The researcher applied the following steps in this phase (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:487):  Step 1: Preparing the product for dissemination Maree and Van der Westhuizen (2009:47) explain that potential outcomes of the research endeavour must be meticulously planned, be it in the form of articles, chapters in books or a presentation at a conference. This research will be published in the form of articles. The programme must also be ready for dissemination. The standards for using the programme were maintained by insisting that participants have to be trained before they can implement the model, as it became evident during this study that forensic investigators need specialised training in order to conduct forensic investigations (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:487). Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 27  Step 2: Identifying potential markets for the intervention In defining a market of potential users for a community intervention, researchers should ask certain questions such as: Which people could benefit from the intervention? Which media approach would be most suitable? Which market segment would most likely adopt the intervention? (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:488). The forensic assessment model can be used by other forensic investigators, or it can be used for the educational preparation of forensic investigators.  Step 3: Creating a demand for the intervention Disseminators must convince potential purchasers that they will benefit from the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:489). Marketing the value of the programme especially among professionals involved in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases will create a demand for the intervention. Apart from prospective forensic investigators, judicial officers can also benefit from the programme as this will equip them with knowledge of a sound forensic investigation and what they can expect from forensic investigators. It became clear during the research that state prosecutors are not well informed about child sexual abuse matters and what they can expect from forensic investigators.  Step 4: Encouraging appropriate adaptation It might be necessary to adapt the programme according to the specific target group or to fit certain conditions.  Step 5: Providing technical support for adopters Technical support may be critical in implementing the forensic assessment model to maintain long-term client satisfaction. The researcher will be available to assist in providing technical support if there are other adopters of the programme. The researcher will especially assist the postgraduate students that are not fully familiar with forensic investigations into child sexual abuse and are new in this field. Adopters of the programme may require support from the researcher to assist with troubleshooting or adapting the intervention to meet their specific needs (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:489). 5.4 Research Approach Presently there are two known and recognised approaches to research, namely qualitative and quantitative approaches. Prospective researchers must familiarise themselves with the differences between the two approaches and orientate themselves in this respect, and then Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 28 decide which one would be answer best to the needs of their research project (Fouché & Delport, 2011:63). Prospective researchers can even decide to combine both quantitative and qualitative research approaches, also known as the mixed methods approach (Bergman, 2008:1). Mixed methods research, according to Delport and Fouché (2011:434), “is a combination of at least one qualitative and at least one quantitative component in a single research project or programme“. During this research, the researcher employed the mixed methods approach since she employed quantitative and qualitative data collection methods (Delport & Fouché, 2011:435). The qualitative and quantitative data were collected concurrently, hence the embedded mixed methods design was employed (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007:67). The Quantitative research focuses on the use of surveys and measuring instruments. The quantitative method often employs a measuring instrument (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011:171) and in this regard the researcher used self-structured questionnaires. A qualitative approach is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014:4). During this study, the researcher additionally conducted qualitative research. During qualitative research, the researcher is concerned with describing and understanding, rather than explaining or predicting human behaviour (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:53). A qualitative study is concerned with non-statistical methods as well as small samples that are often purposively selected. The unit of analysis is holistic and concentrates on the relationship between elements and contexts (Fouché & Delport, 2011:65-66). The interpretation of collected data forms part of qualitative research. According to Schurink et al. (2011:325), qualitative data analysis is the search for generalizations and relationships, building structure and making sense of accumulated data. 5.5 The research objective Social research can serve many purposes, but there are three general purposes, namely exploration, description and explanation (Babbie, 2014:94). Studies may have more than one objective, but one will usually be dominant (Babbie, 2014:94; Fouché & De Vos, 2011:95). There are certain correlations between exploratory and descriptive research, but there are also important differences though (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:96). However, during this research project, exploratory research was dominant, but there were some characteristics of descriptive research as well. The motivation of the researcher‟s decision will be discussed below;  The researcher conducted exploratory research in order to gain insight into a situation, phenomenon, community, or individual. The need for a study such as this could arise Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 29 from a lack of basic information on a new area of interest, or in order to become acquainted with a situation to formulate a problem, or to develop a hypothesis (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:95). Babbie (2014:94) explains that the goal of the exploratory research is to satisfy the researcher‟s curiosity, to test the desirability of an in-depth study and to develop methods that can be utilised during incisive studies. The researcher utilised exploratory research during this research project, as the goal of this research was to gain insight into the assessment process that needed to be followed during forensic assessments (Babbie, 2014:94). Exploratory research also served the following purposes (Rubin & Babbie, 2001:123):  The researcher was busy with research in a relatively new field in South Africa. In this case it was to develop a forensic model to assess sexually abused children in the South African context.  The subject, namely Forensic Social Work, is relatively new in South Africa, with limited research in this regard, especially in the South African context.  The researcher attempted to undertake a thorough study.  The researcher aimed at developing methods in order to undertake a thorough study. Strydom‟s (1999:78) view of descriptive research is that it is a systematic, objective and complete description of the reality. Descriptive research will present a picture of particular detail of a situation, social setting, or relationship and also focuses on “how” and “why” questions (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:96). Neuman (2000:22) agrees with the statement that descriptive research is seeking answers for “how” and “why” questions. It was important during this research to answer these questions when the forensic assessment model was viewed as a scientific method. 5.6 Respondents By means of a self-structured questionnaire, the researcher consulted with professionals that conduct regular investigations in the field of child sexual abuse cases, and this was reported on in Article 2. The researcher used snowball sampling, as indicated in Article 2, as this method is a non-probability sampling technique used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies for which subjects are difficult to locate (Castillo, 2009:1). Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. The researcher used this sampling technique because the number of forensic social workers in South Africa is limited. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 30 researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest (Castillo, 2009:1). The researcher reached 18 respondents (N=18) by means of this method. For purposes of Article 4, the researcher consulted with state prosecutors, experts in the field of forensic investigations and postgraduate students trained to use the forensic assessment model the researcher had developed. Each group of respondents will be discussed briefly:  State prosecutors The researcher utilised snowball sampling to select the state prosecutors, as this method is a non-probability sampling technique used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate (Castillo, 2009:1). Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. The researcher used this sampling technique because the number of state prosecutors in the North West Province working on cases of child sexual abuse is limited. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest (Castillo, 2009:1). By means of this method, the researcher reached four state prosecutors (N=4).  Experts in the field of forensic investigations To select experts in the field of forensic investigations, the researcher utilised a non- probability sampling technique known as purposive sampling or judgemental sampling (Babbie, 2014:200; Botma, Greeff, Mulaudzi & Wright, 2010:127; Monette et al., 2011:152; Rubin & Babbie, 2005:247). This type of sampling is based entirely on the researcher‟s judgement, in that a sample is composed of elements that contain the most characteristics, representative or typical attributes of the population serving the purpose of the study best (Babbie, 2014:200; Botma et al., 2010:126; Grinnell & Unrau, 2008:153; Monette et al., 2011:153). The criteria used by the researcher were that the respondents must preferably be in possession of a postgraduate qualification regarding forensic investigations, but most important, they must conduct forensic investigations on a regular basis and must have extensive experience in the field of child sexual abuse investigations. The reason why the researcher employed purposive sampling is that the number of experts in this field is very limited, as this is a relatively new field in the South African context. By means of this method the researcher reached seven respondents (N=7). Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 31  Postgraduate students The researcher involved postgraduate students enrolled for their Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice at the North-West University. The total population of the students involved, namely 12 students (N=12); therefore no sampling method was employed. 5.7 Data gathering Article 2 reports on the self-structured questionnaire distributed among the respondents and the data was collected by the researcher by means of this mentioned questionnaire. The questionnaire (Addendum 1) comprised three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, was about knowledge, skills and experience, and contained closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained both open- and close-ended questions on the assessment process followed by the respondents. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. Article 4 reports that the researcher utilised three different groups for gathering data and applied different methods for gathering data from the three respective groups. A discussion on the different methods of data gathering will follow:  State prosecutors The researcher utilised semi-structured interviews in order to obtain information from the state prosecutors. Greeff (2011:352) explains that with a semi-structured interview, the researcher will have a set of pre-determined questions on an interview schedule. The interview will be guided rather than dictated by the schedule. The researcher has the flexibility to follow up particular avenues of interest that emerge during the interview (Botma et al., 2010:208; Greeff, 2011:352). The interview schedule is a written questionnaire to guide interviews and called an interview schedule (Greeff, 2011:352). The researcher compiled this interview schedule herself. The schedule (Addendum 3) comprised two sections, sections A and B. Section A dealt with the biographic details and Section B with the assessment process followed by forensic investigators. The schedule contained open- ended and closed-ended questions. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 32 The interview schedule was pre-tested and revisited with a state prosecutor before final use. According to Schurink et al. (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report.  Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. The questionnaire (Addendum 4) comprised three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, dealt with all the phases of the assessment model, and contained closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained open- and close-ended questions on general aspects of a forensic investigation. These questionnaires were emailed to the different respondents, as they were spread over the entire country. The email contained ground rules and a reminder of when to respond. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink et al. (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report.  Postgraduate students For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. Questionnaires contain recorded questions and respondents respond directly on the questionnaire, without the aid of the interviewer. Questionnaires can be handed directly to the respondents, mailed or sent online (Monette et al., 2011:164). In this case, the researcher handed the questionnaires directly to the respondents. The questionnaire (Addendum 5) comprised three sections. The first part, section A, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section B, gave them the opportunity to evaluate the assessment model, and contained closed- and open-ended questions. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 33 The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. 5.8 Data Analysis The data from the open-ended questions in this study were analysed by means of Tesch‟s approach (Poggenpoel, 1998:343-344) and reported in the form of narratives. Kruger, De Vos, Fouché and Venter (2005:217-219) point out that professional research can be analysed manually or by computer. Data was sorted to reflect the most interesting view, arranged into topics, and data belonging to each separate category were correspondingly clustered together in one group according to themes (Creswell, 2014:153-155; De Vos, 2005:338; Schurink et al., 2011:403). The quantitative data were analysed by plotting data onto different charts. The quantitative data were also analysed by the researcher. 5.9 Trustworthiness of qualitative research Trustworthiness is an important aspect of qualitative research and credibility is the primary criterion when evaluating qualitative research (Mc Millan, 2011:277). Guba‟s model for trustworthiness of qualitative research was utilised as a guideline to ensure validity during this study. Four strategies for ensuring trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability will be summarised in table format (Shurink et al., 2011:419-421); TABLE 1: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS  EPISTEMOLOGICAL  STANDARDS  STRATEGIES  APPLICATION  Truth Value  Credibility can be defined as the extent to which data, data analysis and conclusions are believable and trustworthy (Mc Millan, 2011:277). The goal is to demonstrate that the research was conducted  The researcher ensured that prolonged engagement was applied by establishing self- rapport with participants during the semi-structured interviews. Field notes were written directly after each interview with a respondent. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 34 in a manner to ensure that the phenomena were accurately identified and described (Shurink et al., 2011:419).  Consistency  Reliability is described by Mc Millan (2011:278) as follows: “Reliability is the extent to which what is recorded as data is what actually occurred in the setting that was studied”. This criterion suggests the consistency of data. It implies that the findings would be consistent if the research was to be replicated with the same subjects or in similar circumstances (Shurink et al., 2011:419). During this study, the procedure is described in detail in order to ensure replicability, although it must be borne in mind that each situation is unique. This implies that even if the research data is reliable or replicable, it still needs to be adapted to individual needs within the social context.   Applicability  It is the transferability of one set of findings to another context and is the alternative to external validity or generalisability (Shurink et al., 2011:420). Lincoln and Guba (as quoted by Schurink et al., 2011:419) define triangulation as a strategy to ensure transferability  Selection of the sample was clearly described. Saturation of data will come from the sources in the study.  Neutrality Conformability refers to the fact that it is necessary to ask whether  Field notes taken by the researcher will be comprehensive and will be Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 35 the results of research study are confirmed by another study (Shurink et al., 2011:419-412). In this study the results could be confirmed by literature. available for auditing. 5.10 Reliability and validity of quantitative data To obtain valid and reliable data, researchers must ensure that before they implement the study, the measurement procedures and the measurement instruments they intend using have acceptable levels of reliability and validity. Validity and reliability are two of the most important concepts of measurement (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011: 172) and will be summarised as follow: TABLE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY EPISTEMOLOGICAL STANDARDS STRATEGIES APPLICATION Validity Validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the true meaning of the concept under consideration. In other words, it measures what it intends to measure (Babbie, 2014:155,157). Content and face validity will most likely be established before the instruments for collecting are used. Criteria and construct validity are established after the instrument has been used (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011:173). Content Validity – is the degree to which a measure covers the range of meaning included within a concept (Babbie, 2014:156). Here the researcher conducted a thorough literature review and stated clear and logical definitions. Experts evaluated the instrument and the instrument was also pre-tested with a small sample of the population. Face validity – that quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable (Babbie, 2014:155). The questionnaire was relevant to the respondents who completed it. They all were role players in forensic investigations. Criterion validity – the degree to which a measure relates to some external criterion (Babbie, 2014:155). The researcher used Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 36 more than one measuring instrument during the research. Construct validity - the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships (Babbie, 2014:156). During this study, the researcher identified conntections between verialbles. Reliability Reliability is a matter of when a specific technique is replied repeatedly to the same object, the same result will be obtained each time (Babbie, 2014:152). The researcher implemented the following procedures as suggested by Neuman and Kreuger (2003:179-180) and Salkind (2006:108) in order to increase the reliability of measures: The researcher eliminated unclear items in questionnaires. The researcher standardised the conditions as well as the instructions under which the tests were taken down. The researcher ensured that the questionnaires were not too difficult but easy to complete. The researcher maintained consistent scoring procedures. The researcher pre-tested the questionnaires prior to applying the final version. 5.11 Ethical aspects Babbie (2014:63) states that anyone involved in social science research, must be aware of the general agreements on what is proper and improper in the conduct of scientific inquiry. Subjects should also not be harmed during research, but must rather benefit from it (Babbie, 2014:65). Ethical permission for conducting this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus). This study also complied with ethical standards as set out by the South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP). Respondents participated on a voluntary basis. Cultural differences were respected and dealt with in a professional manner. Research must be based on mutual trust, acceptance, cooperation, promised and well-balanced conventions and expectations between the parties involved in a research project (Strydom, 2011b:113). Permission to undertake this project was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North- Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 37 West University (number NWU-00027-09-A1) (Addendum 2). The researcher gave attention to the following ethical aspects as set out by Strydom (2011b:115-121). For this research study, the following aspects were taken into consideration:  Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all the different respondents that participated in this research and all the aspects of the research were explained to both parties prior to participation. All the participants were informed as to the goal of the research. Possible advantages and disadvantages were also communicated to the participants (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:77; Strydom, 2011b:117).  Harm to respondents In order to protect respondents against any harm, sensitivity towards emotionality and physical comfort were maintained (Strydom, 2011b:115). The respondents' right to withdraw from the programme at any time were respected and communicated to them. The researcher especially emphasised this during information sessions with the postgraduate students. In this regard the researcher explained to the postgraduate students that if they choose not to participate, it will be respected and it will have no influence on the way they are evaluated during their studies.  Confidentiality and anonymity Confidentiality was also maintained by carefully explaining the general aim of the study and procedures to be followed. The questionnaires were completed anonymously and the names of the individuals were not disclosed. The researcher emphasised this fact to the postgraduate students and explained to them that the researcher will thus not be able to determine who participated in the study and will therefore not be affected if they do not participate in the research. Even during the semi-structured interviews, the researcher did not write down any of the respondents‟ names. The data collected was put in a file and locked up in a cabinet in the researcher‟s promoter‟s office. The researcher is a registered social worker at the SA Council for Social Service Professions with registration number 10- 20822 – a requirement pointed out by Babbie (2014:68) and Van Zyl-Edeling and Pretorius (2005:107-113).  Voluntary participation In the case of this study the participants were regarded as volunteers, thus they were not forced to participate in the study (Strydom 2011b:116). Babbie (2014:64) also states that no Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 38 one must be forced to participate in a research project. The respondents knew that they had a choice to participate and could withdraw at any stage. The researcher emphasised this fact to the postgraduate students as they could easily be feeling obliged to participate in the research project.  Deception of respondents Deception refers to the misleading of participants, deliberately misrepresenting facts or withholding information from the participants (Struwig & Stead, 2001:69). The researcher did not withhold any information, offer incorrect information or deliberately misrepresented facts. Accurate and complete information was given to the respondents regarding the purpose of the research study.  Actions and competence of the researcher Strydom (2011b:124) points out that an ethical obligation rests on researchers to ensure they are competent and adequately skilled to undertake the intended investigation. The researcher is a registered social worker at the SA Council for Social Service Professions with registration number 10-20822 and has 12 years of experience in the field of investigations of child sexual abuse. 5.12 Procedures  Ethical permission for conducting this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) (number NWU-00027-09-A1) (Addendum 2).  Questions were constructed after a focused literature study.  Thereafter a forensic assessment model was compiled.  The programme was presented to postgraduate students.  Participants were selected using a non-probability sampling technique, contacted and informed about the purpose of the study for the purpose of Article 2. For purposes of Article 4, participants were selected by making use of non-probability sampling methods.  Questionnaires were distributed amongst participants.  Semi-structured interviews were conducted.  Responses were noted, coded, and tabulated.  Selection of participants was solely voluntary. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 39  A self-structured questionnaire was used during the research. The questionnaire contained open and closed-ended questions.  Data obtained from this research will be published in different journals and made available by means of workshops, especially to forensic investigators. 6. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The researcher experienced the following limitations during the study:  A non-probability sampling technique was used instead of a probability procedure. This sampling method was used because it indicated some characteristics or process that was of interest to this particular study (Silverman, 2000:104). The characteristics refer to professionals from across the country involved in forensic investigations. Participants were not randomly selected – a method which might have yielded better results. Fouché, Delport and De Vos (2011:151) indicated that a “randomized sample distinguishes a true experiment from other experiments. True experiments are at the highest level of the continuum, have the most rigid requirements, and are most able to produce results that can be generalized to a specific population”.  Another limitation was the distribution of questionnaires to social workers conducting forensic investigations and the time it took them to return it to the researcher. Of the 50 questionnaires sent to social workers, only 18 were received back. Awaiting the return of the questionnaires was time consuming.  Forensic social work is a relatively new field in South Africa and adequately trained forensic social workers are scarce. Hence it was difficult to obtain respondents for the research. 7. TERMINOLOGY To clarify certain concepts, it is necessary to define important key terms used recurrently in this research. 7.1 Forensic social work Forensic Social work is a professional speciality that focuses on the interface between society‟s legal and human systems. It includes such activities as providing expert testimony in courts of law, investigating cases of possible criminal conduct and assisting the legal system regarding such issues as child custody disputes, divorce, non-support, delinquency, Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 40 spouse or child abuse, mental hospital commitment and relative‟s responsibility” (Barker & Branson, 2000:1). According to Stutterheim and Weyers (1999:12), one should take the historical background of statutory social work and forensic social work in South Africa into account. They argued that statutory social work should not simply be replaced by forensic social work because forensic social work has a narrower meaning. They recommended that in South Africa it should be defined as: “…a specialised field of social work practice that is characterised by the social worker‟s primary function of providing expert testimony in courts of law”. Green, Thorpe and Traupmann (2005:1), describe forensic social work as: “practice, which in any manner may be related to legal issues and litigation, both criminal and civil‟‟. Barker and Branson (2003:3) defined forensic social work as a “professional speciality that focuses on the interface between society‟s legal and human service systems”. The researcher agrees that forensic social work is a specialised field and therefore defines forensic social work as a specialised field of social work, with the primary function of providing expert testimony in court regarding the dynamics of sexual abuse and the investigation of child sexual abuse cases. This knowledge must be legally defensible and obtained from a reputable and accredited learning institute. This will not be possible without training in a scientific forensic assessment model. However, note must be taken that since forensic social work is not yet a registered field of speciality at the South African Council for Social Service Professions, social workers conducting these investigations are not allowed to call themselves forensic social workers. 7.2 Forensic interview Forensic investigators conduct the forensic interview as part of a larger investigative process with the intention to elicit information that is uniquely the information of the child. This information can be used during further law enforcement and during child protection investigations. Forensic investigators must conduct forensic interviews in a developmentally sensitive and legally sound manner, utilizing research and practice-informed techniques (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100). According to Müller (2001:8), the purpose of a forensic interview is to obtain a truthful account from children in a manner that will best serve the interest of the child, but is at the same time legally acceptable. The researcher is of the opinion that a forensic interview is an interview with the sexually abused child, during which the investigator obtains information regarding the nature and content of the sexual abuse in a developmentally sensitive manner. A forensic assessment model will assist forensic investigators in conducting legally acceptable interviews. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 41 7.3 Forensic investigator The forensic investigator is a fact-finder that objectively gathers details of legal relevance and documents children‟s statements verbatim, if possible. They are supportive but remain neutral to the veracity of the information provided and refrain from a relationship that could unduly influence the child‟s report. They must maintain a hypothesis-testing stance throughout the interview (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114). The roles of the forensic investigator and the therapist must be kept separate (Herman, 2009:262; Smith, 2007:43). The forensic investigator seeks facts and the therapist attempts to determine how the abuse affected the child (Faller, 2007:6). The researcher included this definition, as forensic investigations are not only limited to social workers. Professionals from a range of disciplines may have to determine whether a child actually was sexually abused (Faller, 2007:3). Therefore, the researcher included the term forensic investigator, as forensic investigations of child sexual abuse, is not only limited to social workers, but other professsionals such as psychologists can also conduct such investigations. The model that was developed by the researcher can also be utilised by other professionals. When the researcher refers to a forensic investigator, it implies that it can be any professional involved in the forensic investigations of cases of child sexual abuse. The researcher is of the opinion that a forensic investigator is a professional with specialised knowledge, skills and expertise regarding sexual abuse. This person conducts forensic investigations on allegedly sexually abused children and gives expert testimony in a court of law regarding this matter. However, one does not qualify as a forensic investigator, unless trained in a scientific forensic assessment model. 7.4 Hypothesis Barker (2003:206) defines a hypothesis as a “[t]entative proposition that describes a possible relationship among facts that can be observed and measured”. Social workers and other professionals also use the term informally to indicate a theory believed to account for what is not entirely understood. The investigator must maintain a supportive, but objective and hypothesis-testing stance throughout the interview (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Fouché, 2006:206; Herman, 2009:262). The researcher is of the opinion that in this regard, a hypothesis is the forensic investigator‟s suggested explanation for a child‟s behaviour and does not simply assume the obvious. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 42 7.5 Child sexual abuse The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 32/2007) defines a sexual offender as “any person who engages a child (a person under the age of 18) in a sexual act, with or without the consent of the child”. Sexual offences refer to any offence in terms of chapters 2, 3 and sections 55 and 71 (1), (2) and (6) of this act. These include rape, compelled rape, sexual assault, compelled sexual assault and compelled self - sexual assault. The Act further states that a sexual act is defined as an act of sexual penetration or an act of sexual violation. Sexual penetration is seen as any sexual form of penetration to any extent whatsoever by the genital organ, any body part and/or object by one person into or beyond the genital organs, anus or mouth of another person. Sexual violation includes any act which causes:  direct or indirect contact between the genital organs, anus or breasts of one person and any part of the body of another person, including any object resembling or presenting the genital organs or anus of a person or animal;  the mouth of one person and the genital organs, anus, breasts or mouth of another person;  any other part of the body of another person that could cause sexual arousal or stimulation;  masturbation of one person by another person;  insertion of any object resembling or representing the genital organs of a person or animal into or beyond the mouth of another person. Goodyear-Brown, Fath and Myers (2012:4) explain that sexual abuse can include both contact and non-contact activities that result in the sexual gratification of adults or a significantly older child or adolescent. Activities that can also be seen as child sexual abuse include touching or fondling of genitals, oral acts involving genitalia, penetration, sexual exploitation of the child for material gain such as child prostitution or pornography, voyeurism, exhibitionism and the exposure to sexually explicit talk or materials. Any act that involves coercion, force, or the threat of force can be categorised as sexual abuse. Lawrence and Janse Van Rensburg (2006:128) define sexual abuse as any action that violates, humiliates, or exploits, or an action that attempts to violate, humiliate or exploit, the bodily integrity or dignity of the complainant, which has an element of a sexual nature. Berliner (2011:215) states that sexual abuse includes sexual penetration, sexual touching, Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 43 as well as noncontact sexual acts such as exposure or voyeurism. Sexual contact between teenagers or children and younger children can also be of an abusive nature. The researcher‟s viewpoint of sexual abuse is that it is a deed by means of which a person with any advance over another person engages that person in any deed for the sexual gratification of the advanced person. 7.6 Protocol Carstens (2006:192) recommends that professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse must develop a protocol that can be defined in court and work according to it. Faller (2007:67) states that a protocol refers to the interview structure and content of the investigative interview. A protocol is described by the Concise Oxford Dictionary (2012:947) as “the accepted or established code of procedure or behaviour in any group, organizat ion, or situation”. In a forensic interview, a protocol can thus be seen as an accepted or established procedure to conduct evidence-based interviews with children who have allegedly been exposed to sexual abuse. Poole and Lamb (1998:81) define a protocol in forensic circumstances as a tool to increase the quality and quantity of information social workers elicit from children. A protocol will provide investigators with guidance and structure as to how to remain impartial while collecting information that may either corroborate or refute the suspicion of abuse (La Raque, De Matthia & Low, 2006:1142). According to the researcher, a protocol is an interview procedure that is followed in order to obtain information from a child in a legally defensible manner. A protocol will guide the forensic investigator to elicit information regarding the alleged offence from the child. 7.7 Assessment Assessment is the process of determining the nature, cause, progression and prognosis of a problem and the personalities and situations involved therein; the social work function of acquiring an understanding of a problem, what causes it, and what can be changed to minimize or resolve it (Barker, 2003:30). The researcher once again refers to Müller‟s (2001:8) explanation of the purpose of a forensic interview, which is to obtain a truthful account from children in a manner that will best serve the interest of the child, but is at the same time legally acceptable. On the other hand, a clinical assessment involves the use of deliberate problem-solving strategies to understand children with disturbances and their environment of family, school as well as peer relationships (Mash & Wolfe, 2005:74). Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 44 The researcher concluded that an assessment is the evaluation of all the information and facts gathered during the investigation. Assessments in cases of child sexual abuse differs from other assessments as the process followed must be legally defensible. 7.8 Expert witness The expert witness is a person with specialised knowledge that can assist the court in understanding technical, clinical or scientific issues (Myers & Stern, 2002:379-380). A person does not constitute an expert in a particular sphere unless that person is by specialised study or experience qualified to express an opinion. The court must be satisfied that the witness does not only have specialised knowledge, training, skills and experience, but can furthermore, on account of these attributes or qualities, assist the court in deciding the issue (Van der Berg & Van der Merwe, 2010:95-96). According to Carstens (2006:188), an expert witness is someone who:  has education or specialised experience,  has superior knowledge regarding a subject,  is able to deduce correct conclusions,  is able to formulate accurate opinions. In this regard, the researcher is of the opinion that an expert in the field of child sexual abuse cases is a person with specialised knowledge, skills and experience regarding child sexual abuse matters. It is not possible to obtain the necessary expertise without training in a scientific forensic assessment model. This person is able to draw accurate and objective conclusions within his/her scope of practice. 7.9 Forensic model A model can be defined as a graphic, theoretical, or other type of representation of a concept or a basic behavioral or bodily process that can be used for various investigative and demonstrative purposes, such as enhancing understanding of the concept, proposing hypotheses, showing relationships or identifying epidemiological patterns (Van den Bos, 2007:586). Information regarding forensic models was very limited. Faller (2007:36) states that a model describes the theory that underlies the professional‟s approach to assessing sexual abuse allegations; consequently the observations regarding assumptions are based upon practice experiences. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 45 The researcher‟s interpretation of a forensic model is that it is the theory a forensic investigator employs during the forensic investigation in order to justify his/her actions. It is inclusive of the entire process followed by the forensic investigator. 7.10 Legally defensible The term “legally” implies in a lawful way or related to law. It also indicates that it is a requirement that is permitted by law (Garner, 2009:975). The term “defensible” implies that something is justifiable by an argument and can withstand legal scrutiny (Oxford, 2014). When the researcher refers to something that is legally defensible, for example a technique, it implies that the technique can be justified in a lawful manner and the person employing that technique, will be able to withstand legal scrutiny in court. 8. CHOICE AND STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT The researcher presented the results of the research in the form of four articles. The research report can be seen as the final product of the research process. It is a combined effort of integrating theory and practice (Strydom & Delport, 2011b:278). This research report was divided into five sections. Figure 2 gives an overview of the format of the research report: 8.1 Section A: Introduction and research methodology This section covered the relevancy of the research, goals and objectives, theoretical statements, limitations of the research, the research design and procedures, definitions and key terms as well as the announcement of the research results. 8.2 Section B: Research articles 8.2.1 Article 1 Interviewing the sexually abused child in middle childhood. 8.2.2 Article 2 Viewpoints of forensic investigators on international forensic models and protocols for interviewing sexually abused children. 8.2.3 Article 3 The process of a forensic assessment model in the South African context. Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 46 8.2.4 Article 4 The evaluation of the forensic assessment model in the South African context. 8.3 Section C: Conclusions and recommendations The main conclusions formulated from the results of the research, as well as the recommendations for the improvement of the model, are discussed in this section. It consists of a comprehensive summary, conclusions, and recommendations regarding the research undertaken. 8.4 Section D: Addendums The annexure to the research is listed in this section. 8.5 Section E: Consolidated list of references A consolidated list of references is listed in this section. FIGURE 2: REPORT OUTLINE Section A SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 47 9. REFERENCE LIST Adler, E.S. & Clark, R. 2008. How it‟s done: an invitation to social research. London: Thomson Wadsworth. Aldridge, M. & Wood, J. 1998. Interviewing children: a guide for child care and forensic practitioners. New York: Willey. 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(In Dunbar-Krige, H. & Fritz, E., eds. The supervision of councillors in South Africa: travels in new territory. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. p. 164-177). Wilson, J.C. & Powell, M. 2001. A guide to interviewing children: essential skills for counsellors, police, lawyers and social workers. Oxon: Routledge. Zastrow, C. 2010. Introduction to social work and social welfare: empowering people. 10th ed. Australia: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 55 Smith, S, Wessels, CC and Strydom, H. Smith, S is a PhD student, Wessels, CC is an associate professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division and Strydom, H a professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division, Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. KEY TERMS Interviewing, sexual abuse, child. OPSOMMING ARTICLE 1 INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Onderhoudvoering met die seksueel misbruikte kind speel ʼn belangrike rol by die ondersoek van sake rakende seksuele misbruik. Dikwels is die kind se getuienis die enigste bewys dat seksuele misbruik plaasgevind het. Swak onderhoudvoering met die seksueel misbruikte kind kan rampspoedige gevolge vir die ondersoekproses inhou. ʼn Onskuldige persoon kan valslik van seksuele misbruik beskuldig word, ʼn misdryf wat deur die samelewing verafsku word. Tweedens kan dit daartoe lei dat ʼn kind wat wel aan seksuele misbruik blootgestel was, nie die nodige hulp en beskerming ontvang nie, aangesien die volle omvang van die misbruik onbekend is. Dit kan plaasvind as gevolg van onderhoudvoerders se swak onderhoudvoeringstegnieke of wanneer onderhoudvoerders oor gebrekkige kennis beskik wat betref kinders se ontwikkeling, veral ten opsigte van kognitiewe, taal- en seksuele ontwikkeling. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 56 1. INTRODUCTION n this chapter, available literature will be reviewed regarding interviewing the sexually abused child, especially children in middle childhood or the child between ages seven and twelve years. The focus will be on the requirements and principles of interviewing the sexually abused child. The focus will be on the language abilities of the child as well as important cognitive abilities. The child's cognitive, sexual and language development will receive attention, as this can have a significant influence on the conclusions of an investigator that is not knowledgeable about these influences on the forensic investigation. The researcher will explain the principles for forensic protocols that need to be adhered to. 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Prentky, Knight and Lee (2012:106) make the statement that few criminal offences are more despised than the sexual abuse of children, and that so little is understood in terms of the incidence and the prevalence of sexual abuse. The statement of the above-mentioned researchers indicates that adequate and trained professionals are essential for investigating child sexual abuse cases. Cronch, Viljoen and Hansen (2006:195) agree with this statement and are of the opinion that in child sexual abuse cases, skilful forensic interviews are important when investigating such cases in order to ensure the protection of innocent individuals and the conviction of perpetrators. Unfortunately, the majority of professionals in South Africa, that conduct assessments on sexually abused children and give testimony in court do so without the proper qualifications or specialised expertise (Kaliski, 2006:2). Investigative interviews typically lead to criminal proceedings and/or a variety of other interventions for children and their families. This may affect the lives of children, families and suspects (Lamb, La Rooy, Malloy & Katz, 2011:3). The above-mentioned fact can have devastating consequences for both the alleged perpetrator and the victim. Lamb et al. (2011:3) explain that the early identification of sexual abuse is difficult, since child maltreatment is a crime that is difficult to investigate. The reason for this statement is that corroborative evidence is often lacking in cases of child sexual abuse and suspected victims may often be the only source of information regarding their experiences. De Voe and Faller (2002:6) as well as Hewitt (2012:121-122) state that the sexual abuse of children is typically an event or series of events, without any witnesses or physical findings and that children's communication concerning the experiences of the alleged sexual abuse may be the only available evidence of the crime. In this regard I Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 57 Kreston (2007:81) states the following: “There is a wrongly, yet widely, held belief that if a child has been sexually assaulted, medical evidence will be able to conclusively corroborate the child‟s statement”. According to Carstens (2001:108), sexual abuse is a difficult crime to prove, as the abusers rarely tend to leave physical evidence of their crime. Instead of bruises and physical scars, sexual abusers of children usually leave the victim with varying degrees of psychological and emotional trauma. It is often difficult to prove that the abuse happened, because this form of abuse usually takes place in private, away from any potential eyewitnesses (Carnes, Nelson-Gardell, Wilson & Orgassa, 2001:231; Chetty, 2006:24). Therefore the manner in which the interview with the child is conducted is often the most critical component of the investigation of sexual abuse allegations. It is the above-mentioned facts that are causing a dilemma. If the so-called professional person is not equipped to conduct the interview, which forms a crucial part of the investigation, it can seem as if there is not enough evidence to make an arrest. In general, social workers are familiar with the principles of interviewing. Barker (2003:227) explains that when an interview is between a social worker and a client, the typical purpose is some form of problem solving. The client can vary between individuals, groups, families and communities. Saywitz, Lyon and Goodman (2011:340) point out that an interview differs from normal conversation in the sense that an interview strives towards a definite purpose. An interview is usually in a question-answer format with a well-defined goal. It is, however, important to distinguish between the different types of interviews the forensic investigator has at his/her disposal to conduct. Müller (2001:8) states that the purpose of a clinical or therapeutic interview is to provide treatment for the patient whereas that of a forensic interview is to establish the facts of the incident under investigation. The techniques employed in the course of a clinical interview do not accord with the requirements of a legal interview and can affect the outcome of a trial. The purpose of the forensic interview is to obtain a truthful account from the child in a manner that will best serve the interests of the child while at the same time, legally acceptable. Hewitt (2012:100) is of the opinion that a forensic interview is conducted as part of a larger investigative process and is intended to elicit information that is uniquely the child‟s information. The information can be used to further law enforcement, or to protect the child. In the South African context, usually a member of the South African Police Service conducts an interview with the child, after which it will be decided whether the statement contains sufficient information to arrest the accused (Fouché, 2006:206). The researcher has served as a social worker in the field of forensic social work in the South African Police Service for Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 58 eleven years. The majority of these cases comprised children in middle childhood. The cases the researcher dealt with were directly reported to the unit of Family violence, Child abuse and Sexual offences (FCS) by welfare organizations or members of the public. The researcher only received referrals from the FCS, or in some instances the court. The researcher conducted forensic interviews when the following circumstances necessitated it:  The state prosecutor is uncertain about proving a prima facie case and is hesitant to make a nolle prosequi.  The J88 report does not confirm the child‟s statement. The J 88 is an official form issued by the Department of Justice. This form documents the medico-legal examination that the healthcare practitioner performs on a victim and highlights findings that are potentially relevant for legal purposes (Rowe, Botha, Mahomed & Schlemmer, 2013:437). In these cases, the form will be completed to document the injuries of victims of childs sexual abuse.  The alleged perpetrator cannot be linked to the crime.  The child is too traumatised to disclose intimate details of the abuse.  The child is very young and cannot give a statement or testify in court.  Children of pre-school age.  Older children with learning disabilities and communication problems.  Where there is a moderate to high level of suspicion that sexual abuse has occurred, for example physical signs or behavioural problems, but where there is no response to a primary investigative interview.  Where there have been considerable delays since the first allegations of sexual abuse were made. When a child was referred to the researcher for a forensic interview, the researcher conducted a forensic investigation, while making use of, amongst others, forensic interviewing techniques. Fouché (2006:207) is also of the opinion that the above-mentioned reasons necessitate a forensic assessment. Hence it is clear that the purpose of the forensic interview is not to provide treatment or therapy for the victim, but to find facts of what happened during the abuse in an objective manner that will be legally defensible in the court. In this regard Fouché (2006:206) states the following; “Forensic assessment in cases of child sexual abuse is a fact-finding process Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 59 conducted by an objective mental health professional for purposes of obtaining legally sound, reliable and credible information to be utilised in a court process”. It is also clear that investigators interviewing children regarding sexual abuse need to be familiar with research, best practice guidelines and an opinion regarding how to interview children on possible sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:3). The quality and reliability of the sexually abused child‟s statement are influenced by the interviewer‟s skills to conduct an interview with the child. For the child to give a complete, relevant, unbiased and accurate account, the interviews should be conducted with considerable expertise and sensitivity. This statement was already made over twenty years ago by Spencer and Flynn (1990:276-277). Hewitt (2012:100) supports this statement by saying: “Forensic interviews should be conducted in a developmentally sensitive and legally sound manner, utilizing research and practice informed techniques”. However, Carstens (2006:192) recommends that professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse should develop and work according to a protocol that can be defined in court. These professionals should be able to defend a choice of assessment techniques and evaluation models. The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2012:947) describes a protocol as “the accepted or established code of procedure or behaviour in a group, organization, or situation”. The use of a protocol in forensic investigations could thus be seen as the use of an accepted and established procedure to conduct evidence-based interviews with children that have allegedly been sexually abused. Poole and Lamb (1998:81) state that a protocol in forensic circumstances is a tool to increase the quality of information that social workers elicit from children. During a forensic investigation, the investigator conducts an interview to elicit information from the child. From the above-mentioned facts, it is clear that the forensic interview forms part of the forensic investigator‟s investigation process and not any professional can conduct an interview with a sexually abused child. Only professionals with specialised training with regard to interviewing the sexually abused child, or in other words, forensic social work, can conduct an interview with the sexually abused child. Barker (2003:166) confirms this definition and states the following regarding forensic social work: “The practice speciality in social work that focussed on the law.” A field of speciality can be described as “a specific field in social work, where specific activities occur which require specific, additional knowledge, skills and expertise and can be viewed as a field of social work". This definition appeared in the official newsletter from the South African Council of Social Service Professions (2006:9). The researcher is of the opinion that the professional, conducting forensic interviews with the sexually abused child, must have specialised knowledge, skills, as well as expertise in developmental aspects of Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 60 children in order to interview the sexually abused child. Such an interview must form part of a legally sound forensic model. This article attempts to answer the following research question: What specialised knowledge must a forensic investigator possess before interviewing the sexually abused child? 3. OBJECTIVE To investigate by means of a literature study the specialised knowledge a forensic investigator must possess before interviewing a sexually abused child. 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology used in this research, was a literature study. 4.1 Literature Review The central role of this research was to establish important guidelines forensic investigators must follow when they interview sexually abused children, especially children in middle childhood. Fouché and Delport (2011:133) maintains that it is important for a literature review to be undertaken as early as possible, with the understanding that, as the research develops and new issues emerge, additional reviews of the literature will be required. They also state that a review of the literature is aimed at contributing to a clear understanding of the nature and meaning of the problem that has been identified (Fouché & Delport, 2011:134). Rubin and Babbie (2005:120) explain that the literature study is not only an important step in the formulation phase, but also in the entire process of designing the study, and is not, in fact, complete at any point in the research process. The purpose of the literature study is to be familiarised with the current state of knowledge regarding the research problem, to learn how others have delineated similar problems, to narrow the focus of the project, and to ensure that we do not unnecessarily duplicate what others have done (Monette, Sullivan & De Jong, 2011:85). Strydom (2011:237) is of the opinion that researchers can only hope to undertake meaningful research if they are fully up to date with existing knowledge on their prospective subject. The researcher found that literature regarding interviewing the sexually abused child, from a South African perspective, was very limited. A collection of local and international books, scientific journals, theses and previous research was consulted. Data bases utilized to identify applicable literature included Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 61 EBSCO Host, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL, Emerald, Health Source: Nursing/Academic Edition, Master File Premier, MEDLINEA, ProQuest and PsycINFO. In this article, the researcher also focused on available international guidelines for forensic protocols, as there are no such protocols for the South African context. An important aspect of such protocol is the interview with the victim of sexual abuse. As previously indicated by De Voe and Faller (2002:6) as well as Hewitt (2012:121-122), sexual abuse of children typically is an event or series of events, without any witnesses or physical findings and that children's communication about the experiences of the alleged sexual abuse may be the only available evidence of the crime. The forensic interview forms part of the forensic protocol the forensic investigator follows. There are different forensic protocols available to choose from. The researcher is of the opinion that before a forensic investigator can make an informed decision about which protocol to follow, knowledge of important developmental aspects that can have an influence on the chosen protocol, is indispensable. Literature regarding important developmental aspects of children in middle childhood as well as guidelines for forensic protocols is subsequently discussed. 5. CHILD DEVELOPMENT Fouché (2007:111) is of the opinion that in order to determine children‟s ability to provide information on the events they have experienced, it is necessary for the investigator to have a basic understanding of the developmental milestones, as well as the general characteristics of the applicable period. Prinsloo, Vorster and Sibaya (1996:32) highlight the fact that children‟s experiences and behaviour are always dependent on a specific level of physical, emotional, cognitive, normative and social development. In this article, the researcher will emphasize the cognitive, sexual and language development of the child. The researcher is of the opinion that it is important for the forensic investigator to have knowledge about the holistic development of children, but for the purpose of this article, the researcher will focus on the child‟s cognitive, sexual and language development. The researcher is of the opinion that if the forensic investigator does not have, amongst others, specialised knowledge about these developmental aspects, the investigator can cause serious harm in the investigation process. Knowledge regarding these developmental aspects will also guide the investigator to conduct developmentally sensitive assessments and choose a legally sound forensic protocol to work from. Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003:5) define development as the process by which an organism, be it human or animal, grows and changes through its life span. Sigelman and Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 62 Rider (2012:14) define development as systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death. Development is orderly, patterned and relatively enduring. Development is frequently described in terms of phases. Most researchers agreed on the following phases for the child‟s development: The prenatal phase, which is the phase from conception to birth. The next phase is infancy – the phase from birth to around two years of age. Next, they distinguish between the pre-school, early childhood or toddlerhood phase that stretches between the ages of two to six years. The middle childhood phase lasts from six to twelve years of age. Adolescence stretches roughly from 12 to 20 years of age (Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004: 22; Newman & Newman, 2006:45; Poole, Warren & Nunez, 2007: 8; Sigelman & Rider, 2012: 16). For purposes of this study the researcher will focus on the child in the phase of middle childhood. The reason why the researcher decided to base the research on the child in middle childhood can be attributed to the high occurrence of sexually abused children in the phase of middle childhood that formed part of the caseload of the researcher while she was serving in the South African Police Service. Middle childhood can be defined as the time in the child‟s life between approximately six and twelve years of age (Kruger & Spies, 2006:159; Louw, Van Ede, Ferns, Schoeman & Wait, 1998:326; Newman & Newman, 2003:254; x; Poole et al., 2007:8). During this article, the researcher will focus on cognitive development, sexual development and language development. 5.1 Cognitive development of the child in middle childhood Cognition is the process of organizing and making meaning of experience (Newman & Newman, 2006:68). Poole et al. (2007:39) describe it as the changes that occur in attention, memory and the thought processes. Mc Devitt and Ormrod (2004:5) refer to cognitive development as the systematic changes that occur in children‟s reasoning, concepts, memory and language. During the forensic assessment process these factors are of great importance and must be taken into consideration by the forensic interviewer, as it will have an influence on the outcome of the investigation. Knowledge of the cognitive development of the child is also necessary in order to interpret the child‟s behaviour and possible disclosures of information within the framework of his development. Songca and Le Roux (2004:322) states that it is important to be informed about the child‟s cognitive development, as it can help to explain inconsistencies in the child‟s report of sexual abuse. Cognisance needs to be taken of the fact that children differ dramatically from adults with respect to cognitive development (Müller, 2003:2). Therefore, it is important Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 63 to be informed about the child‟s cognitive development, as it can have a significant influence on the outcome of a forensic interview. The forensic investigator must also document the findings on the child‟s cognitive development in the court report in order to explain the child‟s behaviour and to educate the court in this regard. Songca and Le Roux (2004:320) state in this respect that it is important for judicial officers and attorneys to have knowledge on matters relating to the development of young children. Part of the expert witness‟ role, in this case the forensic interviewer, is to educate the court (Carstens, 2006:191). Cognition is the process of organizing and making meaning of experiences (Newman & Newman, 2003:70). These researchers also state that the interpretation of a statement, solving of problems, synthesizing information and critical analyses are all cognitive activities. It is thus clear that the current phase of the child‟s cognitive development will have an influence on the way he/she experiences and interprets the sexual abuse and at the end, the manner in which the child gives a statement. It can also help to explain inconsistencies in the child‟s statement and assist the investigator in obtaining an accurate testimony from the child. Two main theories regarding cognitive development were developed, one by Piaget and one by Vygotsky (Berger, 2003:44,49; Newman & Newman, 2003:70; Poole et al., 2007:30,33). Both researchers‟ theories emphasize that learning is not passive but affected by the learner (Berger, 2003: 271). In Piaget‟s theory the focus is on an individual in interaction with his or her environment (Meyer & Van Ede, 1998:75). Vygotsky, on the other hand, stated that development can only be understood within a social framework where thinking develops through the process of learning (Newman & Newman, 2003:73). TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN THE THEORIES OF PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY: PIAGET VYGOTSKY ACTIVE LEARNING The child‟s own search for understanding, motivated by the child‟s inborn curiosity. GUIDED PARTICIPATION The adult or another mentor‟s aid in guiding the next step of learning, motivated by the learner‟s need for social interaction. EGOCENTRISM The pre-schooler‟s tendency to perceive everything from his or her own perspective and to be limited by that viewpoint. GUIDED PARTICIPATION The pre-schooler‟s tendency to look to others for insight and guidance, particularly in the cognitive realm. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 64 STRUCTURE The mental assumptions and modalities (schema) the child creates to help him or her organize an understanding of the world. Structures are torn down and rebuilt when disequilibrium makes new structures necessary. SCAFFOLD The building blocks for learning put in place by a “teacher” (a more knowledgeable child or adult) or a culture. Learners use scaffolds and then discard them when they are no longer needed. Berger (2003:270) Smith, Dockrell and Tomlinson (1997:2) state the following with regard to the work of Piaget and Vygotsky: “There is sometimes a tendency to interpret the work of Piaget and Vygotsky in a polarised way, as if the work of one had next to nothing in common with that of the other. On this interpretation, there is an exclusive choice to be made between Piaget or Vygotsky, but not both”. When considering this statement it is clear that one must choose between Piaget and Vygotsky. For the purpose of this research study, the researcher will illustrate the child in middle childhood‟s cognitive development, from Piaget‟s perspective. On the basis of cognitive development, it is widely accepted that Jean Piaget was a psychologist that made a significant, influential contribution to the field of children‟s cognitive development (Berger, 2003:44; Meyer & Van Ede, 1998:73; Newman & Newman, 2003:70; Sigelman & Rider, 2012:60; Smith et al., 1997:1). Piaget‟s theory entails that children go through different stages of development namely sensorimotor intelligence, pre- operational thought, concrete operational thought and formal operational thought (Newman & Newman, 2003:70). The following table gives a brief description of each phase of Piaget‟s cognitive theory and what each phase entails. TABLE 2: PHASES OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION OF AGE Sensorimotor intelligence 0-2 years Infant uses senses and motor abilities to understand the world. There is no conceptual or reflective thought: an object is “known” in terms of what an infant can do with it. At the end of this period, children develop mental representations (where they can remember/recall objects). Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 65 Preoperational thought 2-6/7 years The child uses symbolic thinking, including language, to understand the world. Sometimes the child‟s thinking is egocentric, causing the child to understand the world from only one perspective, his or her own. Children‟s thinking focuses on one aspect of a problem or situation and is often illogical. Concrete Operational thought 7-12 years The child understands and applies logical operations, or principles to concrete operations, to help interpret experiences objectively and rationally rather than intuitively. Formal Operational thought 12 > The adolescent or adult is able to think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and to reason analytically, not just emotionally. They can also generate possibilities. Adapted from Berger (2003:45) and Poole et al. (2007:31) As indicated by the table above, the child in the sensorimotor intelligence phase uses his senses and motor abilities to communicate with the world and to understand it. The child in the pre-operational phase uses symbolic thinking and language to communicate with the world. The thoughts of the child in this phase are still illogical and the child is still egocentric. The child in the concrete operational thought phase acts less egocentrically. This child‟s thoughts are more logical, but still concrete. The adolescent or the child in the phase of formal operational thought can think abstractly and hypothetically. In this article, the focus will be on the child in the concrete operational thought. 5.1.1 Concrete operational thought (7-11 years) According to Piaget‟s cognitive theory, as illustrated in Table 1.2, the concrete operational phase develops approximately between ages 7 and 11 or 12 years. In practice the researcher has found that the development of one cognitive phase to another is a process that takes place over time and not a once-off occurrence. Berger (2003:359) indicates that children in this phase are primed to learn, and that they can almost learn anything that is not too abstract. According to Piaget‟s view, the most important cognitive achievement of middle childhood is the attainment of concrete operational thought, with the implication that Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 66 children can reason logically about the things and events they perceive. Piaget used the term concrete to contrast this quality of thinking to the more hypothetical reasoning of adolescents and adults. Children in this cognitive phase reasons about objects and relations among them but have difficulty entertaining hypothetical statements or propositions (Berger, 2003:259). Poole et al. (2007:311) explains that according to Piaget‟s theory, schoolchildren often think logically and flexibly about the world, as long as they are thinking about things they can touch; hence the term concrete operations. Concrete operational children have difficulty handling abstract concepts, which is reasoning about possibilities that do not physically exits. Craig and Baucum (2002:324) describe the child‟s thoughts in this cognitive phase as follows:  flexible,  reversible,  no longer limited to only the here and now,  multidimensional ,  declining egocentrism,  marked by the use of logical inferences,  understanding the relationship of cause and effect. When all these facts are taken into consideration, it is clear that the child in middle childhood is capable of operational thinking, yet the child‟s thoughts are still concrete and not abstract. Müller and Hollely (2009:158) support this statement and mention that the child in middle childhood is still having great difficulty answering abstract and hypothetical questions. This fact will have a significant influence on the outcome of the forensic interviewer‟s results. In the next paragraphs, the researcher will elaborate on the expectancies and limitations of children in the concrete operational phase.  Conservation Louw et al. (1998:332) state a clear indication that a child has reached the concrete operational phase is when the child can understand conservation. The basic meaning of conservation is that physical matter does not magically appear or disappear despite changes in form or container. The concept of conservation can be applied to a variety of dimensions, including mass, weight, number, length and volume (Newman & Newman, 2003:260). Poole et al. (2007:311) explains that children conserve when they realise that some physical quantities remain the same even after people make objects look a bit Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 67 different. These researchers explain the term conservation by means of the following practical example. A child is presented with two equal balls of dough. When the child agrees that the balls of dough are equal, one of them is rolled out into a pancake. The child is then asked which dough ball has more dough. The child that does not conserve might say that the pancake dough ball is more. The child that conserves knows that the two pieces of dough are still identical in mass and can explain why. If the child can explain that the pancake has the same amount of clay as the ball (nothing has been added or taken away), the child understands the concept identity. The child may also point out that the pancake can be turned back into a ball of dough. This is an example of reversibility. The child may also notice that although the pancake has a larger circumference, the ball is much thicker. When the child can simultaneously manipulate two dimensions, such as circumference and thickness, it is called reciprocity (Poole et al., 2007:311). Through experience the researcher found that the concept conservation is of importance in the forensic interview. The researcher experienced in practice that a child that had mastered this concept, could understand that the perpetrator‟s larger erect penis looks different from the perpetrator‟s penis in its normal state, but is still the perpetrator‟s penis (reversibility). The researcher also interviewed a child in the pre-operational phase that was under the impression that the perpetrator “put different penises on”, but the perpetrator used condoms of different colours during the abuse.  Classification/ Decentration Classification is the ability to identify properties of categories, to relate categories or classes to one another and to use categorical information to solve problems (Newman & Newman, 2003: 262). Berger (2002:260) defines classification as the process of organizing things into groups according to some property they have in common. When children are able to understand multiple classifications, they will be able to classify items on more than one criterion. The child will thus be able to classify an item on the grounds of colour, shape and size (Louw et al., 1998:331). The researcher found that the child in the concrete operational phase can give more detailed information about the sexual abuse than the child in the pre-operational phase. When the researcher interviewed a child in the concrete operational phase about sexual abuse, the investigator could focus on different dimensions of the abuse, for instance the context in which it had taken place, descriptive information regarding the perpetrator, physical surroundings as well as the different emotions and reactions of both the victim and perpetrator. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 68  Decline in egocentrism Berger (2003:390) states that according to Piaget‟s theory, egocentrism starts diminishing in middle childhood. The child in the concrete operational thinking phase starts to recognize that different people see the same things differently and starts to realise that one‟s own perspective may be incorrect (Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004:148; Müller & Hollely, 2009:158). They also start to develop sensitivity for others and have the need to please them (Louw et al., 1998:353). Another important feature is that they can communicate more effectively about objects a listener cannot see (Cole & Cole, 2001:478). The researcher is of the opinion that the decline in egocentrism is an important factor to take into consideration when interviewing a child in middle childhood when sexual abuse is suspected. Fouché (2007:245) also explains that children in the early stage of middle childhood are still egocentric and may have strong feelings of guilt, as they usually reason that they were responsible for what happened or should have been able to stop or prevent it. The child in middle childhood can easily be manipulated by the perpetrator not to disclose the sexual abuse, because of the possible consequences it may have for the perpetrator. Since the child in middle childhood also has the tendency to please others, the researcher also experienced those children that have few other significant relationships, but with the perpetrator, do not want to disappoint the perpetrator by disclosing the abuse. However, the researcher has also experienced the opposite. Occasionally a child in middle childhood does disclose the sexual abuse in order to protect other children from possible sexual abuse by the perpetrator. This occurred mainly by children at the end of middle childhood.  Seriation and Transitivity Seriation is the child‟s ability to arrange items correctly from small to big or big to small. It implies that the child understands transitivity and assumptions regarding transitivity can be made (Louw et al., 1998:333). Concrete-operational children are capable of the logical operation of seriation, which enables them to arrange items mentally along a quantifiable dimension such as length or weight. They also master the concept transitivity, which describes the necessary relations among elements in a series (Sigelman & Rider, 2012:234). 5.1.2 The influence of cognitive development on the outcome of the forensic interview As previously indicated, the child in middle childhood is still very concrete and cannot reason hypothetically (Berger, 2003:359; Müller & Hollely, 2009:158; Sigelman & Rider, Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 69 2012:62). Fouché (2006:244) explains that because the child in this age group cannot reason hypothetically, the child does not understand intention and will therefore not necessarily identify the perpetrator as “bad”. Children up to eight years of age define right and wrong based on obedience to rules and authority (Newman & Newman, 2006: 233). Therefore they are more likely not to intentionally disclose the abuse verbally or be prompted to lie about whether the abuse occurred or not, because of their obedience to the authority of the perpetrator. Cole and Cole (2001:563) state that children between eight and eleven years of age conform to rules out of self-interest and the assessment of what others can do for them. Because of this, Kuehnle (1996:51) explains that the sexually abused child in middle childhood may understand the wrongfulness of the sexual exploitation, but conform to the instruction of adults to please them or to avoid punishment. Fouché (2007:123) states that it is imperative that investigators be aware of the above- mentioned concepts as they may lead to ineffective interviewing techniques and wrong deductions, should they not be accommodated. The researcher agrees with Fouché and is of the opinion that the person that conducts the forensic interview must be well informed about the cognitive development of a child, as this will have a significant influence on the way the child interprets experience and discloses the sexual abuse. The child‟s cognitive development will also have an influence on the type of questions that can be asked, as well as the answer the child will provide. If the investigator is not well informed concerning the child‟s cognitive development, the investigator can ask age- inappropriate questions which the child will not be able to understand or answer. This can lead to the investigator making wrong conclusions about the possibility of sexual abuse. The forensic investigator will then not be able to give an accurate version to the court of what had happened to the child, resulting in the court making a wrong decision. 5.2 Development of sexual behaviour of the child in middle childhood phase When conducting an interview with the sexually abused child, an understanding about the development of sexual behaviour in children is also necessary as the researcher found that normal sexual behaviour of children can sometimes be wrongfully interpreted as sexual abuse. Literature on children‟s sexual knowledge, interests, and experiences in relation to their own bodies and in interaction with others, remains limited (Heiman, Leiblum, Esquilin, & Pallitto, 1998:290). Presently, existing literature reveals that there is almost no consensus among professionals as to what constitutes normal, healthy and typical child sexual behaviours. Even children in the latency period, from 8 to 12 years, may engage in a variety of sexual interests (Heiman et al., 1998:290; Hornor, 2004:60-61). Sexual behaviours in Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 70 children range from normal and developmentally appropriate to abusive and violent. Most children will engage in sexual behaviours at some time during childhood (Kellog, 2009:992). It is normal for children to be curious about their bodies. As they grow older, children become interested in looking at other people‟s bodies and sometimes explore with same- sex and opposite-sex playmates. Largely because children learn to conceal behaviour adults disapprove of, overt expression of sexual curiosity usually declines as their school years progress (Poole et al., 2007:268). The media also influence the sexual development of children as today‟s youth have greater access to more forms of communication than ever before (Brown & Cantor, 2000:2). Sigelman and Rider (2012:414) state that elementary school-age children may be more discreet about their sexual experimentation than pre-schoolers, but they have by no means lost their sexual curiosity as believed by Freud (Sigelman & Rider, 2012:50). The researcher is of the opinion that it is important for the forensic investigator to understand the difference between normal and abnormal sexual behaviour for children in the middle childhood phase. This is an important aspect, because during the researcher‟s experience, many cases were referred for investigation where normal sexual behaviour of children was interpreted wrongfully. 5.2.1 Normal versus abnormal sexual behaviour In the following table, a comparison is drawn between normal and abnormal sexual behaviour in children. TABLE 3 NORMAL VERSUS ABNORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR OF CHILDREN NORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR ABNORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR  Masturbation.  Touching of own genitals (This behaviour decreases with age).  Excessive aggressive masturbation that interferes with daily activities.  Masturbation with objects.  Masturbation that increases in frequency.  Typically continuing the behaviour even after requests to stop.  Child‟s talk or demeanour that accompanies the behaviour, such as sexual sounds and motions. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 71  Touching of other‟s genitals but this behaviour also decreases with age.  Visual curiosity about the body parts, including genitalia.  Showing genitals to other children or adults but decreases with age.  Other children (school age to early adolescence) tend to:  Show of interest in opposite sex,  Looking at nude photos,  Drawing of sexual parts.  Repeated insertion of objects into the vagina and/or anus.  When children ask to be touched or kissed etcetera in genital areas  When one or more of the following are involved in sexual play:  Oral-genital contact,  Anal-genital contact,  Genital-genital contact,  Digital penetration of the vagina or the anus,  Penetrating the vagina or anus with objects,  Typically continuing the behaviour even after requests to stop.  Sexual play (touching and/or looking at genitals) between age mates with an age difference of less than four years and without concerning factors such as force, bribe, threats etc.  Sexual play is spontaneous, light hearted and mutual in nature.  An age difference of four years and more, between the children involved.  The use of dominance, coercion, threats, force, aggression or bribery to convince the other child to participate.  Typically continuing the behaviour even after requests to stop. Adapted from Davies, Glaser & Kossoff (2000:1330), Heiman et al. (1998:290-293,301) and Hornor (2004:62). 5.2.1.1 Normal sexual behaviour Davies et al. (2000:1330) state that there is no consensus regarding what constitutes “normal” sexual behaviour concerning the developmental stages of childhood. Larrson and Svedin (2001:436) explain that what is deemed to be normal child sexual behaviour is determined by the social, cultural, and familial context of the times. When sexual behaviours in young children are perceived to be exploratory, and therefore not erotically stimulating or driven, the behaviours may be more acceptable and of less concern to adults (Heiman et al., 1998:293). Sex play may be defined as unsophisticated acts involving the genitalia such as looking and touching between pre-adolescent children who are not separated by more than four years. The actions should not be associated with bribes or threats (Johnson, 2002:557). Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 72 As Table 1.3 indicates, masturbation is also normal as long as it is not excessive and does not interfere with daily activities. The touching of own or others‟ genitals, or the showing of their genitals to other people is normal sexual behaviour, but will diminish with age. For a child in the middle childhood phase, it is normal to talk and ask questions about sexual topics. Normal sexual behaviour diminishes or becomes less apparent with redirection and admonishment from the parent. Although such behaviour may result in feelings of embarrassment in the child, feelings of anger, fear and anxiety are uncommon. Self - stimulation, personal space intrusiveness, interest in language or images of a sexual nature, exhibitionism, and mutual curiosity in peers' genitals are among common normal sexual behaviours (Kellog, 2009:994,996). As indicated by the researchers, there is no consensus about “normal” or “abnormal” sexual behaviour in children. Research, however, indicates that sexual behaviour by children in middle childhood can be regarded as normal when both children consent to behaviour, they are on the same cognitive level, from the same age group, the behaviour does not cause emotional problems, the behaviour is not a social taboo in the community and neither participants are forced or bribed to participate. The behaviour usually diminishes when reprimanded by adults. It is important for the forensic investigator to have knowledge about normal sexual behaviour in children, as it can occasionally be wrongfully interpreted as sexualized behaviour, which might be an indicator of possible sexual abuse. 5.2.1.2 Abnormal sexual behaviour Kellog (2009:994) is of the opinion that sexual behaviour involving children that are developmentally dissimilar or when coercion and control are used by one of the children, is abusive. Problematic sexual interactions between children seem to be characterized by dominance, coercion, threats, force, aggression, and compulsivity as opposed to sexual play that is spontaneous, light-hearted, and mutual in nature. Furthermore, children that appear to have problematic sexual behaviours typically continue the behaviour even after requests to stop (Davies et al., 2000:1330; Heiman, 1998:291; Johnson, 2002:557). Sexual abuse occurs when a child is engaged in sexual activities that he or she cannot comprehend, for which he or she is developmentally unprepared and cannot give consent, and/or that violate the law or social taboos of society. Thus, when young children at the same developmental stage are looking at or touching each other‟s genitalia because of mutual interest, without coercion or intrusion of the body, this is considered normal and non- abusive (Kellog, 2005:506). Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 73 As Table 1.3 indicates, excessive or aggressive masturbation is regarded as abnormal sexual behaviour. Sexual behaviour that increases in frequency or after a request to stop is not normal for a child in the middle childhood phase. Repeated insertion of objects in the vagina and/or anus must also be investigated by the forensic investigator. Age- inappropriate knowledge of sex, for example, knowing how to perform cunnilingus, is also a reason for concern. When one child involves other children with an age difference of more than four years, or threaten, bribe or coerce these children to participate in sexual activities, the forensic investigator must start exploring multiple hypotheses for the child‟s sexual behaviour. The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator must have knowledge of abnormal sexual behaviour of children, as abnormal sexual behaviour might be indicative of sexual abuse or other forms of emotional problems. Knowledge of abnormal sexual behaviour can also be assistive in identifying abnormal sexual behaviour in children, which was otherwise regarded as normal sexual behaviour. 5.2.1.3 How to investigate the sexual behaviour of children Many children were referred to the researcher for assessment purposes on the grounds that they were engaged in abnormal sexual behaviour and therefore must have been sexually abused. However, the possibility also exists that adults can under-react and minimize problematic sexual behaviour as being normal experimentation (Heiman et al., 1998:292). The researcher suggests that sexual behaviour of the child must be viewed in context and not be seen as an isolated incident that is wrongfully believed to be a clear indicator of sexual abuse. A task of the forensic investigator is to investigate multiple hypotheses (Fouché, 2006:237; Kuehnle, 1996:32). This means that the investigator must seek alternative explanations for the possible sexual behaviour of the child. Heiman et al., (1998:301) recommends that the following aspects will be investigated thoroughly when dealing with the sexual behaviour of children;  Evaluate the history of current and past sexual behaviour,  The underlying motivation that guided the sexual behaviour,  The child‟s affect, response and feelings regarding the sexual behaviour,  The use of bribery, trickery, or coercion,  The presence of others when the sexual behaviour occurs,  The description and feelings of the child or other children involved in the sexual activity,  The child‟s relationship with that child or children; Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 74  The developmental history of the child, along with the school history, peer relations and in and out of home behaviours,  History of physical, sexual or emotional abuse and out-of-home placements,  Family history with attention to a history of any kind of abuse or neglect, Alcohol- or substance abuse,  Psychiatric disorders,  Emotional and sexual climate in the home. It is not sexual behaviour in isolation that is diagnostic but the child‟s affect, history and all the contextual variables that provide the basis for an informed opinion (Heiman et al., 1998:301). The researcher found that the investigation of multiple hypotheses is very important when a child displays sexual behaviour. The researcher also found that other possible explanations for sexualized behaviour in children might include the following:  The child witnessed sexual behaviour of adults (purposefully or by accident). Especially in the South African context, in poverty stricken areas, where families live together in a one-room facility. Often the parents engage in sexual activities without being aware that the children are witnessing their activities. When it is explained to the child that the behaviour is socially not acceptable, the child stops the behaviour.  The researcher was involved in an investigation where a suppository was inserted in a child‟s anus. Thereafter the child was pre-occupied with her anus and constantly mentioned it. It is thus clear that a forensic investigator must have adequate knowledge on normal and abnormal sexual behaviour in order to investigate cases of sexual abuse. Children presenting with normal sexual behaviour may wrongfully be suspected of being a victim of sexual abuse. On the other hand, abnormal sexual behaviour, that might be a possible indication of sexual abuse, can be seen to be normal sexual behaviour. 5.3 Language development During a forensic interview, the investigator heavily relies on the verbal statement of the child so as to gain information regarding the sexual abuse. Müller and Hollely (2009:163) explain that in order to participate in the legal process, the child must be able to communicate in a manner that adult listeners will understand. Therefore the forensic investigator must have a grounded knowledge base of the child‟s level of language development to be able to obtain optimal information from the child. Louw (2005:19) is of the opinion that an understanding of language development in a child is vital for conducting Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 75 successful interviews with children. Investigators tend to make use of age inappropriate vocabulary as well as complex grammar styles and tend to be ambiguous. This may imply that the forensic process is not in line with the child‟s level of language development, which can lead to inaccurate responses. Skilled investigators adopt a linguistic style that differs from their casual conversations with either adults or children. It is a conceptually simple style, but structured to make social and linguistic sense to children (Poole & Lamb, 1998:153). From these researchers‟ point of view, it is clear that the forensic investigator must be knowledgeable about the language development of children in order to report their experiences accurately to the forensic interviewer. Mc Devitt and Ormrod (2004:278) explain that theorists have offered numerous explanations for how children learn their native language. However, there are currently three theories that dominate current explanations of language acquisition (Cole & Cole, 2001:332; Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004:278; Sigelman & Rider, 2012:330):  Learning theories claim that words and patterns of words are learned through imitation and through classical and operant conditioning.  Nativist theories claim that children are born with a language acquisition device that is automatically activated by the environment when the child has matured sufficiently.  Interactionist theories emphasize the cognitive preconditions for language acquisition and the role of the social environment in providing a language acquisition support system. The study of language is generally divided into four major topics, namely phonology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics and conversational competence (Cole & Cole, 2001:298,326; Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004:278; Poole & Lamb, 1998:157; Sigelman & Rider, 2012:324- 325). Knowledge in these areas is useful for professionals that interview children. The four areas can be described as follows: 5.3.1 Phonology Poole and Lamb (1998:158) state that in order to understand phonology, we have to begin with the smallest unit of language that signals a change in meaning, namely the phoneme. Sigelman and Rider (2012:324) explain that every human language must have words or symbols, representing objects, people, ideas etcetera that are relevant to their community. There must be a system of rules that organize how the words are used and combined in order to facilitate communication among members of the community. The most fundamental system involves phonemes. Phonemes are the basic or smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word (Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004:295; Poole & Lamb, 1998:158; Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 76 Sigelman & Rider, 2012:324). Mc Devitt and Ormrod (2004:295) also explain that phonemes or the basic elements of language are the sounds designated as consonants and vowels. Because adults misunderstand children so frequently, it is surprising that discussions of language in legal settings rarely consider phonology (Poole & Lamb, 1998:157). Although even infants can discriminate between different speech sounds such as “p” or “b”, children do not immediately use these differences to signal differences among words. The ability to produce phonemes correctly lags considerably behind the ability to perceive them (Cole & Cole 2001:298; Poole & Lamb, 1998:158). Cole and Cole (2001:298) state that it takes children several years to master the pronunciation of the separate words of their native language. Children often leave out some parts of a word. Sometimes a child will find it difficult to master a particular sound. Children‟s attention to the differences between sounds is not a simple mechanical skill, but something that develops along with the understanding of the meaning of words. Poole and Lamb (1998:159-160) explain that when the investigator is aware of the most common errors in phonology, it can help investigators to interpret the speech of children. These errors include the following: 5.3.1.1 Deletion of sounds This is the tendency to drop consonants from consonant clusters. In the English language, a child will say “lock” instead of the word “clock”. According to Poole and Lamb (1998:159) in the early stages of a child‟s development, the child may also leave unstressed syllables in words. An example is when a child says “wake” instead of “awake”. 5.3.1.2 Addition of sounds According to Poole and Lamb (1998:159), this happens when children avoid a final consonant or consonant cluster by adding a vowel. In this case the child will say “sicke” instead of “sick”. 5.3.1.3 Substituted sounds These errors may involve substituting voiced for unvoiced consonants. Consonants that are pronounced in the front of the mouth like “b”, “p”, or “d” are substituted for more difficult back consonants such as “g”, or “k”. This can be attributed to the fact that some sounds are easier to produce in certain syllabic positions than others are (Poole & Lamb, 1998:159). Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 77 5.3.1.4 Assimilated sounds This occurs when the child alters the place of articulation for one sound to match the place of articulation of an adjacent sound. An example is when a child says the word “goggy” instead of “doggy” (Poole & Lamb, 1998:159). 5.3.1.5 Reversal of sounds According to Poole and Lamb (1998:159), this rarely occurs. This happens when a child for example, substitutes the word “cup” for “puc”. For children to report their experiences accurately, it implies that they must convert their experiences in language. The language must be of such a nature that it is understandable to the investigator (Louw, 2005:19). It happened from time to time that the researcher was asked to interview a child with language difficulties. Sometimes an investigator might be tempted to make certain suggestions to the child, or interpret the words according to the interviewer‟s perspective. Poole and Lamb (1998:159) warns the investigator against the use of suggestions and own interpretations. These researchers suggest that it is better to ask the child to repeat the word or phrase, then write it down in phonetics and then follow it up with a series of questions that might clarify what the word means. However, the researcher found that when one asks children to repeat a word they find difficult to pronounce, they are often aware of that fact and then refuse to pronounce the word again. Therefore the researcher recommends that the investigator be subtle when asking the child to repeat a word. In such cases the researcher pretended that the word must be repeated because of her hearing that is not good and not the fact that the child‟s pronunciation of the word was wrong.  Guidelines regarding phonology, when talking to children Poole and Lamb (1998:179) suggest that the following guidelines be followed when interviewing children:  Use proper pronunciation when talking to the child and do not use “baby language”.  Never guess what the child might have said. Ask the child to repeat the comment if it is not interpretable.  Remember that children may pronounce words differently than adults. If there is another interpretation for what the child said (e.g. body or potty), clarify the meaning of the word by asking follow-up questions. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 78 5.3.2 Semantics Semantics, also referred to as vocabulary, is the acquisition of meaning, including the meaning of individual words in sentences, or in the use of everyday terminology (Poole & Lamb, 1998:157). Under this heading, features of vocabulary development that are of importance in investigative interviews will be discussed. The vocabulary of young children is limited, causing them to struggle to describe certain incidents. The reason is that they have not developed the necessary vocabulary, or they have not developed the necessary understanding of certain words (Louw, 2005:21). Children and adults often use the same words, but mean different things. It is also common for children to use words they do not really understand (Graffam-Walker, 1999:12; Louw, 2005:19; Poole & Lamb, 1999:160). An example was of a child that told the researcher that she was raped. When the researcher asked the child what rape is, she could not explain. With further investigation it appeared that the child‟s genitals were fondled. From the available literature studied by the researcher, the following principles could be identified as important when taking vocabulary development into consideration: 5.3.2.1 Anomalous use of words Children‟s interpretation of specific words and sentences can sometimes be idiosyncratically. Children and adults‟ definitions of superordinate labels such as clothes, furniture or housing options may differ (Graffam-Walker, 1999:11; Poole & Lamb, 1999:160). The researcher interviewed a child that denied that she was abused at the perpetrator‟s house. When the researcher explored the circumstances regarding the abuse, the child explained that the perpetrator did not have a house, but stayed in a flat. 5.3.2.2 Cultural lists Some investigators assess children‟s developmental level, by asking them to recite a cultural list, such as the months of the year, or to count from one to ten. Usually children memorise these lists routinely before they go to school (Graffam-Walker, 1999:17-18; Poole & Lamb, 1999:161). The researcher found that during cases of sexual abuse, the court places high value on cultural aspects in the statements of children. If a child cannot indicate on what day of the week the abuse happened or how many times, the court tends to discredit the child‟s testimony, claiming that the child is lying. The implication of this is, even though a child can name the days of the week, it does not imply that the child will be able to answer the question: “on what day did it happen?” Louw (2005:24-25) further indicates that the court often expects children to answer questions regarding quantity, time as well as Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 79 length, age and weight. The following problems can be encountered when asking children questions with relative concepts;  Quantity Eye witnesses are frequently asked to describe how many times an incident happened (Louw, 2005:24). As already mentioned, if a child can count, adults often assume that a child has an understanding of the number concept (Graffam-Walker, 1999:17-18,55; Louw, 2005:24; Poole & Lamb, 1999:161). Graffam-Walker (1999:55) states that asking the question: “how many times”, can also be difficult for adults to answer and might therefore be age-inappropriate, and their response may change each time. Louw (2005:24) explains that young children‟s concept of quantity and numbers are often mechanical, like when learning the words of a poem. On the other hand, the ability to provide information in terms of quantity requires abstract abilities. As already indicated, the thoughts of children in middle childhood are still very concrete. Poole and Lamb (1998:172) are also of the opinion that children encounter problems answering questions regarding quantity. The researcher found that the court places high value on the child‟s statement with regard to quantity. Therefore the researcher usually asked the child whether it happened once or more than once. The implication is that the child does not have to indicate a number, but the court is still informed that it was not only an isolated incident when it happened more than once. The researcher also explained to the court that in all fairness, not even most sexually active adults can state their number of sexual experiences, why then, is it expected from children, whose sexual experience was shameful, negative and traumatic, to remember to keep track of each time.  Time Graffam-Walker (1999:56) state that time is another concept that children talk about freely, in the appropriate grammatical way. However, their use of words that express clock, calendar or durative time must not be taken as an indicator that they can give reliable information about when or how long ago something happened, or how long it lasted. The inability to name the day or date something happened must also not be interpreted as that the incident did not happen. Despite this statement, investigators frequently ask children to indicate the time of an incident or the day it happened (Louw, 2005:25). Louw (2005:25) states that although children can read time from the age of seven years old, they encounter problems answering questions regarding calendar dates or the chronological course of something that had happened. This researcher further states that at the age of eight years, children can accurately name the days of the week, as well as the different seasons. Children can then start to reason about the time of an incident. A child can reason that he Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 80 was wearing a scarf at the time of the incident, so it must have happened during the winter. A child under the age of ten years will still experience difficulty reporting incidents in the correct chronological order. Saywitz, Goodman, Nicholas and Moan (1991:682) proved that children‟s response regarding the time and date of an incident can be established more accurately when using alternative methods such as asking a child: “Did it happen during the week or the weekend.” The researcher once established the day of an incident by determining what TV program she was watching. The child stated that she was watching a certain program before the incident happened and the researcher established that the program she was referring to was only broadcasted on Tuesdays.  Length, age and weight Descriptive information of a person‟s age, length and weight can sometimes be of great importance in an investigation of a sexual abuse case, especially if the perpetrator is a stranger to the child. Louw (2005:25) states that when children are requested to give information in this regard, it often requires knowledge about conventional systems in order to describe length, age and weight. The implication of this statement is that children will often think the tallest person in a room must be the oldest person in the room. If a child states that the perpetrator was old, the child must be afforded the opportunity to explain why he says the person is old. Graffam-Walker (1999:52) explains that children connect age to size, particularly to height. Tall and old are directly related in children‟s minds. The researcher recommends that when a child is asked to judge someone‟s age, the child must be given the opportunity to explain why he/she thinks so. If possible, the child‟s information must be confirmed with collateral sources afterwards. 5.3.2.3 Interviews as language lessons Poole and Lamb (1998:161) is of the opinion that language acquisition is the greatest intellectual feat any human is ever required to perform. What is notable is the speed at which children learn their language and simply by being exposed to it. These researchers claim that children at the age of six years have a working vocabulary of between 8 000 and 14 000 words. Between the ages of one and six years, children learn approximately five to eight new words per day. These words are often learned from a single exposure, also known as fast mapping (Berger, 2003:280; Poole & Lamb, 1998:161). This implies that extreme caution must be taken by the investigator not to inadvertently teach abuse-related words to children by embedding new words in their conversation, such as rape, vagina, penetration etc (Poole & Lamb, 1998:162). The researcher found that it is very important to Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 81 only use words children already volunteered, especially for body parts. It is also important to always clarify the meaning of these words. 5.3.2.4 Simple words Adults have difficulty estimating children‟s vocabulary, and intuition concerning which words are easy or difficult. Some words are initially understood only in a certain context; therefore it is wise to avoid using words known to be difficult even if some children do use those words (Poole & Lamb, 1998:162). 5.3.2.5 Problem Words and Concepts Poole and Lamb (1998:162) indicate that there are many reasons for words being misunderstood by children. Louw (2005:22) states that forensic investigators tend to make use of complex grammatical constructions, not yet mastered by the child. The following principles must be followed by the forensic investigator in order to conduct a developmentally sensitive interview;  Words describing touch The researcher found that in most sexual abuse cases, there is a form of touch involved. Some children may believe they can only be touched by hands (Graffam-Walker 1999:36; Poole & Lamb, 1998:163). These researchers recommend the use of more familiar words such as the words kiss, stroke, poke.  Temporal terms The phrase temporal terms is indicative of when something happened and in a forensic investigation it is important. Poole and Lamb (1998:164) state that children‟s understanding of time and date is very limited before eight to ten years. This includes words such as yesterday, tomorrow, always, never, sometimes, before and after. Graffam-Walker (1999:37) states that in order for children to use these words accurately, they must understand that they are not referring to a particular day of the week. The researcher experienced in practice that young children do not have and understanding of concepts such as tomorrow and yesterday. A child once answered that the abuse happened tomorrow. Poole and Lamb (1998:165) recommend that in order to help children identify the time of an event, a child can use meaningful markers such as what television show they were watching when the abuse occurred or was it on a school day or during a weekend. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 82  “The” versus “A” Poole and Lamb (1998:166) state that adults may be confused if a child uses “a” when “the” is more appropriate. According to them, even adults sometimes use these terms incorrectly.  Referring to persons The clear identification of people is a crucial component of testimony in forensic investigations. It is expected from children to refer to people by referring to their names or their kinship relationship such as mommy or daddy (Poole & Lamb, 1998:166). Kinship terms form a part of a class of words called shifters. Shifters are words that change their referent according to the identity of the speaker and his or her temporal or spatial location. The complete understanding of these terms develops as late as age ten (Poole & Lamb, 1998:167). Poole et al. (2007:235) state that words such as aunt or uncle are especially confusing, because the relationship varies depending on who is speaking. For example, a female sibling is called a sister, but she could also be the aunt of someone or a mother. Children of blended or divided families may encounter problems in this respect. Another mistake children can make is by associating a kinship term with a name. The child may believe that uncle Peter‟s name is uncle, because it is the way he is addressed. They also might believe that only children and not adults, can be brothers and sisters and all old people are grandparents (Graffam-Walker, 1999:54). The researcher found that in some cultures these terms can be used in different ways. In the South African context, black people refer to people as their brother or sister, even if they are not related. Some children of all communities refer to their caregiver as a mother or father, but in reality, they are not related. Children from reconstructed families sometimes also call the stepparent mommy or daddy. In such cases, it is very important to establish the person‟s identity. It is crucial to confirm the person‟s identity through collateral sources.  Prepositions As previously explained by the researcher, shifters are words that change their referent according to the identity of the speaker and his or her temporal or spatial location (Poole & Lamb, 1998:167; Poole et al., 2007:235). This includes words such as this or that, here or there, come or go. The meaning of come and go or bring and take, depends on the different locations of both the speaker and the listener (Poole & Lamb, 1998:167). Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 83  Legal terms Müller and Tait (1997:599) are of the opinion that children in South Africa have deficiencies in their knowledge of the legal process, as well as gross misconceptions of certain terms and procedures. Poole and Lamb (1998:167) state that young children do not have a legal vocabulary and many legal words have a double meaning. An example of words with a double meaning is the word court. In a child‟s vocabulary, a court is a tennis court, or when you swear, you use bad words.  Guidelines regarding vocabulary, when talking to children When adults interview children, they must consider the following guidelines regarding children‟s vocabulary (Poole & Lamb, 1998:179):  A word might not have the same meaning to the child and the interviewer. Instead, the child‟s usage may be more restrictive, inclusive, or idiosyncratic.  Avoid the introduction of new words such as the names of specific persons or body parts. Wait until the child uses the words. Before eight to 10 years of age, the ability to answer questions about time is very limited. Time must be narrowed down to an event, such as whether it was during the week or during the weekend.  When a specific person is mentioned, follow-up questions must be asked to make sure the identification is unambiguous.  The investigator must be aware of shifters or words of which the meaning depends on the speaker‟s context, location, or relationship.  Complicated legal terms must be avoided. 5.3.3 Syntax Sigelman and Rider (2012:325) explain that syntax is an important step in language acquisition that refers to systematic rules for forming sentences. Mc Devitt and Ormrod (2004:278) describe syntax as the way words are combined to form understandable phrases and sentences. Poole and Lamb (1998:168:169) suggest that instead of the investigators memorising a list of complicated developmental norms, they must learn to phrase questions to all age groups in a way that makes less cognitive commands on the listener. In order to do that, the following guidelines are suggested: 5.3.3.1 Word order and passive voice Louw (2005:24) recommends that phrases in the passive voice, for example: “were you abused by the man?” must be avoided. Poole and Lamb (1998:169) support this statement Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 84 and recommend that passives must be avoided completely when talking to children. Graffam-Walker (1999:43) agrees that children do not really control the passive form, not before ages 10 to 13 years. Some will only master that skill in adulthood. 5.3.3.2 Word order: Embedding Adults often pack information into a phrase by using complex sentences or questions. Investigators tend to use sentences with more than one verb and will for instance ask a child whether he was fondled by the man who was talking (Poole & Lamb, 1999:169). Louw (2005:22) suggests that investigators make use of shorter sentences which address each topic individually. 5.3.3.3 Multiple questions In the forensic environment, it is important to keep questions short and simple, because the child must remember the question from the beginning to the end (Graffam-Walker, 1999:13). Poole and Lamb (1998:170) explain that it is another way of compressing speech to ask several questions at once. Usually these questions begin with: “Do you remember?” An example of such a question is: “Do you remember that you told me that daddy hurt your bum in the kitchen and then you called your mother?” Louw (2005:22) states that questions such as these will confuse children. Poole and Lamb (1998:170) recommend the following in order to avoid multiple questions:  Ask children to provide only one piece of information at a time.  Tolerate pauses in the conversation so that children have enough time to reply (Graffam-Walker, 1999:14).  Take time to formulate questions carefully. 5.3.3.4 Negation and Tag Questions Both children and adults find it difficult to understand questions that include a negative, for instance: “Did he not tell you to stand in the bathroom?” Questions can also include a double negative, for example: “Did he not ask you not to tell anybody?” (Poole & Lamb, 1998:170) Louw (2005:23) explains that such questions can be very confusing, as the child might not be sure whether he/she must confirm or deny the statement. Graffam-Walker (1999:42) maintains that negations (questions with a negative) are quite popular in cross examination, but not a reliable tool for getting information from either a child or an adult. Graffam-Walker (1999:48) explains that a tag question makes a statement and then adds a short question that invites corroboration of the truth, for instance: “The sun is shining, is it not?” It is also a very powerful suggestion. Poole and Lamb (1998:171) confirms the Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 85 previous researcher‟s statement that tag questions suggest that the investigator knows the answer. 5.3.3.5 Pointing words Pointing words, also known as deictic words, or indexicals (index finger pointing at something), is another kind of word that adults use without thinking at all. The most familiar indexicals are pronouns such as, I, him, that and words like here and come are in this class as well (Graffam-Walker, 1999:26). These words have no meaning apart from the specific context in which they occur. The sentence: “when he came home, did he hit you?” depending on how many other parties were discussed, might interpret this question differently. The ability to match pronouns with prior or subsequent nouns may not be fully developed until the age of ten years (Poole & Lamb, 1998:171). These researchers are of the opinion that pointing words cause problems in forensic investigations, because they require children to monitor what has already been stated and link words to prior referents, and the child must take the role of the speaker into consideration. They advise investigators to increase the redundancy of their speech by repeating critical information instead of using pointers such as he or she. The researcher supports this statement and is of the opinion that the investigator must use the person‟s name as stated by the child to refer to a person instead of using him or her. 5.3.3.6 Asking wh- questions When investigators require more than a yes or no answer, questions starting with: who, where, what and when, are often asked. It appears that children can answer what, who or where questions earlier than when, how and why questions (Louw, 2005:23; Poole & Lamb, 1998:172). Poole and Lamb (1998:172) state that two problems exist concerning questions starting with why, for example: “Why did you go to his room, while all the other children were in the bathroom?” The child must first have the ability to reflect on his own mental state, and children up to the age of ten years find it difficult to describe their motives. The ability to describe other people‟s motives can develop as late as 13 years. Secondly, children can interpret that they did something wrong if they are asked why questions, such as: “Why did you not tell your mother?” Sometimes it is necessary to know the answer to that question and in such a case the researcher usually rephrases the question to: “I wonder what made that you did not tell your mother”. Poole and Lamb (1999:172-173) is of the opinion that another problematic question is how many. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 86 5.3.3.7 Nominalization Nominalization involves the changing of a verb into a noun, for instance: appear becomes appearance (Graffam-Walker, 1999: 43; Poole & Lamb, 1999:173). According to Poole and Lamb (1999:173), statements containing nominalizations are poorly understood even by adults and should be avoided when working with children.  Guidelines regarding Syntax, when interviewing children Poole and Lamb (1998:179) identified the subsequent guidelines to follow during a forensic interview with children:  Sentences with subject-verb-object order must be used. Avoid passive voice.  Avoid embedding clauses. The primary question must be placed before the qualification. For example: "What did you do when he hit you?” and not: “When he hit you, what did you do?”  The investigator must only ask about one concept per question.  Negatives such as: “Did you not see who did it?” must be avoided.  Avoid the use of tag questions, for example: “This is beautiful, is it not?”  Words such as he, she, or that may be ambiguous. When possible, a referent rather than a pointing word must be used.  Children learn to answer what, who and where questions at an earlier age than questions with when, how and why.  Verbs must not be converted into nouns. Nominalization must thus be avoided. 5.3.4. Pragmatics and conversational competence Sigelman and Rider (2012:325) explain pragmatics as rules for specifying how language is used appropriately in different social contexts (Mc Devitt & Ormrod, 2004,278). Children must learn what to say to whom. They learn how to communicate effectively, taking into account who the listener is, what the listener already knows as well as what the listener needs or wants to hear. Poole et al. (2007:235) explain it as the social uses of language, such as taking turns at appropriate times, interpreting intended meanings and how to modify one‟s speech for different listeners. According to Poole and Lamb (1998:173-174), the development of pragmatics involves the following:  Adoption of social conventions for participating in conversations.  Learning to use language for various purposes such as requesting, persuading, or promising.  Adjusting one‟s speech according to the social context. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 87 Louw (2005:26) is of the opinion that children‟s pragmatic skill is an important factor during the forensic investigation, since the pragmatic rules in the forensic setting differ from those in a social context. 5.3.4.1 Participating in Conversation A common phenomenon when interviewing children is that they often repeat utterances addressed to them (Poole & Lamb, 1998:175). When a child is asked: “Is she your daddy‟s mom?”, and the child does not understand the question, the child might just repeat “daddy‟s mom” and the investigator might wrongfully interpret the response as the child‟s answer. When children repeat questions or parts of questions, however, the investigator should not treat the answers as affirmations, as it can simply be that the child is confused. Children‟s response to the interviewer‟s question is not necessarily the answer to the question (Graffam-Walker, 1999:17). Poole and Lamb (1998:174-175) point out that children lack attention to an overall topic. They also state that the gradual development of topic coherence implies that investigators should restate the topic when they question children and that they must seek clarification whenever they think children may have deviated from the topic. Grammatical conventions are used to introduce, maintain, or modify topics in ordinary conversations, but are occasionally lacking in the forensic context, especially during court procedures. In court, they usually jump from one question to the next without the necessary introduction in order to help the child to make the necessary frame of reference (Louw, 2005:26). Poole and Lamb (1998:176) also explain that children often fail to realise that an interviewer‟s message is ambiguous. Even if they do detect it, they will not tell the investigator they are confused. Experienced investigators will tell children they may ask for clarification, but it is still necessary to minimize ambiguous questions. It is also important to bear in mind that children will not necessarily tell the investigator there is something they do not understand (Graffam-Walker, 1999:15). 5.3.4.2 Sociolinguistics: The Impact of Culture on Conversational Conventions In general, investigators must avoid the interpretation of body language, unless they are familiar with the cultural norms of the people with whom they are interacting. If possible, practitioners must be familiar with the conversational conventions of the children they interview (Poole & Lamb, 1998:177-178). Investigators tend to believe that all children had learned language the same way and that their non-verbal expressions are the same (Graffam-Walker, 1999:23). In the South African context, white people interpret someone that does not make eye contact while talking, as one who is lying. In some black cultures, it Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 88 is disrespectful for younger people to look older people in the eyes while having a conversation. The researcher also experienced in practice that it is too embarrassing for some victims of sexual abuse to make eye contact with the investigator while talking about the sexual abuse. On one occasion during a court case, it was also a point of concern that the child did not make eye contact with the intermediary while testifying about the sexual abuse she had encountered. The researcher educated the court on possible explanations for the child‟s behaviour. 5.3.4.3 Guidelines regarding the use of Pragmatics It is important to consider the following guidelines regarding Pragmatics when conducting a forensic interview (Poole & Lamb, 1998:180);  Different cultural groups have different norms when conversing with authority figures or strangers. A child‟s non-verbal behaviour must not be corrected, unless it interferes with the child‟s ability to be heard, or is otherwise impeding the interview.  Language diversity includes diversity in the way conversations are structured. Investigators must be tolerant of talk that seems off the topic and must avoid interrupting the child while speaking.  Some children may agree that it is polite to agree with a stranger. Therefore, it is important to avoid leading questions or closed-end questions, as some children always comply, even when the adult is wrong. From the above discussion, it is clear that forensic investigators occasionally do not consider the child‟s cognitive development during a forensic interview. Louw (2005:27) states that children are sometimes forensically interviewed in a language that is too complex and too abstract for them to understand. It is therefore important that forensic investigators familiarise themselves with children‟s language development in order to protect the child and serve in the child‟s best interest. 6. THE USE OF FORENSIC PROTOCOLS Professionals involved in the investigation of sexually abused children vary between different professions (APSAC, 2012:4). Wilson and Powell (2001: xiii-xiv) state that it can vary between police officials, psychologists, social workers, lawyers or psychiatrists. Faller (2007:66) states that professionals that interview children on possible sexual abuse come from a variety of professionals with different training about how an interview should be structured. Poole and Lamb (1998:109) explain that there are two general principles that characterize forensic investigations. Forensic investigations are hypotheses testing and not Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 89 hypotheses confirming. The investigator must gather information concerning the alleged incident and generate a set of alternative hypotheses. Forensic investigations must in the second place be child centred. This implies that the forensic investigator will direct the flow of the conversation, but the child will determine the vocabulary. This statement is supportive of the researcher‟s opinion, namely that the forensic investigator must be knowledgeable about developmental aspects of the child concerned. As previously mentioned, professionals in South Africa working with children that are allegedly exposed to sexual abuse are facing a dilemma, as there is no set protocol for these people. There are no recognised requirements, selections or specialised training to guide professionals in South Africa that work with sexually abused children (Smith, 2007:28). All children are unique and there is no single correct way to interview children. There is no golden standard for investigators to follow (Myers, 2005:43). Poole and Lamb (1998:75) already mentioned over a decade ago that investigators can affect children‟s statements through their choice of the physical environment for conducting the interview, their demeanour and behaviour, as well as their selection of questioning strategies. These facts have created a sense of urgency regarding the need for developing and implementing formal protocols for forensic interviews. However, some professionals feel that the term “protocol” is too rigid and refer to it as interview guidelines or interview structures (Faller, 2007:66). For purposes of this article, the researcher will refer to a forensic protocol. 6.1 Different phases in a forensic protocol Structured protocols, or the interview with the child during a forensic investigation, prevent defective interviewing, and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi-structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (Orbach, Hershkowitz, Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin & Horowitz, 2000:734; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:340). These structured protocols are designed in such a manner that it includes different phases (Carnes et al., 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz et al., 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). Wilson and Powell (2001:45) are of the opinion that the interview protocol can be seen as a funnel where the interview begins with the most open-ended questions and then progresses down to more specific questions. These researchers state that the following phases are standard to most interviewing structures or protocols: Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 90  Greeting and establishing rapport with the child.  Introducing the topic of concern.  Eliciting a free narrative account from the child.  Specific questioning.  Closure. Faller (2007:69) incorporates the interview phases found in existing protocols and guidelines as follows:  Documenting people, time and place for the video.  Informing the child about the interview.  Competency assessment.  Rapport building.  Developmental assessment.  Assessing overall functioning.  Explaining the rules.  Practice interviewing.  Introduction of topic of concern.  Obtaining a narrative from the child.  Obtaining additional details.  The cognitive interview.  Closure. Faller (2003:107) describes another guideline that can be followed for interviewing children that may have been sexually abused. This guideline consists of the following phases: Initial phase  The investigator explains his or her role.  Rapport building  Provision of ground rules.  The investigator assesses the child‟s overall functioning.  Assessment of the child‟s developmental level. Abuse-Focused phase  Open-ended inquiry.  Follow-up regarding disclosure.  Specific questioning. Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 91 Closure phase  Explanation of what will happen next.  Investigator calms the child, if needed. When existing literature regarding forensic interviewing protocols are studied, it is clear that researchers recommend that forensic interviewing protocols must be divided into phases. It is also recommended that investigators must make use of structured or semi-structured interviews as this will elicit more information from the child regarding the abuse. From the research it is clear that experts in the field of forensic interviewing recommend the use of different phases while conducting forensic interviews and that the structures may differ. However, it seems that all interviewing protocols have the same goal, namely to elicit information from the child about alleged sexual abuse in a non-leading and suggestive free manner. 7. DISCUSSION  The focus in this article was on children between ages seven and twelve years, or the so-called middle childhood phase. When references were made to other age groups, it was to give the reader a more holistic picture of child development and the influence it can have on the forensic investigation process.  It is important for forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about childhood development, as it can have a significant influence on the outcome of a forensic investigation. It is important for forensic investigators to possess knowledge about all developmental aspects of children, but for purposes of this article, cognitive, sexual and language development were identified as the most influential factors during a forensic investigation.  The first developmental aspect of children in middle childhood that was discussed was cognitive development. Reference was made to Vygotsky‟s cognitive developmental theory, but Piaget‟s concrete operational stage was discussed in detail. Aspects of importance were conservation, classification or decentration, decline in egocentrism, seriation and transitivity. The most noticeable difference between Piaget‟s pre- operational and concrete operational phase is conservation, a skill children in the concrete operational phase can master. A limitation of children in middle childhood is that they are not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.  A child in the middle childhood phase will be able to give more detailed information regarding the sexual abuse. These children can also consider more than one aspect at Article 1 ARTICLE 1: INTERVIEWING THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD Page 92 the same time. They are able to consider other people‟s feelings, which the abuser can use to manipulate them more easily.  With the writing of this article it emerged that no consensus exists among researchers regarding normal and abnormal sexual behaviour amongst children. Acceptable sexual behaviour is mainly determined by the community‟s values and norms. It is normal for children to present sexual behaviour in this phase, but it is usually of an explorative nature and will stop when reprimanded by adults. Abnormal sexual behaviour is sexual behaviour that is inconsistent with norms and values of the community and behaviour that is coercive and aggressive in nature.  Language development of children is also an important aspect during a forensic interview. Age inappropriate language during a forensic investigation can cause a child to be misunderstood, or the investigator to draw wrong conclusions concerning sexual abuse.  The study of language is generally divided into four major topics, namely phonology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics and conversational competence. Investigators tend to use too complicated and developmentally inappropriate language when interviewing sexually abused children. It is also important to give attention to cultural differences when considering children‟s language.  Researchers recommend that forensic investigators make use of structured or semi- structured interviewing when conducting a forensic investigation. Unstructured interviews are not advisable. Some researchers refer to a forensic protocol rather than a structure. There is no recognised or standardised forensic protocol for the South African context. 8. SUMMARY When the available literature was considered, it emerged that the best way of eliciting information from the sexually abused child is by means of a structured interview or protocol. However, before an investigator attempts to elicit information from a sexually abused child, the investigator must familiarise him- or herself with the developmental aspects of the sexually abused child. This is because the child‟s developmental level will have a significant influence on the way the child understands and interprets sexual abuse and communicates about it. In the next article the researcher determines what the viewpoints of forensic investigators are regarding the interviewing protocols and scientific forensic models they employ during their investigation process. 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Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 98 Smith, S, Wessels, CC and Strydom, H. Smith, S is a PhD student, Wessels, CC is an associate professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division and Strydom, H a professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division, Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. KEY TERMS Viewpoints, forensic investigators, forensic investigations, International, models, forensic protocols, interviewing, sexually abused children. OPSOMMING Die forensiese ondersoeker se primêre kliënt is die hof. Professionele persone wat forensiese ondersoeke onderneem, kan te wagte wees om op gereelde basis gedagvaar te word om as deskundige getuie in die hof op te tree. Tydens die forensiese ondersoeker se deskundige getuienis moet hy/sy in staat wees daartoe om die ondersoekproses van die begin tot die einde te verduidelik. Dit is ook die forensiese ondersoeker se plig om die hof op te voed oor kwessies rakende seksuele misbruik sodat die hof ‘n regverdige besluit kan neem ten opsigte van die betrokke saak. Daar word van die forensiese ondersoeker verwag om te alle tye neutraal en objektief op te tree en die persoon moet in staat wees daartoe om die ondersoekproses te verdedig aan die hand van wetenskaplike literatuur. Die navorser poog om in hierdie artikel die beste wetenskaplike model vir forensiese ondersoeke in die Suid- Afrikaanse konteks te bepaal, sowel as ‘n geskikte onderhoudvoeringsprotokol. ARTICLE 2 VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 99 1. INTRODUCTION n the previous article, the researcher explained the importance of the child‟s cognitive, sexual and language development, during investigations of child sexual abuse cases. In this article, the researcher will focus on different scientific models for assessing children. A model describes the process the forensic investigator is following, from the time the case is reported until the case is finalised. The researcher will also determine which model forensic investigators in the South African context employ and the reason why they had decided on that specific model. The researcher will also focus on forensic interviewing protocols. The protocol forms part of the model the forensic investigator uses. The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic interview is implemented in the process of investigation in order to gain information from the child regarding the sexual abuse. During this article, the researcher will focus on the National Institute for Child Health and Development Investigative Protocol (NICHD). The researcher also determined by means of an empirical investigation, which scientific model and interview protocol are used by forensic investigators in the South African context. 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Courts are frequently relying on the expertise of forensic investigators to assess allegations of sexual abuse. Such evaluations are complex and require knowledge of techniques used in sexual abuse and sexual offender evaluations. However, few practitioners follow formal models, protocols or guidelines when evaluating cases of sexual abuse (Bow, Quinnell, Zaroff & Assemany, 2002:566). Interviewing children so as to determine whether or not they had been sexually abused, occurs within a context of information gathering (Faller, 2007:43). Saywitz and Comparo (2009:114) also share the opinion that the forensic investigator is a fact finder. Because of lacking evidence in child sexual abuse cases, professionals resorted to interviewing family members or other role players to determine the probability of sexual abuse. However, the interview with the child is still the most viable and valuable source of information concerning the likelihood of sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:35). Interviews with children do not take place in a vacuum and investigators need to consider the larger context of the interview with the child. An appropriate assessment process takes into consideration the specifics of the case, practice knowledge and research findings (Faller, 3003:162). Cordisco-Steele (2012:100) explains that a forensic interview is conducted as part of a larger investigative process, I Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 100 which intends to elicit information that is uniquely the child‟s information and can be used to further law enforcement and child protection investigations. The investigator must maintain a supportive, but objective and hypothesis-testing stance throughout the interview (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Fouché, 2006:206; Herman, 2009:262). When considering the above literature, it is clear that the forensic investigator cannot exclusively rely on the child‟s account of what had happened. The current practice is conceptualized in four models, namely: the interview model, the joint investigation model, the parent-child interaction model and the comprehensive assessment model (Faller, 2003:142; Faller, 2007:35). Only a few professionals describe the theory that underlies their approach to assessing sexual abuse allegations (Faller, 2007:36). Literature on forensic models is also very limited and the researcher was not able to find an explanatory definition for a forensic model. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must be knowledgeable about the theory that underlies the approach they are following and must choose with great care one of the mentioned models, which will then form the basis of the investigative process they follow. The researcher defines a forensic model as a guideline that will guide the forensic investigator to make decisions of what principles they must adhere to during their investigation, for example to interview the offender or to have multiple interviews with the child. Professionals must be able to defend their choice of assessment techniques and procedures they followed during their investigation process. Once the forensic investigator has chosen a model that is legally defensible in their nature of investigations, they must decide on a protocol to follow. According to the researcher, the interview protocol that is followed by the forensic investigator will form part of the forensic model the forensic investigator employs. Carstens (2006:192) recommends that professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse must develop and work according to a protocol that can be defined in court and recommends that professionals must be able to defend their choice of assessment techniques and evaluation models. A protocol will give guidance and structure to investigators on how to remain impartial while collecting information that may either corroborate or refute the suspicion of abuse (La Raque, De, Matthia & Low, 2006:1142). Poole and Lamb (1998:81) define a protocol in forensic circumstances as a tool to increase the quality and quantity of information professionals elicit from children. Faller (2007:67) states that a protocol refers to the interview structure and content of the investigative interview. She also states that a protocol consists of phases of which rapport building, information gathering and closure is the simplest structure. When Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 101 considering the literature, one can thus draw the conclusion that a protocol is the forensic interview with the child in order to elicit information from the child regarding the alleged abuse. A protocol also provides guidance for the investigator and can reduce interviewer anxiety. The investigator must take caution that most interview structures are designed for children that have already disclosed or are willing to talk about the sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:88). Investigators that prepare children to relate events with clear instructions or opportunities for practice recall, actually elicit more usable information with fewer specific questions than do investigators that simply follow default procedures (Poole & Lamb, 1998:103). As mentioned in the previous article, structured protocols are designed in such a manner that different phases are included in it (Carnes, Nelson-Gardell, Wilson & Orgassa, 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). In this article, the researcher will attempt to answer the following research question: What do International forensic investigations consist of and how does it compare with the South African context? 3. OBJECTIVE To identify by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate their use in the South African context. 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In this article, the empirical findings of the use of models and protocols will be presented. This information will be used as the foundation of the forensic assessment model that has been developed for this research project. The research methodology inclusive of the literature review, research model, respondents, terms and empirical findings will be briefly described. 4.1 Literature review An investigation was conducted regarding the existing literature on available scientific models and protocols for forensic investigations. The researcher gave attention to the different available models, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as how they can be applied in the South African context. The researcher also focused on available scientific protocols for assessing the sexually abused child after a referral had been made. The Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 102 central focus of this study was to develop a forensic interviewing model for the forensic investigators in the South African context, one that will guide the forensic investigator, conducting forensic investigations, from receiving the referral up until finalizing the court case. The results obtained from respondents in the field of forensic social work were used during the interpretation of the data. A wide range of literature was identified and studied, including books, academic studies, government and informal publications and scientific journals. Literature regarding available scientific models to follow during the forensic investigation was very limited and the researcher could only find one author that wrote on it, but literature on the National Institute for Child Health and Development Investigative Protocol (NICHD) were in abundance. Most literature was obtained from related professions including social work, psychology, medicine, nursing, and sociology. The researcher did a thorough search for local literature on the use of forensic models and protocols in South Africa, but she could not trace a great deal of literature in this regard, as no forensic models and structured and evidence-based protocols currently exist in the country. A literature review provides insight into the dimensions and complexities of a subject (Fouché & Delport, 2011:133). Forensic social work is a relatively new field in South Africa, with no clear-cut ethical guidelines, principles and protocols unique to South Africa. The literature review of international books and articles therefore served as a theoretical framework and was used to contextualize the study (Delport, Fouché & Schurink, 2011:303). For purposes of this article the following databases were used: NEXUS; Scholarly journal; Social Science Index: Social Work Abstracts; ERIC; RSAT; EbscoHost; PsycLit; Questia online library; Catalogue – Ferdinand Postma Library, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. 4.2 Research model Mouton (2001:55) and Yegidis and Weinbach (1996:89) state that a research design refers to a plan or blueprint of the way a researcher intends to conduct the research. According to Fouché Delport and De Vos (2011:143), a research design focuses on the end product and all the steps in the process to achieve an anticipated outcome. In this article, the intervention model was used. De Vos and Strydom (2011:475) define the intervention research model as studies carried out with the aim of “conceiving, creating, and testing Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 103 innovative human service approaches to preventing or ameliorating problems or to maintain the quality of live”. In this study, the Design and Development model (D & D) was utilized. The D & D model according to Rothman and Thomas (1994:12) may be conceptualised as a problem-solving process for seeking effective intervention and helping tools to deal with given human and social difficulties. Rothman and Thomas (1994:9) stipulate six phases of the D & D model. The first and second phases were conducted during this part of the study: The intervention research model‟s six phases are: Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis Phase 3: Design Phase 4: Early development and testing Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development Phase 6: Dissemination (Jweitt & Rozentals-Thresher, 2004:5) Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 104 FIGURE 1: THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL Adapted from De Vos and Strydom (2011:476-487). The researcher will describe the steps of Phases 1 and 2 of the model and indicate how the theory was applied in practice during each step in this article. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 105 Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning This phase consisted of several steps as outlined by De Vos and Strydom (2011:477). Step 1: Identifying and involving clients In this phase, the researcher chooses a population with whom to collaborate – a population of which issues are of current or emerging interest to the society. The researcher, together with the population, identifies the specific targets and goals of the intervention. In this case, the population was forensic investigators across the whole of South Africa, both male and female. Step 2: Gaining entry and cooperation from settings The researcher identified possible respondents, phoned them and explained to them the purpose as well as the goals and objectives. The researcher asked these respondents to identify other suitable respondents for the study and to provide the researcher with their contact details in order to contact them to participate in the research. Step 3: Identifying concerns of the population Once the setting has been accessed, the researcher attempts to understand the issues of importance to the population. Qualitative and quantitative data on forensic investigators‟ skills, qualifications, models and protocols they employ during their assessment processes were gathered with this design. Information on different scientific models and protocols and the outcome it has on their forensic investigations was gathered through exploratory research. These findings will enable the researcher to address the needs by means of an intervention programme. The survey method was used in order to obtain quantitative and qualitative data (Strydom, 2003:116-133). This entails a research method according to which data is collected from a representative sample of the group being studied (Barker, 2003:425). With the use of a self- structured questionnaire (Addendum 1), the opinions of forensic investigators were used to determine and evaluate the process the forensic social worker follows during child sexual abuse investigations. Areas were identified by the researcher, which needed development in order to develop a forensic interviewing model for the South African context. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 106 Step 4: Analysing identified problems The researcher analysed the problems of the forensic investigators as well as aspects that need to be further explored. The researcher also analysed the literature. Social work has become a scarce skill because social workers cannot be recruited or retained in the profession and social workers conducting forensic investigations, even more so. Training opportunities in South Africa for forensic social work are also very limited. Apart from the South African Police Service who also employs forensic investigators, the majority of the forensic investigators are in private practice, which occasionally makes their services unaffordable for clients. This causes a problem for the organizations needing their services as well as the clients that are dependent on the forensic social services. The researcher developed an interview schedule in which both quantitative and qualitative questions were posed. The researcher clustered the data according to the most interesting view, topics, and data belonging to separate categories. Step 5: Setting goals and objectives Goals refer to the outcomes desired by the community of interest (in this case participating forensic investigators) while objectives refer to those specific changes in programmes, policies or practices believed to contribute to the broader goal (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:479). The aims of the programme or intervention are clarified by the goals and objectives set, and give clear structure and guidelines. Objectives give concrete steps on how to manifest concepts and theories. The objectives were linked to the design and format of the survey which was later distributed to the forensic investigators. The goal of this article is to investigate, develop and evaluate through the findings of the literature study and empirical research, a forensic investigative protocol for interviewing South African sexually abused children. Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis Rothman and Thomas (Rothman & Thomas, 1994:31-32) state that when planning an intervention research project it is essential to discover what others have already done, so as to understand and address the problem. The key activities in the research according to this phase were: Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 107 Step 1: Using the existing information sources A thorough literature research identified concerns for the population involved. Data on scientific models and interviewing protocols were studied intensively. Step 2: Studying natural examples Further information on scientific models and interviewing protocols utilized by South African forensic investigators and how it influences their current forensic investigations into child sexual abuse was also studied. Step 3: Identifying the functional elements of successful models. The researcher studied existing models and interviewing protocols in order to determine what could be useful elements for an intervention. This data was linked to the data gathered in Phase 1 to formulate the content for the planned forensic interviewing model in the South African context. 4.3 The research objective Social research can serve many purposes, but there are three general purposes, namely exploration, description and explanation (Babbie, 2014:94). Descriptive research focuses on the “how and why” questions (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:96). Descriptive research will be conducted to describe the necessity of utilizing a scientific model and forensic interviewing protocol when conducting forensic investigations. Exploratory research is conducted to gain insight into the problem, situation, or phenomenon (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:95). It is further used to identify reasons why something might occur. Exploratory research is an initial research which analyses the data and explores the possibility of obtaining as many relationships as possible between different variables without knowing their end-applications. It provides the basis for general findings (Panneerselvam, 2004:6). Exploratory research was used in order to determine whether forensic investigators in South Africa are making use of scientific models and forensic interviewing protocols, and if they do, which one and why. This objective is used especially in the beginning phases where one needs to be acquainted with the situation and where the basic research goal is to gain more information. For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents. In this research, a quantitative data collection method was used. This method Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 108 often employs measuring instruments. Measuring instruments, according to Delport and Roestenburg (2011:171), also refer to questionnaires and scales. 4.4 Respondents The researcher uses snowball sampling in this research, as this method is a non-probability sampling technique used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies for which subjects are difficult to locate (Castillo, 2009:1). Snowball sampling is often employed in field research when each person that was interviewed may be asked to suggest additional respondents for interviewing (Babbie, 2014:200). Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. The researcher used this sampling technique because the number of forensic investigators in South Africa is limited. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest (Castillo, 2009:1). 4.4.1 Types of snowball sampling Castillo (2009:1) identifies three types of snowball sampling: Linear Snowball Sampling (The initial respondents to a survey recruit others for a survey). Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling (The first chosen subject refers to multiple subjects, and all of these multiple subjects are chosen as the next subject. Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling (Where among the multiple referrals by the primary subjects at each level, only one is chosen as the subject of research). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 109 In this research, the Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling was used as forensic investigators contacted referred other social workers either in their organization or known to them, to link in with the research (Castillo, 2009:1). This sampling method was selected, since it was difficult to get respondents to complete the questionnaire, as qualified forensic investigators in South Africa are limited. In order to have a larger respondent group, more effort needed to be made to reach more forensic investigators. By means of this method, 50 questionnaires were distributed to forensic investigators performing forensic investigations from across the country. Only 18 questionnaires were received back. The focus of the questionnaires was the assessment process followed by forensic investigators in South Africa. 4.5 Data gathering For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. The questionnaire (Addendum 1) comprised three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, was about knowledge, skills and experience, and contained both closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained both open- and close-ended questions on the assessment process followed by the respondents. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with forensic investigators before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. 4.6 Data analysis The data from the open-ended questions in this study were analysed by means of Tesch‟s approach (Poggenpoel, 1998:343-344) and reported in the form of narratives. Kruger, De Vos, Fouché and Venter (2005:217-219) point out that professional research can be analysed manually or by computer. Data was sorted to reflect the most interesting view, arranged into topics, and data belonging to each separate category were correspondingly clustered together in one group according to themes (Creswell, 2014:197-198; De Vos, 2005:338). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 110 The quantitative data were analysed by plotting data onto different charts. The quantitative data were also analysed by the researcher. 4.7 Ethical aspects Ethical permission for conducting this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus). This study also complied with ethical standards as set out by the South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP). Respondents participated on a voluntary basis. Cultural differences were respected and dealt with in a professional manner. The rights of the respondents and the responsibilities of the researcher must be ethically bounded by the research (Strydom, 2005:57). Permission to undertake this project was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North-West University (number NWU-00027-09-A1) (Addendum 2). The researcher gave attention to the following ethical aspects as set out by Strydom (2011:115):  Violation of privacy/anonymity/confidentiality Anonymity means that no one, including the researcher, can identify the respondents (Strydom, 2011:120). The questionnaires were completed anonymously and the names of the individuals were not disclosed. The participants sent the completed forms via email to an independent person that subsequently returned the completed forms to the researcher in order to keep the respondents‟ responses anonymous. The data collected was kept in a file and locked up in a cabinet in the promotor‟s office.  Avoidance of harm According to Babbie (2014:65), human research should never harm the people being studied, regardless of whether they volunteered for the study. During this study, none of the respondents was harmed, as the researcher did not cause any emotional or physical distress to the participants. The researcher informed all participants regarding the goal of the study and the influence it can have on them.  Voluntary participation Participation should always be voluntary and no one should be forced to participate in the research project (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:71). All the respondents participated on a voluntary basis and had the choice to withdraw from the research at any chosen time. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 111  Deception of respondents Deception refers to the misleading of participants, deliberately misrepresenting facts or withholding information from the participants (Struwig & Stead, 2001:69). The researcher did not withhold any information, offer incorrect information or deliberately misrepresented facts. Accurate and complete information was given to the respondents regarding the purpose of the research study.  Actions and competence of the researcher Strydom (2011:124) points out that an ethical obligation rests on researchers to ensure they are competent and adequately skilled to undertake the intended investigation. The researcher is registered by the SA Council for Social Service Professions as a social worker with registration number 10-20822 and has 12 years of experience. 5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The researcher found it difficult to get hold of respondents, since forensic investigations into child sexual abuse is a new field in South Africa and forensic investigators are limited. The researcher phoned the respondents to inform them about the research and explain the goals as well as the objectives to them. All the researchers agreed telephonically to take part in the research, but only 18 forensic investigators responded at the end. 6. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS A self-structured questionnaire consisting of qualitative as wells as quantitative questions were used during this study. The questionnaire consisted of sections, 1, 2 and 3. Fifty forensic investigators across the whole of South Africa, who are involved in the field of forensic investigations, received an electronic questionnaire. However, only 18 responded. The response rate was thus 36%. The researcher summarised the identified themes in table format. Some forensic investigators in the field of forensic investigations informed the researcher that they did not want to participate in the research because they are not sure what to answer, as they did not have the relevant training to answer the questions. This is supportive of Kaliski‟s (2006:62) opinion that the majority of South African professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse and testifying on it in court do so without the Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 112 proper qualifications, or specialisation. Carstens (2006:185) supports this statement. Participation was voluntary and the researcher respected their decision. 6.1 Demographic details of the respondents (Section 1) Demographic information was obtained in the first section of the questionnaire (Section 1). The demographic information is presented to provide a demographic profile of the sample used in the project. The data is discussed according to the structure of the questionnaire. The following section deals with the analysis of the quantitative results. In this section, information was obtained in relation to age, gender, years in experience, the province the respondents work in, language, geographical area and highest qualifications. It can be summarised as follow: TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=18 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS THEME F % N AGE 21-30 years 4 22.22% N=18 31-40 years 11 61.11% 41-50 years 3 16.66% GENDER Male 1 5.55% N=18 Female 17 94.44% FIRST LANGUAGE Afrikaans 17 94.44% N=18 Xhosa 1 5.55% QUALIFICATIONS 4-Year Degree in Social Work 6 33.33% N=18 Honours in Social Work 1 5.55% Master‟s Degree in Social Work 11 61.11% PROVINCE Gauteng 7 38.88% N=18 Limpopo 1 5.55% North West 3 16.66% Free State 3 16.66% Eastern Cape 1 5.55% Western Cape 2 11.11% Northern Cape 1 5.55% GEOGRAPHICAL AREA Urban 13 72.22% N=18 Semi-Urban 4 22.22% Rural 1 5.55% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 113 YEARS OF EXPERIENCE 1-5 years 9 50% N=18 6-10 years 3 16.66% 11-15 years 3 16.66% 16-20 years 1 5.55% 21-25 years 2 11.11% ORGANIZATION Department of Social Development 1 5.55% N=18 NGO 1 5.55% Department of Justice 1 5.55% Occupational Social Work 1 5.55% Private Practice 7 38.88% South African Police Service 4 22.22% School Social Worker 1 5.55% Other 2 11.11% ONLY PERFORM FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK Yes 4 22.22% N=18 No 14 77.77% 6.1.1 Age All the respondents indicated their age. From the above table it can be summarised that four (22.22%) of the respondents were between ages 21 and 30 years. The majority of the respondents, namely 11 (61.11%), were in the age group between 31 and 40 years. Three (16.66%) respondents were from the age group 41 and 50 years. There was no response from social workers older than 51 years. 6.1.2 Gender The majority of the respondents, namely 17 (94.44%), were female. Only one (5.55%) respondent was male. A possible explanation for this occurrence is that social work is traditionally viewed as a female profession. This is also supported by Earle‟s (2008:23) findings that reveal that social workers are overwhelmingly female and that the South African welfare service is a female-dominated service industry. The researcher also experienced that the majority of social workers trained in the field of forensic investigations are female. The researcher is of the opinion that this is a matter of great concern in the field of forensic investigations into cases of child sexual abuse, as there are many male victims of sexual abuse. The researcher experienced that it occasionally is better for victims to talk about their encounter to a person of the same sex, especially in cases where the victim is a teenager. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 114 6.1.3 First Language Questionnaires were distributed to participants of all races and in all the provinces. Seventeen (94.44%) respondents indicated that their first language was Afrikaans. One (5.55%) respondent indicated Xhosa as his first language. It is strange that the majority of the respondents‟ first language was Afrikaans, but there is no logical explanation for this. 6.2 Qualifications combined with knowledge and skills (Section 1 & 2) Six (33.33%) participants indicated their highest qualification as a Bachelor‟s Degree in Social Work. One (5.55%) respondent‟s highest qualification was an Honours Degree in Social Work. The majority of participants, which added up to 11 (61.11%) indicated that their highest qualification is a Master‟s Degree in Social Work. The questionnaires were only distributed to participants conducting forensic investigations. The fact that the majority of the participants have a Master‟s Degree in Social Work is supportive of other research stating that in order to practise forensic social work, one must have additional qualifications. It is also clear that the respondents that are properly qualified were able and willing to complete the questionnaire. Forensic social work is also a new specialised field in South Africa and the researcher is of the opinion that more social workers want adequate qualifications to render proper services in this field. The researcher believes that it is not only a professional‟s qualifications that determines whether someone can be regarded as an expert in forensic investigations, but also the professional‟s knowledge, skills and experience. An expert is according to Carstens (2006:188) someone who:  Has education or specialised training,  Has superior knowledge regarding a subject,  Can deduce correct conclusions,  Can formulate an accurate opinion. The researcher took the above-mentioned criteria into consideration and posed qualitative as well as quantitative questions to the participants in order to determine their additional knowledge and experience, together with their qualifications. A discussion on this will follow. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 115 A qualitative question was posed to the respondents in order to determine whether they possessed any additional knowledge regarding forensic investigations. Themes identified from their responses can be summarised as follows: TABLE 2: SHORT COURSES IN RESPECT OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS Short courses in respect of forensic investigations Attachment Therapy Introducing the child witness by Karen Hollely and Karen Müller Training in pre-forensic assessments/general child assessments Therapy for sexually abused children Medical evidence in sexual abuse investigations Interactional Analysis Training in forensic assessment/interviewing Several respondents indicated that although some of the courses they attended were not relevant to forensic investigations, it assisted them in some or other way in performing their duties. A quantitative questioned was posed to the respondents to determine who of them exclusively perform forensic investigations. The majority of the respondents which added up to 14 (77.77%) have other responsibilities than being involved in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases. In this regard only four (22.22%) respondents indicated that they are exclusively involved in cases of child sexual abuse. Considering these facts, it is not strange that the respondents attend courses irrelevant to forensic investigations. It seems that the respondents do attend additional courses and workshops in order to broaden their knowledge as professionals. GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS WHO EXCLUSIVELY PERFORM FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=18 Exclusively perform forensic investigations (4 respondents) 22.22% Perform other duties as well (14 respondents) 77.77% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 116 The researcher also posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine the experience they have in forensic investigations. Themes selected from their answers can be summarised as follows: TABLE 3: EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS Experience of respondents Working with sexually abused children on a daily basis, for several years Have limited experience in the field of forensic investigations Testify in court about child sexual abuse cases Report writing regarding child sexual abuse for criminal court procedures Collateral investigations Only involved in pre-forensic investigations Very limited experience Some of the respondents had been working with sexually abused children on a daily basis for several years. The conclusion can be drawn that these specific respondents have extensive experience in forensic investigations. Some respondents indicated that they have experience in forensic investigations with sexually abused children, but not extensive experience. This is understandable, as it must be borne in mind that forensic investigations into child sexual abuse is a new specialised field in South Africa and half of the respondents (50%) only have one to five years of experience. Some respondents indicated that they testify in court on child sexual abuse cases on a regular basis. Barker (2003:166) is of the opinion that the term forensic social work can be defined as the practice speciality in social work that focuses on the law and legal issues. The respondents stated report writing as part of their experience and they indicated that they are involved in collateral investigations. Some of the respondents are only involved in pre-forensic investigations. Some respondents indicated that they have just completed their training in forensic investigations and have limited experience in the field of forensic investigations. Kuehnle (1996:27) has laid down the following guidelines for the qualifications of the professional that assesses children:  The social worker must possess a Master‟s or Doctoral qualification in an acknowledged Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 117 field of behavioural sciences.  The professional must have adequate and appropriate experience in the evaluation and treatment of problem areas with children and their families.  A minimum of two years of professional experience with children is expected, after the completion of a Master‟s Degree, but preferably three to five years.  The investigator must also possess at least two years of professional experience in working with sexually abused children. If the professional does not have this experience, supervision from an experienced professional is compulsory.  It is emphasised that the professional must have had specialised training in the development of children as well as in sexual abuse of children. The professional can obtain such training through formal courses, supervision, and the attendance of conferences, seminars and workshops.  It is also essential for the professional to be knowledgeable about the latest professional literature concerning sexual abuse issues, the dynamics of sexual abuse, as well as the emotional behaviour problems with which the sexually abused child may present.  The professional must approach the evaluation with an objective attitude. Alternative hypotheses for sexual abuse responses and statements must be considered. Spies and Carstens (2005:45) share a similar opinion to that of Kuehnle (1996:27) and state that the following qualifications are important for the professional conducting forensic interviews.  The professional must have a postgraduate qualification in social work, or alternatively an accredited qualification in sexual abuse of children and expert testimony in courts of law.  The professional must be knowledgeable about the latest accredited literature regarding sexual abuse matters.  It is important for the professional to be knowledgeable about the dynamics of sexual abuse as well as the influence it might have on the child‟s emotions and behaviour. Walker (2002:178) mentions the following with regard to the qualifications of the professional assessing child sexual abuse cases: Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 118  Professionals that conduct forensic assessments of children must be well grounded in child development theory, as well as in the specific scientific literature on memory, language and communication, and suggestibility.  Investigators must be familiar with empirically based best practices in forensic interviewing of children, including techniques to establish rapport, explaining the purpose of interview and ground rules, eliciting the most complete and accurate reports possible, and closing the interview.  Professionals that conduct forensic interviews with children should be familiar with respected professional guidelines and protocols that have withstood empirical scrutiny.  Professionals must receive specific training in forensic interviewing of children, preferably protocol-based, including supervised follow-up and peer review of videotaped and transcribed interviews. Kaliski (2006:62) is of the opinion that the majority of South African professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse and testifying on it in court do so without the proper qualifications, or specialisation. In this regard, one participant stated the following: “The presiding officers and legal advisors also do not always use the available services because forensic social work is a new speciality, and even when I try to educate them, they prefer to utilize social workers not in the private sector, even if the other social workers are not qualified to deliver the services.” When considering the feedback from the participants, the researcher shares the opinion of Kaliski, as it is clear that some of the forensic investigators do not have adequate knowledge, and especially experience, and even officers of the law do not realise the importance thereof. From this research it seems that some of the respondents with adequate training do not have adequate experience, but it seems that through their training, they came to realise that they do not have adequate experience. Experience in the form of giving expert testimony in court seems to be problematic. However, it is also clear that some forensic investigators do meet the criteria set by experts in the field of forensic investigations. These forensic investigators must be urged to give much needed supervision to the inexperienced forensic social workers. 6.3 Assessment process (Section 3) It is important for forensic investigators to consider the larger context of the child interview, both when they are responsible for conducting an assessment of a child and when they are evaluating an assessment conducted by a colleague. An appropriate assessment process will take into account the specifics of the case, practice knowledge and research findings Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 119 (Faller, 2003:162). Faller (2007:35) conceptualises the current practice into four overlapping, yet somewhat distinct, models for assessing allegations of sexual abuse, namely:  The child interview model  The joint investigation model  The parent-child interaction model  Comprehensive assessment model. Research and literature on the different models were very limited. The researcher could not find a scientific definition that explains the meaning of a model. From the literature studied, the researcher came to the conclusion that the model a forensic investigator uses is the all- inclusive process to come up with answers for the different hypotheses formed during the investigation process. A model scientifically underwrites the process the forensic investigator follows, from receiving a referral until closing the case. The researcher is of the opinion that when choosing a model to work from, it is important to bear in mind that the forensic interviewer‟s task is that of a fact finder, and that neutrality and objectivity should not be compromised. The four models pointed out above will be discussed and evaluated by the researcher. The researcher will emphasize the strengths as well as weaknesses of each model. Some might be overlapping and will therefore not be discussed in each model. 6.4 Choosing a model for evaluating child sexual abuse allegations A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine whether the respondents use a scientific model during their forensic investigative process. Their answers can be presented as follows: GRAPH 2: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL N=18 Yes (15 respondents) 83.33% No (1 respondent), 5.55% Did not answer (2 respondents) 11.11% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 120 Fifteen (83.88%) respondents answered that they are using a scientific model when conducting forensic investigations on sexually abused children. One (5.55%) respondent does not use a scientific model and two (11.11%) respondents refrained from answering the question. Respondents were requested to specify which scientific model they use when they are assessing children. Some of the respondents employ more than one model. Their responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 3: SCIENTIFIC MODEL USED BY RESPONDENTS N=18 One (5.55) respondent exclusively employs the child interview model. The majority of the respondents, namely 11 (61.11%), indicated that they follow the Comprehensive assessment model, while two (11.11%) respondents indicated that they employ a combination of all the models. An alarming four (22.22%) respondents were unaware of scientific models that can be utilized during forensic investigations. The Child interview model and the Comprehnsive assessment model, are developed and recognised internationally, but can also be employed in the South African context. A discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of the different models in the South African context will follow for each of the models. 6.4.1 The child interview model One (5.55%) of the respondents exclusively employed this model and two (11.11%) respondents stated that they occasionally follow this model. One (5.55%) of the respondents that indicated that she occasionally follows this model explained that she sometimes employs the child interview model when Non-Governmental Organizations Child interview model Comprehensive assessment model Did not know a model Combination of all the models 5.55% 61.11% 22.22% 11.11% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 121 (NGO) approach her, to assess children, only in order to determine whether or not they had been sexually abused. This respondent also indicated that she follows this model, in order to save money for the organization that approaches her. This, specifically, is one of the model‟s advantages. According to Faller (2003:142), this is a model for assessing the probability of child sexual abuse and the core component is an interview with the child, which is the dominant strategy for assessing the likelihood of sexual abuse. The child interview model originated from “Child Protection Service” investigations of complaints of possible sexual abuse. It is also the model of preference at most children‟s advocacy centres. An essential component of the child interview model is the interview with the alleged victim. Most of the time, this is a single interview (Faller, 2007:36). The child interview model assumes that children are usually reliable when they give accounts of their sexual abuse and that they rarely make false allegations. On the other hand, if they deny the sexual abuse, or are non-responsive in the interview, the assumption is that they were not sexually abused (Faller, 2003:142; Faller, 2007:37). This is the most parsimonious and most widely employed model. It is applicable to the majority of extra-familial cases of sexual abuse, but also to many intra-familial cases of sexual abuse. The reality is that the volume of referrals to many agencies making use of this model is too large for most cases to receive a more involved or complex assessment (Faller, 2007:37). Faller (2007:36) states that some programmes utilising this model forbid the alleged offender from coming to the facility, because they believe that the presence of the offender will prevent the child from believing that the facility is a safe place for making a disclosure. The accompanying adult, that had brought the child for the interview, is not present when the child is interviewed, but will be interviewed later on for gathering information that will facilitate the child interview. They are asked what behaviour, statements or physical findings had led to suspicions of sexual abuse and occasionally, the names the child uses for private body parts. The child concerned might also be medically examined (Faller, 2003:142). The child interview model also assumes that in cases of intra-familial abuse, the offender as well as the non-offending parents may have vested interests in concealing the sexual abuse. The child interview model also assumes that there is no single offender profile and that many offenders cannot be differentiated easily form individuals that do not abuse Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 122 children sexually (Faller, 2007:37). The term “profile” is used to describe a group of characteristics indicating that a particular type of person is likely to engage in certain behaviour (Van den Bos, 2007:738). Regarding the child interview model, the researcher combined strengths and weaknesses in this table, which will be applicable to the South African context. TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CHILD INTERVIEW MODEL Strengths Weaknesses Suitable for high case loads. Not a holistic view of the child concerned Does not have a profile for offenders. Does not take the dynamics of sexual abuse into consideration. Promotes a feeling of safety with the victim. Does not take previous allegations of sexual abuse into consideration. Interview accompanying adult. Disclosure takes place in the form of a process and one interview might not be enough. Includes a medical examination. Takes the child at face value and does not explore multiple hypotheses. Seeks information that had led to complaint. Does not utilise collateral sources. Believes that the symptoms the child presents with are due to sexual abuse. Interviews the child only once. 6.4.1.1 Strengths of the model Child sexual abuse is one of the social problems that call for urgent attention in South Africa (Madu & Peltzer, 2001:312). Jewkes, Levin, Mbananga and Bradswah (2002:319) state that sexual abuse is a worldwide problem and a matter of growing concern in sub-Saharan Africa. Their findings also suggest that child rape is becoming more common. On a daily basis, teachers, parents and community members suspecting child sexual abuse, refer cases to the South African Police Service, welfare organisations, or private practitioners (Fouché, 2006:206). Sexual abuse of children is a common, serious and comprehensive Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 123 problem that is escalating in South Africa (South African Human Rights Commission, 2002:6). It is clear from literature as well as from the researcher‟s experience in her practice that professionals in South Africa, working with cases of child sexual abuse, have a high caseload. The child interview model is suitable for professionals with high caseloads, as it usually only involves one interview and does not make use of extensive collateral sources. The child interview model does not have a profile for sexual offenders. Robertiello and Terry (2007:509) state in their research that sex offenders constitute a heterogeneous group of individuals that start abusing for myriad reasons. Many offenders do not fit into discreet categories as they have unique personal and criminal histories. The attitudes and beliefs that support their deviant behaviour may vary. Van Niekerk (2006:107) states that it is a myth that offenders have a personality profile and explains that offenders represent all personality types, all cultures, social strata, ages, genders, occupational groups, etcetera. Prentky et al. (2012:107) state that child sexual abusers are highly dissimilar in terms of their personal characteristics, life experiences and criminal histories and that no single “molester profile” exists. The researcher shares the opinion of the above researchers as it was clear from her practice that there is no profile for sexual offenders and that they come from all spheres of the community. The child interview model may secure a sense of safety with the child, as the investigator does not allow the offender on the same premises as the child. The APSAC guidelines (2012:10) have the following opinion on that: “No one suspected of committing abuse should be present or in the vicinity during an interview. This recommendation would also preclude a suspected offender from accompanying the child to or from the interview site”. The child is usually accompanied by a supporting adult, which will also be interviewed. This accompanying adult will also be questioned on the behaviour, statements, or physical findings that have led to the suspicions of sexual abuse. The researcher values the fact that the victim must feel safe at all times and that the victim will not disclose in unsafe circumstances. The forensic investigator must, however, take care not to “convict” someone of sexual abuse. According to the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996, a person is innocent until proven guilty. It is not the forensic investigator‟s role to convict anyone, to defend anyone, or to excuse, blame, acquit or condemn anyone (Carstens, 2006:191). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 124 Adults bringing the child for the interview are asked what behaviour, statements or physical findings have led to suspicions of sexual abuse and sometimes the names the child uses for private body parts (Faller, 2003:142). It is important to interview other role players on these other indicators of possible abuse, since children that have been sexually abused may show symptoms of this traumatic experience (Berliner, 2011:221; Faller, 2003:36; Maniglio, 2009:654; Saywitz, Esplin & Romanoff, 2007:221). However, one must also consider that some children that are sexually abused do not present with any such symptoms. Faller (2003:49) supports this statement and is also of the opinion that children may display a wide range of non-sexual symptoms when they are sexually abused. However, these symptoms can also be in response to other forms of trauma such as physical abuse, parental disharmony, parental divorce, alcoholism, the birth of a sibling, or even the death of a loved one (Faller, 2003:49; London, Bruck, Ceci & Shuman, 2007:11). The child concerned might also be medically examined (Faller, 2003:142). Children that may have been sexually abused should have a comprehensive medical evaluation and the results of the medical evaluation are highly regarded as evidence of sexual abuse (Finkel, 2011:253; Gräbe, 2000:17). It is important to remember that a medical examination can occasionally confirm that a child has been sexually abused, but it can never exclude it (Kreston, 2007:81). The above-mentioned literature suggests that using the child interview model holds some advantages. One of the greatest advantages is probably the fact that the model can be utilized by forensic investigators with intense caseloads. The model is also cost efficient. 6.4.1.2 Weaknesses of the child interview model Müller (2001:8) states that the purpose of the forensic interview is to establish the facts of the incident under investigation. Forensic interviews are hypothesis testing, rather that hypothesis confirming, with the implication that the investigator must consider other possible explanations for the child‟s behaviour (Faller, 2003:172,177; Fouché, 2006:206; Saywitz & Camparo, 2009:105; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100). When considering this information, it surfaces that the child interview model is not in line with this principle. Faller (2003:142-143) states that the child interview model has been criticized because it does not take into consideration all the information that might be available. Those using this model also limit themselves to the child‟s current account. They do not question about the history or past accounts. As previously mentioned, they usually only conduct a single interview with the Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 125 child. The child interview model assumes that children are usually reliable when they give accounts of their sexual abuse and that they rarely make false allegations (Faller, 2007:36). The following hypotheses must be examined when investigating cases of child sexual abuse (Faller, 2003:172-176; Fouché, 2006:237):  The questioned case is a false allegation,  There is a suspicion of abuse, but it cannot be confirmed,  There is not sufficient evidence to draw a conclusion,  A correlation exists between the child‟s statement and behavioural indicators and those of other victims of child sexual abuse in this age group; hence sexual abuse is a possibility.  The child is providing a description of an actual experience of sexual abuse,  The child has misinterpreted a benign activity,  The statement of the child has been misinterpreted by adults,  Communication problems with the child,  The child has been coached by someone to make a false allegation of sexual abuse,  The child has obtained sexual knowledge from another source,  The child has been sexually abused, but is attributing the activity to the wrong offender,  The child is knowingly making a false allegation,  The child is fantasizing about something, although this is quite rare,  The child is seeking attention,  Exaggeration of actual abuse by the victim or adults,  The child or adults acknowledge sexual abuse, but minimize it. The forensic investigator must generate and consider a range of possible hypotheses to explain the information gathered from the child (Faller, 2003:177). The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator cannot explore all these possible hypotheses by only conducting a single interview with the child and his or her accompanying adult and not interviewing other collateral sources. Professionals making use of this model must ask themselves whether they are neutral and objective, as the investigator heavily relies on the child‟s statement and does not consider other facts. This is contradictive to the role of the forensic investigator as a neutral and objective fact finder (Carstens, 2006:192; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Faller, 2007:5; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:105). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 126 The researcher is also of the opinion that the child interview model does not take all the dynamics of sexual abuse into consideration. Most of the time, the child is only interviewed once. On the other hand, if they deny the sexual abuse, or are non-responsive in the interview, the assumption is that they were not sexually abused. (Faller, 2003:142; Faller, 2007:36-37). Offenders plan and calculate their approach to victimizing children, often employing strategies to involve children, maintain their cooperation and forbid them to report the abuse (Berliner, 2011:220). In ideal situations, a full disclosure would be obtained in a single interview, but children are understandably reluctant to disclose information about abuse. Sexual abuse is often a very private and sensitive topic, embarrassing, and shameful to discuss and many children are unlikely to ever tell their story (Bottoms, Quas & Davis, 2007:135; Cronch, Viljoen & Hansen, 2006:196,203; Lyon, 2009:30). A child‟s lack of disclosure in an interview must not be considered to be definitive proof that abuse had not occurred (APSAC, 2012:4). The latest research indicates that when investigators follow best practice recommendations by utilizing open-ended prompts, repeated retrievals increase the richness of free narratives without compromising their accuracy. Hence researchers recommend the application of repeated interviews to forensic investigations with children (Katz & Hershkowitz, 2012:1). From the above mentioned it is thus clear that a single interview during the forensic process will not be sufficient to obtain all the necessary facts. The research conducted by the researcher does not support the findings of Faller (2007:37) who found that the child interview model is the most widely employed model. 6.4.1.3 Recommendations for employing the child interview model in the South African context When choosing a model for forensic investigations, the researcher is of the opinion that the child interview is not the best model to use in the South African context. The model is contradictive to the role and function of the forensic investigator and this model is also not in line with the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996. Although it can be utilised in heavy caseloads, quality of forensic interviews must not be sacrificed for the sake of quantity. When making life-changing decisions in children‟s lives, working at face value are simply not scientific, ethical or good enough. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 127 6.4.2 The joint investigation model None of the respondents indicated that they exclusively employ this model. The joint investigation model emerged mainly because of a lack of successful criminal court outcomes (Faller, 2003:143). The joint investigative model may be implemented in various ways. There may be a primary and secondary interviewer, with the secondary interviewer taking notes and asking additional questions after the primary investigator has completed his or her enquiry. It can also be implemented by having one professional behind a one-way mirror while the other is interviewing the victim. The goal of this collaboration of different professions is to gather information necessary for both protection and prosecution in the same interview (Faller, 2003:143; Faller, 2007:37). With the joint investigation model, data gathering is not only limited to the interview with the child. Parties such as the suspect, non-suspected parent, as well as other witnesses are interviewed. Law enforcement, which will be the South African Police Service in the South African context, has the responsibility of collecting and preserving physical evidence that might be obtained from the crime scene, or it might be collected by a medical practitioner (Faller, 2003:143; Faller, 2007:38). Regarding the joint investigation model, the researcher combined strengths and weaknesses in this table, which will be applicable to the South African context. A discussion will follow on these strengths and weaknesses. TABLE 5: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE JOINT INVESTIGATION MODEL Strengths Weaknesses More successful conviction rate. Case closed if not proven beyond reasonable doubt. Limited interviews by multiple investigators. Information immediately available to all role players. Speeding up of the process. Team approach. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 128 6.4.2.1 Strengths of the model Faller (2007:38) states that when the joint investigation model is implemented, a more successful conviction rate can be expected. When taking into consideration that the conviction rate for sexual abuse cases is low, this is a significant advantage regarding the use of this model. A study conducted by Stroud, Martens and Barker (2000:693) indicates that over a four-year period, only one percent of the cases went to trial. Research demonstrates that joint investigations of sexual abuse cases can be very successful in eliciting confessions from suspects, obtaining pleas, and avoiding children‟s testimony at trial (Faller & Henry, 2000:1222). The South African Law of Evidence Amendment Act of 1988 states that when an offender confesses to a crime, he or she may be convicted and sentenced, without the victim having to testify. In cases of child sexual abuse, this will imply that the victim will not have to testify in court about the sexual abuse and will not be subjected to the secondary trauma of having to relive the trauma of sexual abuse when testifying about it in a court of law. Lawrence and Janse Van Rensburg (2006:134) state that in order for the State to prove its case beyond reasonable doubt, complainants are often intrusively questioned on information that contains the utmost personal intimate details. Sexual abuse continues to be a stigmatising and embarrassing experience (Berliner, 2011:217). Giving evidence in court is a stressful experience for a witness (Müller, 2009:21). It is clear from the above literature that it will contribute to the child‟s emotional well-being, if children can be spared the agony of having to testify in court about the ordeal they had suffered during the sexual abuse. Another advantage of the joint investigation model is that interviews with the child, by multiple investigators are limited. Connell (2009:426) recommends that duplicative interviewing must be avoided. It is known that children‟s suffering is exacerbated if they are repeatedly and unnecessarily subjected to stressful and upsetting interviews by multiple investigators (Cronch et al., 2006:203; Müller, 2009:82). Not only are children traumatised by multiple interviews, but multiple interviews can also lead to the contamination of information provided by the child, or it can suggest false information to the child if making use of suggestive interviewing methods (Ceci & Bruck, 1995:44-45; Saywitz et al., 2011:353). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 129 6.4.2.2 Weaknesses of the model The researcher is of the opinion that it is a weakness of the joint investigation model, that the case is closed if child sexual abuse cannot be proven beyond reasonable doubt. Because of the dynamics of child sexual abuse, it can occasionally simply not be proven beyond reasonable doubt. Not all children are prepared to make a full disclosure of their encounter (Cronch et al., 2006:196; London, Bruck, Shuman, Ceci, 2005:194-195; Pipe, Orbach, Lamb & Cederborg, 2007:5). If the child is not prepared to make and maintain a full disclosure, or if the child recants the events of the sexual abuse, the case cannot be proven beyond reasonable doubt. Early identification of sexual abuse is difficult because child maltreatment is a crime that is difficult to investigate. The reason for this statement is that corroborative evidence is often lacking in cases of child sexual abuse and suspected victims may often be the only source of information about their experiences (Carstens, 2001:108; Chetty, 2006:24; Lamb, La Rooy, Malloy & Katz, 2011:3). De Voe and Faller (2002:6) as well as Hewitt (2012:121-122) are of the opinion that the sexual abuse of children is typically an event or series of events, without any witnesses or physical findings and that children's communication about the experiences of the alleged sexual abuse may be the only available evidence of the crime. In some instances there will not even be medical findings to support the suspicion of sexual abuse. In this regard Kreston (2007:81) states the following: “There is a wrongly, yet widely, held belief that if a child has been sexually assaulted, medical evidence will be able to conclusively corroborate the child‟s statement”. 6.4.2.3 Recommendation for employing the joint investigation model in the South African context The researcher experienced a case where a ten-year-old girl was allegedly raped on multiple occasions by her stepfather. Medical evidence in this regard was positive. The child made a full disclosure to the researcher, but when the child had to testify in court, the child recanted her statement. The presiding officer ruled in favour of the stepfather and the case was withdrawn. The child was sent back to live with her mother and stepfather. This is a true reflection of what may happen during criminal procedures, when someone‟s guilt cannot be proven beyond reasonable doubt. Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that the joint investigation model can only be utilised with success when the child is ready to make and maintain a full disclosure. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 130 6.4.3 The parent-child interaction model One (5.55%) of the respondents that indicated that she employs all the models, specifically referred to the parent-child interaction model and stated that she uses this model in cases where there are sexual abuse allegations during a divorce. The parent-child interaction model has two origins. First, it was an effort to assess the causes of infants‟ physical injuries and their failure to thrive. Health professionals assumed good interaction would indicate that the infant‟s condition was not caused by the parent. The second and more recent health professionals that were evaluating custody cases in divorce matters have relied on observing the child with each parent to determine their parenting abilities. In cases of child sexual abuse, this model may be employed, where one parent is accused and the other parent is siding with the child. Investigators that employ this model may use additional means to understand the nature of the child‟s relationship with the parent. The primary method is to have a parent-child session, which is observed by the investigator, who may be in the interview room or behind a one-way mirror (Faller, 2003:145-146; Faller, 2007:38- 39). Investigators that applied this model assumed that victims and offenders would engage in sexualised interaction while being observed and the child would show fear of the offender or would avoid contact with the offender. They also suggested that observing the interaction between both parents will be instructive in differentiating true from false allegations. Those using the model assume that parent-child interactions will be readily interpretable by the skilled mental health professional. They support the assumption that actions speak louder than words (Faller, 2003:146; Faller, 2007:40). Another assumption of this model is that children‟s accounts are unreliable and easily contaminated. They are also of the opinion that it will not harm the child to require an interaction or confrontation with the alleged offender (Faller, 2003:146; Faller, 2007:40). Regarding the parent-child interaction model, the researcher combined strengths and weaknesses in this table, which will be applicable to the South African context. A discussion will follow on these strengths and weaknesses. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 131 TABLE 6: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION MODEL Strengths Weaknesses Observing the interaction between parents and children may be valuable to evaluate interaction between the parent and the child. Child is confronted by the offender and can cause trauma. May be applied in custody cases. The dynamics of child sexual abuse are not considered. The model can only be applied in cases where one of the parents is the offender. Objectivity 6.4.3.1 Strong points of the parent-child interaction model A model that includes the observation of the parent-child interaction is both appropriate and widely employed in making decisions about custody and visitation in divorce when there are no allegations of child sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:39). 6.4.3.2 Weaknesses of the parent-child interaction model When the alleged offender confronts a child, it can be very traumatic to the child. Sexual abuse evaluation guidelines do not recommend a suspect-child interview (Faller, 2007:41). Faller (2003:267) states that there are some ethical considerations the investigator must consider when applying this model. The child may perceive such an encounter as betrayal. If the child trusted the investigator enough to disclose the sexual abuse, and the investigator then requires the child to face the abuser, the child may experience this as a violation of the trust relationship. The dynamics of sexual abuse, such as the grooming process and threats, also need to be taken into consideration. Spies (2006:47) states that the perpetrator will use his or her power to dominate, bribe, threaten, or blackmail the child emotionally into keeping the secret. The victims may also experience fear as they realised that they cannot disclose the abuse without losses. Some children fear that the abuser will hurt them even further if they speak out or confront them. These threats serve the purpose of keeping them under the control of the abuser (Lown, 2001:118). The presence of threats will create anxiety and fear Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 132 in the child. These threats have the tendency to prevent children from disclosing the abuse, especially if the safety of the child or their loved ones is involved (Spies, 2006:51). When children are interviewed, the likelihood that they will make allegations of abuse will vary dramatically, depending on the relationship between the children and the suspects (Hershkowitz, Horowitz & Lamb, 2007:70; Pipe, Lamb, Orbach, Sternberg, Stewart & Esplin, 2007:78). When considering this information, one can realise that a child must be devastated to confront an offender about sexual abuse, or to make allegations of sexual abuse against loved ones. The researcher often experienced in her practice that children are even more terrified of the abuser after they had disclosed the abuse, because they were threatened not to tell anyone about it, and are terrified of the consequences that may follow. The researcher is also of the opinion that confronting the abuser with the child, in the presence of a professional person, implies to the abuser that the child has disclosed the sexual abuse. This may be traumatic for the child, as the child sometimes promised that he would not do so. Many children do not disclose sexual abuse because they want to protect the perpetrator (Hershkowitz, Orbach, Lamb, Sternberg, Horowitz, 2006:756). The researcher is also of the opinion that very few children‟s behaviour is indicative of them being sexually abused. There is also no gold standard of psychological signs that a child has been subjected to sexual abuse (London, et al., 2005:194). On the other hand, children may display a wide range of non-sexual symptoms that can be attributed to other types of trauma. Some children subjected to sexual abuse do not manifest with overt signs of trauma (Faller, 2003:49,51). Kellog (2005:507) states that most cases of child sexual abuse are first detected when the child discloses it. Other reasons why the parent-child interaction model may not be successful in detecting behavioural indications can be summarised as follow (Faller, 2003:266):  The investigator‟s presence is likely to have an effect on the outcome. The child may feel safe, or alternatively inhibited. The accused parent is also very aware that he is under supervision and is likely to be on his best behaviour.  In some cases, interaction between the parent and the child will be the first contact in a long time. Interaction may be distorted by the absence of contact.  There are other aspects to the parent-child relationship, apart from the sexual abuse. They can display other behaviour than the sexual abuse. The researcher supports this statement because sexual abuse often takes place in secret. Mc Veigh (2003:118) Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 133 stresses that secrecy is the dynamic in sexual abuse that holds the victim in terror and silence and augments the pain and unpleasantness of the sexual abuse experience.  The differences between appropriate parent-child relationships and sexualised ones may be subtle. The sexual interaction between the parent and the child may evolve from appropriate hugging, caressing and kissing. Many sexual abusers are quite capable of playing appropriately with children. As indicated in paragraph 5.1.2, the forensic investigator has to be objective and neutral at all times. Observations during the parent-child interview model may be open to a variety of interpretations by the observer. Regardless of investigators‟ experience, they are not accurate at differentiating abusive from non-abusive interactions (Faller, 2003:267). The researcher is of the opinion that objectivity is jeopardised when following this model. 6.4.3.3 Recommendation for employing the parent-child interaction model in the South African context When promoting a model for investigating cases of child sexual abuse, the researcher will not recommend the parent-child interview model, mainly because the victim can be traumatised by it. The researcher is also of the opinion that because of the dynamics of sexual abuse, many children will not disclose that they are sexually abused by their parents, in the manner this model suggests. The researcher is also of the opinion that this model does not support the assumption of neutrality and objectivity. 6.4.4 Comprehensive assessment model The majority of the respondents, namely 11 (61.11%), indicated that they employ the comprehensive assessment model. This model can be utilised in complex cases and where family dysfunctions include other problems such as substance abuse and domestic violence. Multidisciplinary teams can also conduct a comprehensive assessment. These teams consist of physicians, social workers, psychologists, sometimes nurses, psychiatrists and lawyers. Some team members may be experts in child interviewing and child development, and other members may be experts in adult assessment and sex offenders (Faller, 2007:42). Most programs making use of a comprehensive assessment model will recommend interviewing the child more than once and engaging in direct inquiry of the child about sexual abuse at some point during these interviews. The comprehensive assessment model Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 134 also involves interviews with others such as the non-offending parents, the alleged offender and others that may have relevant information. Other relevant sources may include other children, stepparents, teachers, day care providers, etcetera (Faller, 2003:145). Faller (2007:42) states that this model is suited for allegations of intra-familial sexual abuse and not necessary for most allegations of extra-familial sexual abuse. It is also useful for complex cases. Practitioners employing this model seek to find alternative hypotheses (Faller, 2003:145). This model is also used to answer questions in addition to whether the child has been sexually abused. It can address issues such as the type of treatment needed for the offender, non-offending parent, their prognoses, treatment for and placement of the victim, the possibility of family reunification as well as the impact and possible success of criminal procedures (Faller, 2003:42; Faller, 2007:145). Decision making when using this model may be collaborative, involving several professionals that form part of a team, or other professionals working with the family. This module assumes that the more information the professionals have, the more accurate their decision will be. Different types of information are likely to receive different weight, though, with the child‟s statements and behaviour receiving the greatest weight (Faller, 2003:145). This model, however, has some drawbacks. Faller (2007:42) explains that this model is very time consuming, costly and intrusive to family life. Regarding the comprehensive assessment model, the researcher combined strengths and weaknesses in this table that will be applicable to the South African context. A discussion will follow on these strengths and weaknesses. TABLE 7: SUMMARY OF THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT MODEL Strengths Weaknesses Interview with child is not the only source of information Expensive in terms of time Hypothesis testing Intrusive to family life Interviews with collateral sources Utilization of multi-professional team Neutrality of forensic interviewer Can be used in other family dysfunctions Child can be interviewed more than once Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 135 6.4.4.1 Strong points of the comprehensive assessment model Faller (2006:42) explains that when professionals employ the comprehensive assessment model, the child is not the only source of information regarding the allegations of abuse, but is usually regarded as the most important part of the assessment. Faller (2007:43) states in this regard, “The model‟s hallmark, however, is extensive data gathering from a variety of sources and a careful review of past history and reports”. Guidelines provided by the APSAC (2012:7) recommends the active participation as part of a multi-disciplinary team and say whenever possible, the investigator should consult with other professionals involved with the child, or the child‟s family. Policy makers worldwide, promote interagency teamwork (Connell, 2009:425; Cross, Jones, Walsh, Simone & Kolko, 2007:1033; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:72; Vieth, 2009:214). According to Pence (2011:326), it is best practice to make use of a multi-disciplinary team when conducting investigations of child sexual abuse. 6.4.4.2 Weaknesses of the comprehensive assessment model The comprehensive assessment model is an expensive model to employ and very time consuming. It is also intrusive to family life (Faller, 2007:42). However, the researcher is of the opinion that when involving the entire family in the investigation, it is evident that the investigator is objective, neutral and tests different hypotheses. In the South African context, it is not always possible to work as part of a multi-disciplinary team when investigating cases of sexual abuse. The researcher experienced that especially in rural areas it is difficult to make use of a multi-disciplinary team, as there are greater employment opportunities in the urban areas. The researcher also experienced that the majority of clients simply cannot afford the payment of members of the multidisciplinary team. 6.4.4.3 Recommendation for the employment of the comprehensive assessment model in the South African context This model considers the child‟s physical, emotional and psychological well-being. Thus one can say that this model supports the principal of the “in the best interest of the child”, as stated in the New Children‟s Act 38 of 2005. This model leaves no rock unturned and every aspect of the child‟s life is investigated. Professionals that employ this model are objective and neutral fact finders who investigate different hypotheses. These are all good Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 136 characteristics of the forensic investigator. The researcher is of the opinion that the comprehensive assessment model can be utilised successfully in the South African context. 6.5 Discussion on models employed by the respondents From the feedback received from the respondents, it appears that the majority of the respondents employ the comprehensive assessment model and some respondents combine good aspects of all the available models. However, it appears that four (22.22%) of the respondents were not aware of these scientific models. It seems that the respondents place value on the principle of neutrality and objectivity by involving a variety of collateral sources in their investigations as well as a variety of members of the multi-disciplinary team. The respondents indicated that it is expensive to involve the multi-disciplinary team, though. The fact that respondents involve therapists in their investigations of child sexual abuse, however, was alarming, as therapy must only commence once the case is closed. A question was posed to the respondents to determine whether they involve members of the multidisciplinary team in their investigations. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 4: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM N=18 The responses received, indicated that 12 (66.66%) respondents work as part of a multi- disciplinary team, while five (27.77%) respondents indicated that they do not work as part of the multi-disciplinary team. One (5.55%) respondent did not indicate an answer. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to determine who forms part of a multi-disciplinary team they work with. The following themes were identified from their responses: Part of multi disciplinary team Not part of multi disciplinary team No response 66.66% 27.77% 5.55% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 137 TABLE 8: MEMBERS FORMING PART OF THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM MEMBERS FORMING PART OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM School teachers Psychiatrist Psychologists Medical Personnel Lawyers Police official (Investigating officer) Other social workers Therapists From the feedback of the respondents, it seems that the majority of the respondents do their investigations as part of a multi-disciplinary team. The respondents indicated that they involve school teachers and psychiatrists. The majority of the respondents involve psychologists in their investigations. The researcher experienced that psychologists are in general reluctant to testify on child sexual abuse in court. In this regard, Potgieter (2002:9) aired the following opinion: “From practical experience it is also clear that many psychologists are unwilling to become involved in cases of sexual abuse as they are reluctant to expose themselves to the trauma of acting as expert witness in court. And even when a psychologist is willing to become involved in a case, it is often not possible to refer these children for a comprehensive assessment due to a lack of funds”. The respondents also involve medical personnel and lawyers. An investigating officer of the South African Police Service is also involved in the cases of some of the respondents. The respondents indicated that they involve social workers from welfare organizations. Therapists are involved by some of the respondents. This is alarming to the researcher, since therapeutic services can only be rendered to victims of child sexual abuse once the investigation and court case is finalized. When doing therapy with the sexually abused child, clinical methods of interviewing are used, which include techniques such as leading questions, multiple-choice questions, hypothetical questions and play therapy. Therapy assists children with resolving traumatic experiences but, as far as the courts are concerned, it may encourage confusion between fantasy and reality and thus influence the reliability of the child‟s evidence (Müller, 2001:8). It is clear that forensic investigations do not entail any therapy to the victim of sexual abuse (Smith, 2007:43). Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 138 From the feedback received during the research it seems that the majority of the respondents act in line with the comprehensive assessment model, as they make use of members of a multi-disciplinary team. It is also evident that they involve a wide variety of members to assist them in their investigations of child sexual abuse. As previously stated, when employing this model the investigator also consults with other role players during the investigation process. These role players include individuals such as the alleged offender, non-offending parents, schools, medical practitioners and reports from other professionals. Pence (2011:330-332) suggests that it is also important to interview the person who had reported the abuse. This researcher further states that interviews with witnesses are a normal part of the investigative process and state that the following persons are usually interviewed:  family members,  persons acquainted with the child and family,  neighbours,  other children and/or friends of the victim,  other professionals that know the child and family,  non-offending parent. She also recommends that the credibility and motives of that person must also be assessed. At first, the researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents to determine whether they consult with other collateral sources during the forensic investigations. In this regard, all 18 (100%) of the respondents indicated that they consult with other collateral sources during their investigations. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 5: CONSULT WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES N=18 Consult with collateral sources, 100% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 139 In this regard, the researcher posed another quantitative question to the respondents to determine the collateral sources they consult with during their investigations. Themes from their answers can be summarised as follows: TABLE 9: COLLATERAL SOURCES CONSULTED BY RESPONDENTS DIFFERENT COLLATERAL SOURCES THAT ARE CONSULTED Psychological reports on victim Psychological reports on offender Psychological reports on non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) Psychological reports on parents of victim (in cases of extra-familial abuse) Medical records of victim School reports Interviews with teachers Interviews with domestic workers Interview with first report witness Interviews with neighbours Interviews with religious leaders Interviews with extended family members Interview with state prosecutor Interview with defence attorney Other collateral sources From the feedback it emerged that the majority of the respondents require psychological reports on the victim and request a psychological report on the offender. Some respondents indicated that they need psychological reports on the non-offending parent as well, in cases of intra-familial abuse. The researcher values this statement as it is a sign of the forensic investigator‟s objectivity and neutrality. The respondents also request psychological reports on the parents of the victim in cases where extra-familial abuse had occurred. Medical reports are used by the respondents, and the respondents indicated that they request reports from the school. It seems that all the respondents interview the victim‟s teacher as well as the first person to whom the victim had disclosed the sexual abuse. It was indicated by some of the respondents that they conduct an interview with the domestic worker of the victim‟s family and some of the respondents indicated that they consult with neighbours. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 140 The respondents have interviews with extended family members as well. It also emerged that they conduct interviews with state prosecutors and some respondents interview the defence attorney. It was indicated by the respondents that they also involve other collateral sources in their investigations. The majority of these respondents did not indicate any other collateral sources but stated that each case is unique and that the collateral sources will be determined by the nature and extent of the circumstances. A respondent with a private practice experienced the interviews with collateral sources as problematic, as clients are often not willing to pay for these interviews. Pence (2011:334) states that the interview with the suspect requires as much thought as the interview with a child or non-offending parent. Therefore the respondent posed a quantitative question to determine the number of respondents that consult with the suspect. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 6: CONSULT WITH SUSPECT N=18 From the feedback it seems that all 18 (100%) of the respondents do consult with the suspect. The researcher is of the opinion that this will definitely contribute to their objectivity and neutrality as forensic investigators. The majority of the respondents indicated that they do interview the suspect, because he/she must also be granted the opportunity of explaining himself. In her practice, the researcher investigated a case in which an eight- year-old child accused her father of sexually abusing her when she visited him. Her parents were busy with a divorce. The child disclosed to the researcher that she was asleep when he abused her, but she is aware of that, because her mother told her that it had happened, as her father had confessed to the mother. After interviewing the father, it was clear that it was not true and that the false allegations came from the mother. The father even had concrete proof that the child did not visit him at that time. When utilizing the comprehensive assessment model, the child can also be interviewed more than once. Although multiple interviews are not recommended (Connell, 2009:426), repeated non-leading interviews tend to uncover new details (Hershkowitz & Terner, Consult with suspect 100% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 141 2007:1131). La Rooy, Lamb and Pipe (2009:327) state that despite the universal preference for single forensic interviews, children are rarely questioned about abuse once only. Repeated interviewing with multiple suggestive techniques, suggestive interviewing, or interviewing children about events that did not happen, is however, forbidden. A policy that limits the investigative or fact-finding process to a single interview is not recommended (APSAC, 2012:9). The researcher shares the opinion that disclosure is a process rather than a single incident; therefore it is very likely that many children will need more than one session to make a disclosure about their encounter of sexual abuse. The researcher values the principle of hypothesis testing, and the comprehensive assessment model employs this principle. When the investigator considers a report of alleged maltreatment, the investigator must draw on experience to construct a working hypothesis about what might have happened (APSAC, 2012:4; Connell, 2009:439; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:113; Pence, 2011:327). The researcher is of the opinion that when one adds value to the principle of hypothesis testing, objectivity and neutrality are also promoted. It is strongly recommended that forensic investigators act as objective and neutral fact finders (Connell, 2009:439; Pence, 2011:327; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114; Saywitz, Esplin, Romanoff, 2007:222; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:78-79). Another advantage of this model is that it can be utilised in complex cases and where family dysfunctions include other problems, such as substance abuse and domestic violence (Faller, 2007:42). Berliner (2011:219) states that research indicates that families with children, that have been sexually abused, are thought to have certain characteristics of being less cohesive, more disorganised and generally more dysfunctional. Children that have been neglected, have a parent with a problem of alcohol abuse or have a battered mother, have been reported to be at risk of being sexually abuse (Dong, Anda, Dube, Giles & Felitti, 2003:626; Dong, Anda, Felitti, Dube, Williamson, Thompson, Loo & Giles, 2004:772). The researcher concluded from the feedback received by the respondents that strong points of an ideal model for the South African context will comprise the following: Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 142 TABLE 10: A MODEL FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT No profiling of the sexual offender Consultations with a variety of collateral sources Consultations with members of the multi-disciplinary team Model will contribute to high conviction rate in the shortest possible time Makes provision for more than one interview Limited interviews by multiple people Can be used in both intra- and extra-familial cases of child abuse Can be utilised for other family dysfunctions as well 6.6 Choosing a protocol for evaluating child sexual abuse allegations It is the duty of forensic investigators to be familiar with current interview methods and the supporting literature (Tully, 2011:200). When forensic investigators use recommended interview procedures, they enhance the quality of information elicited from alleged victims of sexual abuse (Sternberg, Lamb, Orbach, Esplin & Mitchell, 2001:1002). Structured protocols prevent defective interviewing, and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi-structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 2012:10; Orbach, Hershkowitz, Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin & Horowitz, 2000:734; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:340). Structured protocols are designed in such a manner that it includes different phases (Carnes et al., 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz, et al., 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). Wilson and Powell (2001:45) are of the opinion that the interview protocol can be equated with a funnel where the interview begins with the most open-ended questions and then progresses down to more specific questions. These researchers state that the following phases are standard to most interviewing structures or protocols:  Greeting and establishing rapport with the child.  Introducing the topic of concern.  Eliciting a free narrative account from the child Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 143  Specific questioning.  Closure. Faller (2007:69) incorporates the interviewing phases found in existing protocols and guidelines as follows:  Documenting people, time and place for the video.  Informing the child about the interview.  Competency assessment.  Rapport building.  Developmental assessment.  Assessing overall functioning.  Explaining the rules.  Practise interviewing.  Introduction of topic of concern.  Obtaining a narrative from the child.  Obtaining additional details.  The cognitive interview.  Closure. Faller (2003:107) describes another guideline that can be followed for interviewing children that may have been sexually abused. This guideline comprises the following phases: Initial phase  The investigator explains his or her role.  Rapport building  Provision of ground rules.  The investigator assesses the child‟s overall functioning.  Assessment of the child‟s developmental level. Abuse-Focused phase  Open-ended inquiry.  Follow -up regarding disclosure.  Specific questioning. Closure phase  Explanation of what will happen next. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 144  Investigator calms the child, if needed. When existing literature regarding forensic interviewing protocols are studied, it is clear that researchers recommend that forensic interviewing protocols must be divided into phases. It is also recommended that investigators make use of structured or semi-structured interviews, as this will elicit more information from the child regarding the abuse. A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine whether they make use of structured, semi-structured or unstructured interviews. Six (33.33%) indicated that they make use of structured interviews, while nine (50%) indicated they make use of semi- structured interviews. The remaining three (16.66%) indicated that they make use of both the structured and semi-structured interviews. None of the respondents made use of unstructured interviews. Their responses can be summarised as follow: GRAPH 7: STRUCTURED, SEMI-STRUCTURED OR UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS N=18 A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine whether they make use of a phased process. All 18 (100%) of the respondents indicated that they make use of a phased process while assessing children. Their responses can be summarised as follow: GRAPH 8: MAKING USE OF A PHASED APPROACH N=18 Structured interviews Semi-Structured interviews Combinations between structured and semi-structured 33.33% 50% 16.66% Using phased approach (18 respondents), 100% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 145 A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine whether they use a scientific protocol. From the feedback it emerged that 17 (94.44%) of the respondents do make use of a scientific protocol and one (5.55%) of the respondents refrained from answering the question. The following graph is a summary of their responses: GRAPH 9: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL N=18 A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine what the phases of their interviews entail. Please take note that the summary of identified themes from their responses is not indicative of the order of in which the respondents apply the phases: TABLE 11: DIFFERENT PHASES FOLLOWED BY RESPONDENTS DIFFERENT PHASES FOLLOWED BY RESPONDENTS Rapport Building Competency Assessment Cognitive development Baseline questions Social-Emotional assessment Screening for possible sexual abuse Free Narrative Abuse-related questioning Open Questioning Specific questioning Clarification Talking about a neutral topic Closure Making use of a scientific model (17 respondents), 94.44% Did not give an answer (1 respondent), 5.55% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 146 From the feedback received, it seems that the respondents have a phase for building rapport with the child. The respondents perform a competency assessment on the child. The victim‟s cognitive developmental levels are tested by some of the respondents. The respondents also pose baseline questions to the victims while some of the respondents indicated that they pay attention to the victim‟s social-emotional functioning. Some respondents use techniques to screen for possible sexual abuse and they obtain a free narrative from the child. The respondents also ask abuse-related questions. Clarification and talking about a neutral topic are done by some respondents. The respondents indicated that they have a closure phase. It is evident from the feedback received from the respondents that they do indeed follow a phased approach. The phases the respondents utilize differ largely though. A possible explanation might be the fact that the respondents had received different training and are employing different models and protocols. A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine which interviewing protocol they utilize. Some respondents indicated more than one answer, stating that it depends on the child‟s age and the circumstances of the investigation. Three (16.66%) respondents indicated that they use the State of Michigan‟s protocol. Eight (44.44%) respondents used the APSAC guidelines to interview children and eight (44.44%) used the NICHD protocol. Two (11.11%) respondents did not respond to the question. From the feedback it is clear that the APSAC guidelines and the NICHD protocol are the most preferred protocols used by the respondents. It is, however, alarming to the researcher that so many participants stated that they use the APSAC guidelines as a forensic interviewing protocol. These guidelines, as the name states, only provide a framework for professionals that conduct forensic interviews, which are not an all-inclusive guide (APSAC, 2012:3). The use of formalized protocols is suggested, rather than the use of generalized guidelines, when conducting forensic interviews with children (Walker, 2002:170). The following graph is a summary of the respondents‟ responses: Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 147 GRAPH 10: SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL USED BY RESPONDENTS N=18 6.6.1 National Institute for Child Health and Development (NICHD) Investigative Model The National Institute for Child Health and Development Investigative Model (hereafter referred to as the NICHD) is the most extensively studied child forensic interview protocol and was developed by Michael Lamb and his colleagues. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators in the South African context must utilize this protocol and will therefore be discussed in detail by the researcher. By making use of this protocol, field researchers have examined the quality of children's memory reports in relation to factors such as age, rapport building, open-ended questioning, the use of drawings, as well as other interview-relevant factors. Based on thousands of NICHD Protocol interviews conducted in countries such as Israel, Lamb and his colleagues have worked on pinpointing interviewing techniques that will produce the best quality of information from children (Saywitz, et al., 2011:340). According to Lamb, Hershkowitz, Orbach and Esplin (2009:85) as well as Orbach, Hershkowitz, Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin and Horowitz (2000:734), the NICHD is a flexible and structured protocol that incorporates a wide range of strategies, believed to enhance the retrieval of information from children. Herman (2009:261) states that although other interview guidelines and protocols exist, no other protocol or guideline has levels of empirical support equal to those of the NICHD protocol. This researcher is also of the opinion that the NICHD protocol is currently the golden standard for forensic interviewing in cases where sexual abuses are suspected and recommends that it should be adhered to in all cases of child sexual abuse. 6.6.2 Recommendation by the researcher on the use of the NICHD protocol The researcher is of the opinion that professionals in South Africa, who conduct forensic investigations, should consider the use of the NICHD protocol to conduct the forensic interview. When using this protocol, the forensic social worker will be able to defend the Michigan's Protocol APSAC Guidelines NICHD Protocol No response 16.66% 44.44% 44.44% 11.11% Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 148 forensic interview followed, in court, as extensive research was done on this protocol. It also makes use of a phased process, as recommended by other researchers. This protocol can also be utilized in cases where there was more than one incident of sexual abuse. The researcher experienced in her practice, that multiple incidents of sexual abuse occurred in the majority of cases. This protocol also makes provision for other dynamics of sexual abuse, such as gaining information on the disclosure process. 7. CONCLUSION  The majority of the respondents belonged to the age group between 31 and 40 years with only between one and five years of experience. From the responses, it emerged that the respondents especially do not have extensive court experience.  From their responses, it seems that the respondents have adequate training and qualifications, especially post graduate qualifications in the form of a Master‟s degree. The respondents also attended a large number of workshops and short courses to assist them in the field of forensic investigations.  The majority of the respondents were female. The researcher is of the opinion that this is a matter of concern, as it is easier for a victim to talk about his sexual abuse encounter to a person of the same sex, especially where the victim is a teenager.  Half of the respondents indicated that they employ the comprehensive assessment model during their investigation of child sexual abuse. According to the researcher, this model is suitable for the South African context. An alarming number of the respondents, however, were not aware of a scientific model and thus did not work according to any such model.  The majority of the respondents perform their investigations as part of a multi- disciplinary team. There are some respondents that work isolated in cases of child sexual abuse. One of the reasons for this is that making use of a multi-disciplinary team is expensive and clients can often not afford the services of a multi-disciplinary team.  It seems that there is still no clarity among the respondents regarding therapy for sexually abused children, as a large number of respondents involved therapists during their investigations of child sexual abuse.  It seems that the respondents do share the value of objectivity and neutrality that is of great importance during forensic investigations, since they all indicated that they do consult with the offender, as well as with other collateral sources.  A great number of the respondents indicated that they use the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol while conducting forensic interviews. The same number of Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 149 respondents indicated that they employ the APSAC guidelines to conduct forensic interviews. This is problematic to the researcher, as these are guidelines only, and not a protocol. 8. RECOMMENDATIONS  It is important for forensic investigators to familiarise themselves with court procedures and expert testimony.  Respondents must have adequate training, especially a postgraduate qualification, in order to qualify as an expert witness.  More male forensic investigators must be recruited in order to assist male victims of sexual abuse, especially teenagers.  Respondents must be trained in an adequate, scientific model, to assist them in their forensic investigations. The researcher is of the opinion that the comprehensive assessment model is suitable for optimal service delivery to victims of sexual abuse in the South African context.  Professionals conducting forensic investigations must be encouraged to involve other members of the multi-disciplinary team in their investigations.  Forensic investigators must ensure that victims of child sexual abuse receive therapy only after court procedures have been finalised.  Forensic investigators must place high value on objectivity and neutrality and must involve all role players in their investigation process.  Forensic investigators must employ a scientific forensic interviewing protocol, such as the NICHD protocol, to conduct forensic interviews. 9. SUMMARY It seems that the majority of the respondents that participated in the study were adequately trained. It seems that the respondents that were not sufficiently trained were hesitant to participate in the study. It also emerged that the majority of the respondents do employ scientific forensic models and interviewing protocols. However, no such model or protocol exists in the South African context. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 150 In the next article, the researcher will compile a forensic assessment model for forensic investigators in the South African context. This model will guide forensic investigators during their forensic investigation, from where they receive a referral until they terminate the case. Article 2 ARTICLE 2: VIEWPOINTS OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS ON INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL FORENSIC MODELS AND PROTOCOLS FOR INTERVIEWING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN Page 151 10. REFERENCE LIST American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). 2012. Practice guidelines: forensic interviewing in cases of suspected child abuse. 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Smith, S is a PhD student, Wessels, CC is an associate professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division and Strydom, H a professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division, Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. KEY TERMS Forensic interviewing model, South African context OPSOMMING ARTICLE 3 THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Maatskaplike werk wat gerig is op forensiese ondersoeke is ʼn relatief nuwe veld in die Suid- Afrikaanse konteks. Opleiding op hierdie gebied is ook baie skaars en sommige navorsers is van mening dat die meerderheid professionele persone sodanige ondersoeke onderneem sonder die nodige kennis en vaardighede. Die navorser kon nêrens in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks enige model of riglyn opspoor wat die grondslag vir voornemende ondersoekers lê ten opsigte van die stappe wat gevolg moet word om sodanige ondersoek uit te voer nie. Daar word van die forensiese ondersoeker verwag om te alle tye besluite te neem en metodes te volg wat op wetenskap en navorsing gebaseer is. In hierdie artikel sal die navorser poog om ʼn assesseringsmodel saam te stel wat die forensiese ondersoeker sal bystaan met die nodige riglyne ten opsigte van die ondersoekproses. Hier sal aan aspekte aandag gegee word wat oorweeg moet word alvorens die ondersoeker sodanige saak aanvaar tot en met die afsluiting daarvan. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 162 1. INTRODUCTION n the previous article, the researcher wrote about international forensic models as well as forensic interviewing protocols. It also emerged that currently no forensic model or interviewing protocol exists for the South African context. In this article, the researcher will strive to develop a forensic assessment model that is legally defensible and acceptable in the South African context. This model will assist professionals when conducting forensic investigations, from the onset of the referral until the case is closed. This will especially be helpful since the majority of professionals conduct forensic investigations without proper training. Forensic investigators must realise that they have a responsibility towards vulnerable people. Both the alleged offender and the victim are in a vulnerable position and the court relies on the forensic investigator to assist them in making a fair decision. Forensic investigators cannot and should not make such recommendations if they are not fully equipped to do so. 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Statistics reveal that an average of 60 children is raped on a daily basis in South Africa. Even more alarming is the fact that only six to seven percent of the reported rape cases are successfully prosecuted (Reyneke & Kruger, 2006:31). Evidence of abuse is difficult to obtain; therefore expert testimony occasionally plays an important role in child abuse litigation (Meintjies-Van der Walt, 2002:24). Hewitt‟s (2012:100) opinion is that a forensic interview is conducted as part of a larger investigative process and is intended to elicit information that is uniquely that of the child. The information can be used to further law enforcement, or to protect the child. Sexual abuse of children is typically an event or series of events, without any witnesses or physical findings. Children's communication regarding the experiences of the alleged sexual abuse may be the only available evidence of the crime (APSAC, 2012:3; De Voe & Faller, 2002:6; Hewitt, 2012:121-122). Forensic interviewing of victims of child sexual abuse is a specialised skill. The nature of a forensic interview is investigative and is used to obtain information in order to determine whether abuse has occurred. Therefore it is necessary for forensic interviews to be conducted by specially trained child forensic investigators. Forensic interviews can provide critical evidence for both criminal child abuse investigations and civil child protection proceedings (APSAC, 2012:3; Fouché, 2006:206). Cronch, Viljoen and Hansen (2006:195) I Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 163 agree with this statement and are of the opinion that in child sexual abuse cases, skilful forensic interviews are an important aspect in the investigation of such cases in order to ensure the protection of innocent individuals and the conviction of perpetrators. Unfortunately, the majority of professionals in South Africa, that conduct assessments on sexually abused children and give testimony on it in court, do so without the proper qualification or specialised expertise (Carstens, 2006:185; Kaliski, 2006:2). The researcher was also unable to find any guidelines for professionals in South Africa working with sexually abused children. Courts are frequently relying on the expertise of forensic investigators to assess allegations of sexual abuse. Such evaluations are complex and require knowledge of techniques used in sexual abuse and sexual offender evaluations. However, few practitioners followed formal models, protocols or guidelines when evaluating cases of sexual abuse (Bow, Quinnell, Zaroff & Assemany, 2002:566). It is important for forensic investigators to consider the larger context of the child interview, both when they are responsible for conducting an assessment of a child and when they are evaluating an assessment conducted by a colleague. An appropriate assessment process will take into account the specifics of the case, practice knowledge and research findings (Faller, 2003:162). As discussed in the previous article, it is important for the forensic investigator to work according to a scientific assessment model. The researcher concluded that the Comprehensive assessment model is the most suitable to employ in the South African context. A protocol is described by the Concise Oxford Dictionary (2012:947) as “the accepted or established code of procedure or behaviour in any group, organization, or situation”. In a forensic interview, a protocol can thus be seen as an accepted or established procedure to conduct evidence-based interviews with children that have allegedly been exposed to sexual abuse. Poole and Lamb (1998:81) define a protocol in forensic circumstances as a tool for increasing the quality and quantity of information forensic investigators elicit from children. A protocol provide guidance and structure to investigators on how to remain impartial while collecting information that may either corroborate or refute the suspicion of abuse (La Raque, De, Matthia & Low, 2006:1142). Carstens (2006:192) recommends that professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse must develop a protocol that can be defined in court and work according to it. Professionals must be able to defend a choice of assessment techniques and evaluation models. Professionals that conduct forensic interviews with children should be familiar with respected professional guidelines and protocols that have withstood empirical scrutiny (Walker, 2002:178). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 164 It is clear that investigators interviewing children regarding sexual abuse also need to be familiar with research, best practice guidelines and an opinion regarding how to interview children about possible sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:3; Tully, 2011:200). The quality and reliability of the sexually abused child‟s statement are influenced by the interviewer‟s skills to conduct an interview with the child. For the child to give a complete, relevant, unbiased and accurate account, the interviews must be conducted with considerable expertise and sensitivity (Spencer & Flynn, 1990:276-277). Hewitt (2012:100) supports this statement by saying: “Forensic interviews should be conducted in a developmentally sensitive and legally sound manner, utilizing research and practice informed techniques”. When forensic investigators are using recommended interview procedures, they also enhance the quality of information elicited form alleged victims of sexual abuse (Sternberg, Lamb, Orbach, Esplin & Mitchell, 2001:1002). Structured protocols prevent defective interviewing and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi-structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (APSAC, 2012:10; Orbach, Hershkowitz, Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin & Horowitz, 2000:734; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:340). In this article, the researcher will answer the following research question: What should the process of a South African forensic assessment model be for investigating cases of child sexual abuse? 3. OBJECTIVE To identify by means of a literature study as well as the information gathered from experts in the field of forensic investigations during the previous phase, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for children in middle childhood and the findings will be presented in this article. 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This research will identify, by means of a literature study, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for children in middle childhood and the findings will be presented in this article. Recommendations made in the previous article were also considered when designing the assessment model. National and International literature was Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 165 used as the foundation for the forensic interviewing model that has been developed for this research project. The research methodology used in this research was a literature study. 4.1 Literature review Most social researchers begin the design of their research project with a review of literature (Babbie, 2014:463). A literature review provides insight into the dimensions and complexities of a subject (Fouché & Delport, 2011:133). Forensic investigations into child sexual abuse are a relatively new field in South Africa, with no clear-cut ethical guidelines, principles and protocols unique to South Africa. The literature review of international books and articles therefore served as theoretical framework and was used to contextualize the study (Delport, Fouché & Schurink, 2011:303). A careful review of the literature can save much unnecessary work and prevent the researcher from wasting time studying a problem that has already been investigated (Royse, 2004:20). Literature on the topic under investigation was very limited, especially in the South African context. Delport (2005:171) states that, in order to undertake meaningful research, the researcher should have made a thorough study of the subject under review. The focus of this study was aspects contributing to the process of scientific assessments of sexually abuse children that are legally defensible. The central focus of this study was to develop an assessment model for sexually abused children in South Africa that is legally defensible. Because forensic investigations into child sexual abuse are a relatively new field in South Africa, national literature regarding this was very limited and a large amount of international literature was consulted. A wide range of literature was identified and studied, including books, academic studies, government and informal publications as well as scientific magazines. To ensure a purposeful search, the EBSCO Host: Academic Search Premier, Nexus, ERIC, Repertoire of South African Journals, Social Work Abstracts, PsycINFO, Social Sciences Index and SA Media databank were used. The results attained were used in the development and implementation of the forensic assessment model. 4.2 Programme Development Barker (2003:342) defines the term programme as a plan and guideline about what is to be done. Social work programmes have the broad goal of enhancing individual and social change by providing services that meet individual and community needs. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators in South Africa are in need of guidelines to assist Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 166 them during forensic investigations as there is currently no such guidelines for the South African context. As previously mentioned, South Africa has a very high rate of sexual abuse cases and one can naturally assume that forensic investigators as well as the victims of sexual abuse will benefit from such model. During this research, the researcher developed a forensic assessment model that is suitable for the South African context. Designing a social programme is a creative problem‐solving process for solving complex social issues. A good programme design should incorporate sound research knowledge and best practices to determine the best fit of elements required for a programme to be effective. In order to design such forensic assessment model the researcher did a thorough literature study on existing forensic models and protocols and incorporated it with the information gathered from forensic investigators in the field. Programme design involves translating the programme objectives, with a thorough understanding of the social issue and needs of the target population, into new or improved services. The goal of programme design is to establish those services which will have the best possible chance of achieving the programme‟s objectives and creating measurable positive change for participants (Maine, 2011:11). The aim and purpose of this research programme was to develop a forensic assessment model that will assist and guide forensic investigators during their investigations. 4.3 Research model In this intervention, the Intervention Research Model (D & D) was used. The D & D model, according to Rothman and Thomas (1994:12), may be conceptualised as a problem-solving process for seeking effective intervention and helping tools to deal with given human and social difficulties. Developmental research denotes the development of a technology or a technological item that is essential for a profession such as social work (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:473). In this case, the technological item is the forensic assessment model. Rothman and Thomas (1994:9) as well as De Vos and Strydom (2011:476) stipulate six phases of the D & D model. The researcher has already conducted the first two phases during the previous parts of the study. During this part of the study, the researcher conducted phase three and step 1 of phase four. The intervention research model‟s six phases are: Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis Phase 3: Design Phase 4: Early development and testing Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 167 Phase 6: Dissemination (Jweitt & Rozentals-Thresher, 2004:5) FIGURE 1: PHASES 4 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL Adapted from De Vos and Strydom (2011:476-483). The researcher utilised Phase 3 and step 1 of Phase 4 of the Intervention research model and indicated how the theory was applied in practice during each step in this article. Phase 3: Design During this phase, the following steps are of importance (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482):  Designing an observational system.  Specifying procedural elements of the intervention. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 168 Step 1: Designing an observational system An observational system is of crucial value. Researchers must design a way of naturalistically observing the problem, events related to the problem, as well as a method system for discovering the extent of the problem and detecting effects following the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482). The researcher has identified from the literature study and needs assessment, forensic assessment procedures that must be adhered to during forensic investigations. Scientific models, interviewing protocols, assessment methods as well as assessment procedures were identified as helpful areas within the forensic investigation process that can assist the court in making fair decisions. Step 2: Specifying procedural elements of the intervention By observing the problem and studying naturally occurring innovations and other prototypes, researchers can identify procedural elements for use in the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:482). The researcher studied components and requirements of legally defensible forensic investigations and how it can assist the court in making fair decisions. The procedural elements of an intervention often become part of an eventual practice model, which is the final product of the research (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:483). Phase 4: Early development and testing This phase includes the important operations of developing a prototype or preliminary intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:483). The forensic assessment model was developed during this phase. In article 4, the designed programme will be evaluated by different role players. In this article, step 1 was followed. Step 1: Developing a prototype or preliminary intervention The preliminary intervention procedures were selected and specified. In order to develop a prototype for use in pilot testing, the researcher needed to establish ways of communicating the intervention to intended users. Feedback from consumers and implementers must be obtained to help refine and simplify the prototype for the intervention (De Vos & Strydom 2011:484). In the previous article, the researcher did a literature study as well as an empirical study, where the views of forensic investigators were evaluated in terms of forensic assessment models and protocols they employ during forensic investigations. In this article, the researcher again conducted a thorough literature study and considered the Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 169 results from the previous article, to develop and refine a forensic interviewing model that will be suitable for the South African context. From the results of the previous article, it became evident that there is no such model available for the South African context. It also became evident that some respondents did not employ a forensic model at all while conducting forensic investigations. This is alarming, as it can lead to improper forensic investigations that can result in a low successful prosecution rate. Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development and Phase 6: Dissemination will be discussed in article 4. 5. A SCIENTIFIC MODEL AND PROTOCOL FOR ASSESSING SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILDREN In the first article it became evident that structured protocols prevent defective interviewing and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi-structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (Orbach et al., 2000:734; Saywitz et al., 2011:340). These structured protocols are designed in such a manner that it includes different phases (Carnes, Nelson- Gardell, Wilson & Orgassa, 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz, et al., 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). Vieth (2009:197) states that it is important to bear in mind that there is no single forensic interviewing protocol the investigator can implement in order to obtain information from a child regarding child sexual abuse. However, the protocol must be legally defensible. Myers (2005:43) agrees with this statement and says that all children are unique and that there is no single correct way of interviewing children. There is not a golden standard the investigator has to follow. However, the forensic interview is not a conversation to make up as you go along. The following is a schematic outline of the phases of the forensic interviewing model. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 170 FIGURE 2: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF THE PHASES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL A phased approach is recommended for assessing sexually abused children (Cordisco- Steele, 2012:104). In this article, the researcher developed a phased protocol that is legally defensible that can be followed when assessing child victims of sexual abuse. This phased interviewing protocol will form part of a complete forensic assessment model. This model will be inclusive of all the aspects the forensic investigator must consider from accepting the referral until the case is finalised. The different phases and steps of the models will be discussed below. During a forensic investigation, the forensic investigator will not spend an equal amount of time on all the phases, as some are more time consuming than others. The length of the forensic investigator‟s involvement will also be determined by the dynamics of the case at hand. If it appears that there is no reason to believe that sexual abuse had taken place, the forensic investigator can terminate the investigation after completion of phase 3. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 171 5.1 Phase 1: aspects to consider prior to the assessment of sexually abused children The following is a schematic outline of the steps to consider during phase 1. FIGURE 3: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 1 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS The researcher is of the opinion that before a professional can conduct a forensic investigation, the forensic investigator must take certain aspects into consideration and must be prepared to conduct the investigation. According to the researcher, the professional planning to conduct the investigation must consider the following important aspects and must make a decision with regard to these aspects, before agreeing on investigating a case of child sexual abuse. 5.1.1 Step 1: Qualifications of the forensic investigator The act of eliciting reliable and detailed information from children about events or situations, such as abuse, is complex and requires specialised skills in forensic interviewing (Powell & Snow, 2007:57). Practitioners find the interviewing of children in the forensic context difficult and that it requires cognizance of a growing body of specialised knowledge that is rarely taught in the traditional training programs (Fouché & Joubert, 2009:43; Saywitz & Comparo, 1998:1). Webster and Butcher (2012:22) state that the child has the right to an assessment by professionals qualified to undertake the task. The researcher is of the opinion that before professionals can conduct a forensic investigation; they need to evaluate their qualifications in order to determine whether they are qualified to conduct the investigation. Forensic interviews must be conducted by specially trained child forensic investigators (APSAC, 2012:3). The professional working with the sexually abused child and acting as an expert must possess superior knowledge which was obtained from specialised education and Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 172 experience over a period of time, in the field of sexual abuse. The most important requirements are sufficient training, contemporary relevant knowledge, skills and experience with sexually abused children (Spies & Carstens, 2002:38-39). Walker (2002:178) airs the following view regarding the forensic investigators‟ qualifications;  Professionals conducting forensic assessments of children must be well trained in the theory of child development, as well as scientific literature on memory, language, communication and suggestibility.  Forensic investigators should be very familiar with empirically based best practices in forensic interviewing of children, including techniques for the establishment of rapport, the explanation of the purpose of the interview, the establishment of ground rules as well as the purpose of the interview, how to elicit the most accurate and complete reports possible, and closing the interview.  Professionals conducting forensic interviews with children must also familiarize themselves with respected professional guidelines and protocols that have withstood empirical scrutiny.  Professionals must receive specific training in forensic interviewing with children, preferably protocol based, including supervised follow-up and peer review of videotaped and transcribed interviews. Kuehnle (1996:27) stated the following with regard to the qualifications of the professional assessing sexually abused children.  The professional assessing sexually abused children must possess a Master‟s or Doctoral Degree in an acknowledged field of behavioural science.  The professional must have adequate as well as relevant experience in the evaluation and treatment of problem areas of children and their families.  A minimum of two years of professional experience with children is expected after the professional has obtained a Master‟s Degree, but three to five years is the ideal.  The professional must also have two years of professional experience in the field of sexual abuse. If the professional does not have this experience, supervision is compulsory.  Emphasis is placed on the fact that the professional needs specialised training in child development, as well as child sexual abuse matters. The professional can obtain this training by attending formal courses, supervision with respected peers in the field of child sexual abuse as well as the attendance of conferences, seminars and workshops. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 173  It is important for the professional to be familiar with the latest literature regarding sexual abuse, the dynamics of sexual abuse as well as behavioural and emotional problems the sexually abused child may encounter.  The professional must approach the evaluation with an objective attitude and must consider all other possible explanations and hypotheses regarding the alleged sexual abuse. Koocher (2009:83) states that prior to the acceptance of a case, forensic investigators must ask themselves the following questions:  Does the professional have the necessary professional license, educational background and experience to conduct such an evaluation?  Does the professional have the best scientifically derived knowledge necessary to conduct an evaluation of alleged child sexual abuse?  Do the planned assessment tools meet all the appropriate professional standards?  Does the professional need any specialised knowledge, data or assistance related to age, gender, race, ethnicity, culture, language, or other such factors to work competently on this particular case?  Does the professional know enough about the law, including judicial and administrative rules in the applicable jurisdiction, to proceed in this case?  The question as to whether there are any potential conflicts, such as multiple relationships, that might pose an actual conflict or the perception of one, must also be answered.  Does the professional have any personal issues that might compromise his/her professional boundaries or ability to conduct an unbiased evaluation? When the criteria indicated above are considered, it is clear that a forensic investigator must possess postgraduate qualifications in the field of child development and of the dynamics of sexual abuse. Forensic investigators must also be objective and neutral during their investigations. It is also important that forensic investigators must be familiar with the latest trends and research on child sexual abuse investigations. However, training is not the only criterion that is important for the forensic investigator, but; experience in this field is also important. The forensic investigator is also responsible for educating the court, and for assisting the court in making a fair decision. This professional must air an opinion that is based on knowledge and experience (Spies & Carstens, 2005:40-41). When considering Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 174 these facts, it is clear that forensic investigation is a specialised field and that specialised training is needed in order to perform forensic assessments on the sexually abused child. When a social worker or other professional is asked to perform a forensic investigation on a sexually abused child, the professional must consider the criteria as outlined by the different researchers and evaluate whether their qualifications are adequate for assessing sexually abused children in order to testify on that matter in court. Stutterheim and Weyers‟ (1999:12) definition that forensic social work is a specialised field of social work practice characterised by the social worker‟s primary function of providing expert testimony in courts of law, is supportive of the researcher‟s opinion. An expert can be defined as “one who is knowledgeable in a specialised field and the knowledge being obtained from either education or personal experience”. The expert witness can be defined as “one who testifies before a law-making group or in a court of law, based on special knowledge of the subject in question, enabling the decision makers to better assess the evidence or merits of the issue” (Barker, 2003:151). When the literature is taken into account, it seems that the professional, specialising in the investigation of child sexual abuse cases, and who meets the criteria with regard to training, education and experience in that particular field, can be regarded as an expert witness. 5.1.2 Step 2: Choosing a scientific model to work from In the previous article, the researcher focused on the different scientific models that can be utilised during forensic investigations. Faller (2007:35) states that the current practice is conceptualized in four overlapping, yet somewhat distinct, models for assessing allegations of sexual abuse, namely:  The child interview model  The joint investigation model  The parent-child interaction model  Comprehensive assessment model. Literature regarding scientific models that can be utilised during child sexual abuse investigations is very limited and there was no definition to explain exactly what such a model entails. The researcher came to the conclusion that the model a forensic investigator uses is the all-inclusive process to come up with answers for the different hypotheses formed during the investigation process. According to the researcher, a model scientifically underwrites or directs the process the forensic investigator follows, from receiving a referral until closing the case. The researcher is also of the opinion that the applicable model Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 175 followed by the investigator must guide them in terms of all the aspects that need to be adhered to, such as interviewing collateral sources and making use of a scientific interview protocol. The protocol followed by the investigator will therefore form part of the model followed by the forensic investigator. Faller (2007:36) explains that a model will describe the theory underlying the approach the professional follows in the assessment of sexual abuse allegations (Faller, 2007:36). The researcher is of the opinion that when choosing a model to work from, it is important to bear in mind that the forensic interviewer‟s task is that of a fact finder, and neutrality and objectivity should not be compromised. The researcher is of the opinion that the comprehensive assessment model is adequate for conducting investigations of child sexual abuse in South Africa, and for purposes of this study, the comprehensive assessment model will be employed. This model can be utilised in complex cases and where family dysfunctions include other problems such as substance abuse and domestic violence. Multidisciplinary teams can also conduct a comprehensive assessment. These teams consist of physicians, social workers, psychologists, occasionally nurses, psychiatrists and lawyers. Some team members may be experts in child interviewing and child development, and other members may be experts in adult assessment and sex offenders (Faller, 2007:42). The researcher is of the opinion that before professionals accept a case of investigating child sexual abuse, they must choose a scientific model that will guide them during the child sexual abuse investigations. Investigators can select a model that will fit their circumstances best, as long as they can motivate their choice of model and as long as it is a scientifically validated model. When forensic investigators goes to court, the scientific model they applied must be able to give the court a better understanding of the process they followed and why they acted the way they did. The researcher‟s forensic assessment model will be based on the comprehensive assessment model. 5.1.3 Step 3: Accepting the referral The forensic interview‟s purpose, in suspected cases of child abuse, is to elicit as much reliable information from the child as possible to help determine whether abuse had occurred (APSAC, 2012:4), and whether legal actions should be taken (Saywitz, Esplin & Romanoff, 2007:222). Investigators must attempt to collect facts in a neutral and objective way (APSAC, 2012:4; Connell, 2009:426,439; Faller, 2007:74; Müller, 2001:11; Saywitz et al., 2007:222; Saywitz et al., 2011:341-342). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 176 Occasionally it is standard practice for the forensic investigators to begin the interview blind to allegations, whereas in others it is customary to have allegations known by the investigator (Laraque et al., 2006:1142). Poole and Lamb (1998:4) describe a blind interview as an interview without knowledge prior to the circumstances surrounding the allegations. Cantlon, Payne and Erbaugh (1996:1113) are of the opinion that allegation blind interviews yielded a statistically higher disclosure rate. Bow et al. (2002:572) are of the opinion that the forensic investigator must have no involvement prior to the case and must be neutral and objective through the entire interview. Guidelines do not comment on which practice is preferable; they only state that the structure of the interview process should be unbiased at all times and support the search for alternative explanations for the findings or allegations (Laraque et al., 2006:1142). Poole and Lamb (1998:112) state that blind interviews require a more highly trained interviewer, and also state that the blind interview might not always be successful with younger children. Although forensic investigators are not obliged to conduct blind interviews, the researcher is of the opinion that a blind interview contributes to the interviewer‟s neutrality and objectivity and that by making use of blind interviews, the investigator is granted the opportunity to gather first-hand information from the child‟s perspective. The researcher recommends that interviews be conducted blind and in cases where the investigator cannot elicit any information from the child, while there is a strong suspicion that the child is sexually abused, information can be gathered from collateral sources. When the researcher was conducting assessments for the South African Police Service, the referrals were made by either the investigating officer in the case, or the court. The researcher educated the court as well as the investigating officers involved, on how to make referrals that are legally defensible in court. The researcher requested them to only state the child‟s name and age. It was acceptable for the researcher to be informed if the child had any disabilities that needed to be considered during the investigation process, for instance when arrangements needed to be made for a child in a wheelchair. For purposes of this study, the researcher will work from the assumption that it is best to conduct interviews allegation blind. 5.1.4 Step 4: Obtaining consent from the parents/primary caregivers Wilson and Powell (2001:28) state that for the child‟s sake, it is important to work with the child‟s supporting parents. Cooperative parents will also increase the likelihood that the Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 177 child will cooperate. It is also important to keep the parents informed about the actions lying ahead. Fouché (2006:217) states that written permission must be obtained from the child‟s parents or guardians before an assessment is conducted. Permission must also be obtained to make any video or audio recordings during the assessment. Bow et al. (2002:572) also state that written consent must be obtained from all relevant parties involved. The researcher never assessed children without the permission of the child‟s parents or guardians. In cases where parents refuse to give their permission, investigators can approach the court to receive the necessary permission. 5.1.5 Step 5: Choosing an environment for the interview Vallano and Compo (2011:966) state that creating an environment that is comfortable can decrease the amount of incorrect reported details. The best interview environment is one that is uncluttered, comfortable, warm and friendly (Wilson & Powell, 2001:29). Investigators are more successful when they provide a supportive but non-suggestive atmosphere (Faller, 2007:27; Pence, 2011:341). It is recommended that the interview occur in a neutral environment whenever possible. The setting should be private, informal, and free from distractions (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2003:60; Müller, 2001:10; State of Michigan, 2005:5). Fouché (2006:215) states that the interview environment must be as child friendly as possible. The interview room should also be equipped with a table, chairs, and a cupboard for keeping supplies out of view. The goal of designing an interview room is to provide a relaxing environment that is not unnecessarily distracting to young children. Decorations such as simple, repetitive wallpaper are cheerful but do not invite inspection by the child (State of Michigan, 2005:5). The researcher supports the opinions of the above researchers stating that the interview environment must be free from any distractions. Some professionals are under the impression that the interview room must be brightly coloured with a lot of toys. The researcher found that this can be very distracting for children, especially young children with attention and concentration problems. The researcher prefers a room with only the necessary equipment and that supplies must be kept completely out of sight. 5.1.6 Step 6: Documentation during the investigation One of the fundamental differences between forensic social work and clinical social work is documentation. During forensic interviews, the forensic investigator makes use of extensive Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 178 documentation, which often includes video recordings (Faller, 2007:5). Among professionals working with child sexual abuse cases, there is universal agreement that investigators interviewing children concerning the sexual abuse need to employ some method of documentation. This documentation can consist of written notes, audiotapes or videotapes (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2003:147; Faller, 2007:58-60; Wood, Nathan, Nezworski & Uhl, 2009:94). Some researchers are of the opinion that it is advisable to make video recordings of forensic interviews (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2003:60; Fouché, 2006:233; Wilson & Powell, 2001:37). However, few topics are as controversial as the issue of videotaping interviews (Faller, 2003:147; Faller, 2007:60; Poole & Lamb, 1998:115; Vandervort, 2006:1353). From the available literature it is clear that some professionals are against the videotaping of interviews, whilst others feel that it must be done. The researcher is of the opinion that there are advantages and disadvantages to video recordings during forensic investigations and will report on that as follows:  Advantages of video recordings Researchers state that there are indeed certain advantages to videotaping interviews of children in cases of child sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:61-62, Poole and Lamb, 1998:116, Vandervort, 2006:1360-1362) and mention the following advantages of video-recorded forensic interviews;  Theoretically, videotaping will reduce the number of times witnesses are questioned.  Videotaping encourages investigators to use proper techniques and allows them to review their performance. Consequently, the videotape can also be used as proof that no suggestive or leading questions were used to elicit the allegations.  The videotapes are a compelling tool for the prosecution, because they preserve evidence of emotional reactions, spontaneous corrections and additions.  Recantations may be discouraged by video recordings.  Videotapes can also be used to refresh children‟s memory before they must testify.  Videotapes can also be used in order to convince the non-offending parent that the abuse did indeed occur, or to elicit a confession from the perpetrator.  The videotape can be shown to an expert, to form an opinion.  Videotapes can also be used for supervision.  In court situations where hearsay is allowed, the videotaped interview of the child may be more persuasive to the court. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 179  A videotaped interview demonstrates the interviewer‟s willingness to allow the information used in arriving at an opinion to be reviewed by others.  It leaves the investigator with a complete record to draw conclusions from.  It may be used to persuade other professionals of the vulnerabilities or strengths of the case.  A videotape can be much more compelling in capturing and communicating the child‟s affect during the interview than an audiotape, notes, or a written report.  The videotape may also be used by the interviewer, to refresh the interviewer‟s recollection before testifying in court.  Disadvantages of video recordings The available literature on video recordings during child sexual abuse investigations also suggest that a number of disadvantages exist that need to be considered (Faller, 2007:62, Poole & Lamb, 1998:116, Vandervort, 2006:1359-1360) and mentions the following disadvantages of video-recorded forensic interviews:  During videotaping, the focus shifts to the skill of the investigator and allows the defence counsel to exaggerate the impact of investigator procedures or errors.  When video-taped interviews are presented in court, it can be misleading because greater weight is given to these statements than to other statements, and tapes effectively allow the alleged victim to testify twice.  Videotaping focuses attention on the inconsistencies in children‟s reports and other behaviours that reduce their credibility.  Tapes of poor quality may cast doubt on the integrity of the interview. More serious technical errors that result in destruction of evidence may lead to the dismissal of the charges.  The child can be subjected to attack because of minor inconsistencies in the interview.  Because disclosure is a gradual process, there might be inconsistencies among the different videotaped sessions.  The technique of the investigator may become the focus of attack with regard to how the questions were asked.  Poor quality of the tape may obscure the data.  The tapes may be contained by someone who does not have respect for confidentiality.  The recording of the data may make the child feel uncomfortable and prevent the child from disclosing. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 180  The child may behave in a challenging way, for example acting silly or indicating positive feelings for the accused person.  Behaviours and demonstrations that are out of range may not be captured, for instance information disclosed in the waiting room.  The existence of the video tape may result in the focus of the case becoming entirely on the interviewer‟s technique, with little regard for what the child may have disclosed.  It can happen that the investigator must spend hours on the witness stand to answer questions about the tape.  When a tape is presented in court, it may be less persuasive than the actual testimony of the child.  A child that may have been involved in video or film pornography may find being videotaped intimidating and traumatic (Wilson & Powell, 2001:39). When considering the literature on video recordings of children‟s interviews during cases of child sexual abuse, it is clear that there is no consensus among researchers as to whether or not it is best to record the interviews. Video and audiotape recordings of interviews with the sexually abused child are not admissible as evidence in South African courts, although it can be concrete proof that the child was not led in any way (Fouché, 2006:233). Vieth (1999:116) states that videotaping in itself will not help the court to determine whether the child‟s out of court statement is reliable and that it should be admitted as substantive evidence. If the court viewing the tape has not received training in linguistics, child development, memory and suggestibility, as well as the manner in which children reveal abuse, the court is watching the tape as a lay person. Hence it is clear that when the court expects forensic investigations to be video-recorded, both the court and the prosecution must have received specialised training in child linguistics, child development, memory and suggestibility and in the process of disclosure. The researcher is of the opinion that if the parties involved had not received specialised training in the mentioned categories, the testimony of the child can be interpreted wrongfully. Should the forensic investigators indeed decide on making use of video recordings, they must adhere to the following principles (Wilson & Powell, 2001:38);  The investigator must first consider whether the child is capable of being cross examined in the criminal court and would be considered competent to testify. If the answer is “no” to either of these questions, it will be unrealistic to submit a videotaped interview to the court.  The investigator must know how to use the equipment effectively. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 181  The investigator must ensure that the sound and picture quality is of a good standard.  The placement of the microphone must be considered carefully.  If recording the time and date is not a standard feature of the equipment, it may be useful to purchase a generator that inserts this into the picture.  Note-taking during the forensic investigation The taking of notes during the interview, immediately after the interview, or during and after the interview, is the minimum requirement for professionals that interview children about sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:59). However, written notes must be as close to verbatim as possible regarding interviewer prompts as well as the child‟s responses (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2007:59). Faller (2007:59) states that note-taking most probably remains the most widely employed documentation method for law enforcement and child protective services workers, as they work in a variety of settings. Clear, readable and thorough record of all data collected must be maintained (Koocher, 2009:97). When the forensic investigator decides to make use of notes during the forensic interview, it is imperative to document all aspects of the interview to the greatest extent possible. The problem, however, with notes is that investigators can never fully capture the child‟s facial expressions and demeanour during the interview (Vieth, 2009:213).  Record-keeping in the South African context It is clear from the available literature that documentation during the forensic investigation is of great importance. The researcher is of the opinion that before the forensic investigator must decide prior to the acceptance of a case, what manner of record keeping will be employed. Koocher (2009:94) states that the investigator must be able to answer the following question: “Have I collected, in a thorough manner, data necessary to explore all relevant and competing hypotheses applicable to the referral questions?” Regardless of the method of documentation employed by the forensic investigator, sufficient information must be gathered during the investigation process. The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator must keep record of all actions during the investigation process and that the forensic investigator‟s actions must be transparent. This can be assured by extensive and complete record-keeping. The researcher found in practice, that it is not always possible to make a video recording of assessments. Equipment used during the assessment process to record the sessions are very expensive and organizations do not always have the money to fund this. It also frequently happens that the forensic investigator must travel to different destinations to Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 182 conduct assessments, which will imply that the investigator will have to set up and test the equipment prior to each assessment, a process that can be very time consuming. With the recording of interviews, a huge opportunity is created for technical errors that will be difficult to explain in court. Although videotaped interviews is not admissible in the South African court system, the researcher is of the opinion that victims of child sexual abuse will derive great advantage of the taped interview if it can be accepted and the child does not have to testify to the abuse again. It can also assist the investigator with the writing of reports as it can contribute to accuracy. The investigator can focus more on the interview instead of consistently taking notes. The investigator can also refer back to the video recording during report writing to clarify certain aspects. Regardless of the method of documentation decided upon, it must be thorough, transparent and adhere to all ethical standards. The forensic investigator must also avail all raw data of the forensic investigation process to the court. 5.1.7 Step 7: Determining how many sessions are adequate The appropriate or optimal number of interviews, by a single interviewer, during cases of child sexual abuse, has been the subject of writing, guidelines and research. Researchers are concerned about the risks of either too few interviews to facilitate disclosure, or too many interviews that can result in a false allegation (Faller, 2007:51). Some researchers do not recommend multiple interviews (Connell, 2009:426), but most professionals in the field of child sexual abuse appreciate that a single interview may be inadequate (APSAC, 2012:9; Carnes et al., 2001:230; Cronch et al., 2006:202; Faller, Cordisco-Steele & Nelson- Gardell, 2010:572). La Rooy, Lamb and Pipe (2009:327) state that despite the universal preference for single forensic interviews, children are rarely questioned on abuse only once. A policy that limits the investigative or fact-finding process to a single interview is not recommended (APSAC, 2012:9). A single interview gives the child only one chance to disclose (Faller & Nelson-Gardell, 2010:649). Repeated non-leading interviews, tend to uncover new details (Hershkowitz & Terner, 2007:1131; La Rooy, Katz, Malloy & Lamb, 2008:353). There may be a number of reasons why an investigator may need to conduct more than one interview (Faller, 2007:51);  The professional may want to conduct more than one interview before a decision can be made whether or not the child was sexually abused (Hershkowitz, Orbach, Lamb, Sternberg & Horowitz, 2006:754). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 183  In cases where extensive abuse had occurred, professionals may need multiple interviews before concluding that they understand the full extent of the abuse (APSAC, 2012:9; Carnes et al., 2001:236)  When the investigator had to stop the interview, because the child was too upset or did not cooperate (Faller, 2003:157; Hershkowitz et al., 2006:767).  In cases where the child‟s overall functioning and development needs to be evaluated. The number of interviews should be governed by the number necessary to elicit complete and accurate information from the child (APSAC, 2012:9). When considering the literature it becomes clear that there is no consensus on how many interviews must be allowed during the forensic investigation process. The researcher is supportive of other researchers‟ opinions that children must not be subjected to only single interviews. According to Carnes et al. (2001:236) it is a risk to interview a child only once. Children also tend to give new information that can be helpful during the investigation process, for instance information regarding the location of the abuse, detailed description of the abuse and severity of the abuse (La Rooy et al., 2010:384). However, researchers do not recommend that children be interviewed about sexual abuse cases by more than one investigator (APSAC, 2012:9; Cronch, et al., 2006:203; Herman, 2009:262). Because disclosure is a process (Allagia, 2004:1214; Faller, 2003:159; Faller et al., 2010:573; London, Bruck, Ceci & Shuman, 2005;196), some children might need more than one opportunity to disclose their sexual abuse encounter (Carnes et al., 2001:232; Faller, 2003:159). When children are in the phase of the disclosure process where they are ready to make a disclosure, one interview can be sufficient. In fact the majority of all interviewing protocols for sexually abused children are designed for children that are ready to make a disclosure (Carnes et al., 2001:230; Faller, 2003:109; Faller et al., 2010:573). It is also difficult for children to make a disclosure when the perpetrator is a family member, or someone the child had a significant relationship with (Pipe, Lamb, Orbach, Sternberg, Stewart, & Esplin, 2007:85). Therefore, the researcher is of the opinion that it is important to establish a positive trusting relationship with the child, before the child will be able to make a disclosure, but this will require more than one interview. The researcher supports the opinion of La Rooy et al. (2010:373) that a distinction needs to be drawn between repeated interviewing and repeated suggestive interviewing. Thus, the researcher came to the conclusion that the problem does not lie with multiple interviews, but rather with multiple interviews where investigators are making use of suggestive techniques. The researcher is of the opinion that multiple interviews can be employed in order to obtain Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 184 a child‟s statement, as long as the investigator does not apply suggestive techniques, or persuade the child to give answers to confirm the interviewer‟s own assumptions. In practice, the researcher also experienced that children are sometimes not comfortable to disclose sexual abuse during the first interview, or occasionally a second interview is necessary in order to clarify certain information. The researcher agrees with the statement that the benefits of repeated interviewing have not been translated into best-practice guidelines for forensic investigators and that it can be extremely beneficial (La Rooy et al., 2010:377). The researcher experienced that it is impossible to determine beforehand how many sessions will be adequate, as the investigator must be guided by the child and his unique circumstances. However, the researcher would advise forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about multiple interviews and the potential advantages thereof. 5.1.8 Step 8: Be familiar with the acceptable questioning strategies during the interviewing process  Questioning during the interview There is consensus among professionals that as much information as possible must be elicited by using open-ended questions. Despite these recommendations, many investigators frequently pose focused or even leading questions and they seldom make use of open-ended questions during their forensic investigations (Orbach et al., 2000:734). Leading questions can cause children to falsely affirm the interviewer‟s allegations (Faller et al., 2010:576). Investigators must avoid asking forced questions or questions to which the child only has the option to answer yes or no. The investigator must ask open-ended questions, non- leading questions and must allow the child to respond freely. Investigators must also not repeat questions the child has already answered. However, the researcher has experienced that a question sometimes needs to be repeated in order to clarify certain aspects, but then the investigator must explain to the child why the question is repeated (Buck, London & Wright, 2011:154). When considering the information from these researchers, it is clear that the type of questions asked by the investigator can have a significant influence on the information the child provides, as well as the validity of the information. Therefore investigators are advised to be self-conscious about the type of questions they employ. It is advised that they employ more open-ended questions before resorting to more closed- ended questions and they must realise that the answers of more closed-ended questions may be less accurate (Faller, 2007:92). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 185 Faller (2007:93-94) designed a continuum of questions that can be used when interviewing children about sexual abuse. It progresses from open-ended questions where there is more confidence in the child‟s response, to close ended questions where there is less confidence in the child‟s response. It must be noted that there are differences of opinion about what questions are optimal and what questions are less than optimal. Because of this lack of consensus, researchers may use different terms for the same type of questions (Faller, 2007:92). The following is a summary designed by the researcher of the different categories of questions: Adapted from Faller (2003:111-112) and Faller (2007:93-94).  Most preferred questions General questions, open abuse-related questions and invitational questions resort under the category of most preferred questions (Faller, 2003:111; Faller, 2007:93). Faller (2003:114) states that characteristics of the child or the case must determine how the invitations will be phrased. There is also no consensus among professionals as to whether it must be in the form of a request or a command. The researcher is of the opinion that the investigator must make use of friendly commands, as some children may refuse the wanted response if they are given a choice.  Open-ended questions A general question is an open-ended inquiry about something (Faller, 2003:111; Faller, 2007:93) and requires a multiple-word response (Poole & Lamb, 1998:52; State of Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 186 Michigan, 2005:18). Open-ended questions are phrased in a manner to invite more detailed responses and do not lead or pressurise the child into giving a particular answer. Open- ended questions do not only result in more detailed responses, but the evidence gained by means of open-ended questions, are least likely to be challenged in court. Another advantage is that they give children control over what they want to divulge (Scottish Executive, 2003:30). Open-ended questions also encourage children to give elaborative and narrative responses and must explain and expand their answer (Perona, Bottoms & Sorenson, 2005:86; State of Michigan, 2005:18). However, researchers are also consistent about the fact that children may provide fewer details in response to open-ended questions than in a response to a series of specific questions (Poole & Lamb, 1998:52; De Voe & Faller, 2002:7). The researcher is of the opinion that the advantage of an open-ended question to give children control over what they want to divulge (Scottish Executive, 2003:30) can also be a disadvantage because if the child‟s attention is not focused on the topic of concern; the child can simply refrain from giving information on that due to a preference to rather avoid the topic of concern. When the child keeps avoiding the correct answering of open-ended questions, the investigator can use the concept of a funnel. This implies that the investigator begins with an open-ended question, but if it is not productive, the focus can be narrowed down, and once the child has responded in the manner desired, the investigator must follow-up the child‟s response with open-ended questions (APSAC, 2012:11). An example would be that of the child giving information that the abuser had taken him to a dark room and after this response the investigator asks the child to tell everything about it.  Open abuse-related questions Also in the category of most preferred questions are open abuse-related and invitational questions. An open abuse-related question assumes there might be an incident (Faller, 2007:93), but the child is still required to give an own account of what happened. According to the researcher, this is also an open-ended question and will therefore not be discussed in detail.  Invitational questions An invitational question invites the child to give a free narrative (Faller, 2007:93). The researcher is of the opinion that these types of questions must preferably be asked with Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 187 information that was previously disclosed by the child. According to the researcher this is also an open-ended question and will therefore not be discussed in detail. The following table is a summary of most preferred questions. The researcher summarised the types of questions that constitute most preferred questions and gave definitions as well as examples of these types of questions. TABLE 1: SUMMARY OF MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES QUESTION/PROBE TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE Open-ended question  Allow children to select which details they will report.  Responses usually require multiple-word responses.  Children are asked to expand.  Does not assume an event or experience.  Encourage children to give elaborate and narrative responses.  How are you doing?  How can I help you?  You said he hit you with a stick. “Tell me everything about it” Open abuse-related question  Assumes there might be an event or experience.  “I heard something may have happened to you. Tell me everything you can remember. Invitational question  Invites free recall and a narrative.  Can you tell me everything you remember?  Tell me everything you can remember from the beginning, to the middle, to the end. Adapted from Faller (2003:11), Faller (2007:93), Perona et al. (2005:86), Poole and Lamb (1998:52), Scottish Executive (3003:30), State of Michigan (2005:18).  Preferred questions Facilitative cues, Focused questions and Follow-up questions resort under preferred questions (Faller, 2003:111; Faller 2007:93). The researcher is of the opinion that when one Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 188 compares the term most preferred questions with preferred questions, it is clear that the available options in the category of most preferred questions must be exhausted before the investigator employs preferred questions.  Facilitative cues When an investigator makes use of facilitative cues during an interview, the investigator will use responses such as “Uh huh” and “okay”. The aim of these cues is to encourage the child to give a narrative account (Faller, 2003:111; Faller, 2007:93). Faller (2003:115) states that these probes can be useful as the child may interpret a nonresponsive investigator as uncaring and uninterested. The researcher is of the opinion that these probes can be employed during the interview, but only after the child has stopped talking and not while the child is giving his statement. Perona et al. (2008:89-90) confirm that children do not only respond to the verbal content of a question, but also to the way in which the question is asked. Therefore it is recommended that investigators monitor their personal style to avoid verbal and non-verbal cues that can possibly cause the child to become anxious, stressed or scared.  Focused questions The aim of a focused question is to focus the child‟s attention on a particular topic, place or person, but does not provide information about the subject (Faller, 2003:111; Faller, 2007:93). Although focused questions elicit a focused or narrative response, the question is still open-ended and still invites the child to give any answer. Focused questions can be used in cases where the investigator wants to focus the child‟s attention on a certain topic. An example will be when the investigator put the following question to the child: “When you lived in the flat, what happened?” (Anderson, Ellefson, Lashley, Lukas, Miller, Russel, Stauffer, & Weigman, 2010:231-232).  Follow-up questions/”Wh” questions Forensic investigators often have to follow-up a child‟s response and usually it is done by asking “wh” (who, what, where and why) questions. A Follow-up request is used in order to make a follow-up enquiry to gather details about an event the child had experienced (Faller, 2003:111). The investigator collects contextual and specific details about the child‟s experience (Faller, 2007:94). Wilson and Powell (2001:57) define questions that ask for precise information as specific questions. Saywitz et al. (2011:351) state that “wh” questions can either be general or specific. These questions are helpful in assisting the child when Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 189 he/she struggles with self-generating details. These types of questions are usually the least leading type of follow-up question to employ (Saywitz et al., 2011:351). “Wh” questions can be useful but care must be taken not to ask “why” questions, as these types of questions can imply blame or require a sophisticated understanding of the motivation or reasoning behind the outcome or behaviour (Scottish Executive, 2003:31). The researcher supports the statement that “why” questions must never be put to the child, as these imply guilt. An alternative for asking the child why he never told someone about the abuse is to ask the child “what happened” that he never told someone about the abuse or “what made” that he never told someone about the abuse. The following table is a summary of preferred questions that can be asked during an interview. The researcher summarised the types of questions that constitute preferred questions and gave definitions as well as examples of these types of questions. TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF PREFERRED QUESTIONS/PROBES QUESTION/PROBE TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE Facilitative cue  Interview gesture or utterance aimed at encouraging more narration.  Uh Huh.  Okay.  What happened next? Focused question  Follow-up inquiry to gather details about the experiences of the child.  A question that focuses the child‟s attention on a particular topic, place or person, but refrains from providing information about the subject.  Focus child‟s attention on a certain topic.  Focus on one aspect of the possible abuse.  Tell me about day care.  Can you tell me about your dad? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 190 Follow-up question / ”Wh” questions  One that focuses the child‟s attention on a particular topic, place, or person, but refrains from providing information about the subject.  Questions for clarification or a more specific account of the events  Do you remember where it happened?  What were you wearing?  Where did it happen? Adapted from Anderson et al. (2010:231-232), De Voe and Faller, 2002:17; Faller (2003:11), Faller (2007:93), Scottish Executive (2003:30).  Less preferred questions In the category of less preferred questions are multiple choice questions, Externally Derived questions, Direct questioning, Repeated questioning. Yes/No questions and Hypothetical questions (De Voe & Faller, 2002:17; Faller, 2003:111-112; Faller 2007:94). It emerged from the literature that some researchers refer to this category of questions as closed- ended questions. A closed-ended question focuses the child‟s attention on specific information that is required. Closed questions limit the child‟s range of answers (Scottish Executive, 2003:31; State of Michigan, 2005:18; Wilson & Powell, 2001:58). These questions place less weight on the child‟s verbal account of events and it is likely that they could lead to errors as they sometimes simply request a yes/no answer or the child can choose between various options provided by the investigator (Wilson & Powell, 2001:58). The responses coming from closed-ended questions are usually less accurate than those provided by open-ended questions (State of Michigan, 2005:18-19).  Multiple choice questions Multiple choice questions are regarded as a form of a closed-ended question as the child may compel a response. Saywitz et al. (2011:353) state that a multiple choice question is a kind of recognition question where the investigator gives the child a series of choices. Faller (2007:95) defines a multiple-choice question as a question that presents the child with a number of alternative responses to choose from. However a child that cannot process the alternative choices may choose any option (Faller, 2003:119). If investigators want to make Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 191 use of multiple-choice questions they must adhere to the following principles (Faller, 2003:119-120):  Investigators should only ask a multiple choice question after the child has failed to answer a focused or open-ended question and must then be followed with open-ended questions again.  The investigator must ensure that the correct answer is among the choices.  Multiple choice questions must be limited. Although this researcher is of the opinion that the right answer must be among the options, the State of Michigan (2005:19) states that the correct answer must be deleted from the options. The researcher is of the opinion that it may sometimes be necessary to pose a multiple choice question to a child. The researcher once assessed a child who kept on answering “at my house” when the investigator asked where the abuse happened. The investigator then gave the option of in the bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or somewhere else. The researcher is of the opinion that the investigator may sometimes not be aware of the correct choice and therefore it will not be a possibility to include or exclude it from the options. However, the investigator is of the opinion that the option of “anywhere else, or somewhere else” depending of the question, must always be included.  Externally derived questions Investigators will ask an externally derived question if they pose a question to a child if they had received information not disclosed by the child (Faller, 2003:111). The researcher is of the opinion that this will be less likely to happen when the investigator conducts allegation- blind interviews. However, if the child had stated certain information, for instance that he is in a particular school and a collateral source states otherwise during a collaborative interview, the researcher is of the opinion that the child can be questioned about it.  Direct questioning A direct question is a direct inquiry regarding abuse- or abuse-related details (Faller 2007:94). The same researcher states that it can also be a direct inquiry whether a person had committed a particular act (Faller, 2003:112). Direct questions are a more controversial type of questions as they have the potential of increasing inaccuracies (Malloy & Quas, 2009:273). Faller (2003:121) states that direct questions contain the identity of the perpetrator and the sexual act, for instance: “Did Peter lick your peepee with his tongue”? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 192 The researcher is of the opinion that if the child gave information that the perpetrator‟s mouth was involved, that this question can rather be rephrased to “what did Peter do with his mouth”?  Repeated questioning Faller (2003:122) states that investigators may be challenged in the legal arena for asking leading questions but there are legitimate reasons for asking leading questions. These reasons may include:  to check for consistency,  to obtain a response to a question the child has not yet answered,  to check for accuracy. Wood and Garven (2000:110) state that repeated questioning can lead to children changing their answers because they are under the impression that their answer is wrong. The investigator is of the opinion that children must be warned when ground rules are established that some questions will be repeated – not because the answer is wrong, but because the investigator wants to be sure of the facts.  Yes/no questions Saywitz et al. (2011:352-353) state that these type of questions may supply erroneous information. Although these questions are not highly leading, they can be problematic if a child has a response bias, in other words the tendency to answer yes or no to all questions. These questions can also be made more leading by changing it to a negative term question like when the child is asked: “Did he not tell you to get undressed?” Faller (2007:99) explains that these questions are less preferred because some children can answer “yes” all the time in order to please the interviewer. Powell and Snow (2009:61) confirm that some children may answer yes to questions as they are under the impression it is the answer the investigator wants from them. However, a yes/no question can sometimes be less suggestive than a “wh” question, for instance when the child is asked: “Was anyone else there?” as opposed to “who else was there?” that suggests that someone else must have been present (Faller, 2007:100).  Hypothetical questions According to De Voe and Faller (2002:17), this is a question posed in a conditional phase. An example of such a question can be: “What do you think would have happened if your Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 193 mother had arrived?” Critique against this type of questioning is that it is too complex for young children to answer. It also has the potential of eliciting fantasy responses. However, hypothetical questions can be used to test for indicators of advanced sexual knowledge. The researcher is of the opinion that these types of questions should be limited as children‟s thoughts are known to be concrete rather than hypothetical or abstract. The following table is a summary of less preferred questions. The researcher summarised the types of questions that constitute less preferred questions and gave definitions as well as examples of these types of questions. TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF LESS PREFERRED QUESTIONS QUESTION/PROBE TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE Multiple Choice Questions  The question presents the child with alternative responses to choose from.  Investigator gives the child a series of responses.  Offer the child several responses  Did it happen once or more than once?  Did it happen in the bathroom, the kitchen or any other place? Externally Derived Questions  A question relying on information on that which is not disclosed by the child.  Do you remember anything about a camera?  Did your father say anything about telling? Direct Questioning  Direct inquiry about abuse- or abuse-related incidents.  Direct inquiry about whether a person had committed a specific act etc.  Did your brother hurt your bum?  Did he hurt you with his hands? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 194 Repeated Questioning  Asking the same questions twice or more.  Did anything happen in the bathroom?  Did he do anything in the bathroom? Yes/No questions  May include possible offender act and possible sexual act.  Did he put his finger in your peepee? Hypothetical Questions  A question posed in the conditional tense.  How do you think it would feel if someone hit you? Adapted from De Voe and Faller (2002:17); Faller (2003:111-112), Faller (2007:94), Saywitz et al. (2011:353).  Least preferred questions The least preferred questions include leading questions, misleading questions and coercion. It is recommended that these types of questions be avoided at all times.  Leading questions It is recommended that leading questions not be used in a forensic interview and be avoided (Anderson et al., 2010:224). Leading questions contain information or may include assumptions that have not been stated by the child (Perona et al., 2008:87). Of all the types of questions, leading as well as suggestive questions are the most likely to obtain inaccurate answers (Wilson & Powell, 2001:59). Leading questions can be used in extreme circumstances to confirm previous information obtained from the child. In other words it can be used in recapitulating statements. It can also be used where children contradict themselves (Faller, 2003:123). The researcher is of the opinion that when investigators do make use of leading questions it must only be when they are concluding or want to confirm a previous statement of the child.  Misleading questions It is recommended that misleading questions not be used in a forensic interview and be avoided (Anderson et al., 2010:224). During a misleading question, the investigator will request the child to support or accept incorrect information (Faller, 2003:123). An example is when the investigator would lie and say: “You said the man drove a red car”, when the child did not say that. This can be used to assess children‟s suggestibility but when investigators do make use of it, it is recommended that they use non-abusive information Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 195 (Faller, 2003:124). Misleading questions can lead the child to incorrect responses (Scottish Executive, 2003:32). The researcher often experienced that during court cases, the defence attorney will make use of leading questions in order to discredit the child‟s testimony.  Coercive questions Coercion will take place during an interview when investigators employ rewards or threats to the child in order to obtain a disclosure (Anderson et al., 2010:239; De Voe & Faller, 2002:17). Coercion can take on the form of inappropriate inducements, such as positive activities, privileges, threats and materialistic rewards in order to obtain the child‟s cooperation or to elicit information from the child (Faller, 2003:124). Some investigators regard coercion during a forensic interview as rampant. Coercion is also aversive to the child and may lead to inaccurate responses. Coercion may include the following (Faller, 2007:103);  Admonishing the child with varying degrees of forcefulness to tell the truth.  The offering of tangible rewards for disclosing.  Repetitive questioning.  Threatening the child.  Setting limits such as that the child is not allowed to go to the bathroom until he/she tells the truth. Wood and Garven (2000:110) explain that tangible rewards such as food and stickers for children that disclosed can elicit false information. However, Faller (2003:124) is of the opinion that coercion may be used under certain circumstances during the interview. According to her, the investigator may tell the child that they can play again after the interview. The researcher is supportive of this statement, as it happens frequently that children want to do whatever they want during an interview and once the investigator explains to them what is expected of them, they are satisfied and cooperate. The researcher is also of the opinion that the investigator can give children a treat, but after the interview is terminated and regardless of whether or not the child had made a disclosure. The following table is a summary of least preferred questions that can be asked during an interview. The researcher summarised the types of questions that constitute least preferred questions and gave definitions as well as examples of these types of questions. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 196 TABLE 4: LEAST PREFERRED QUESTIONS QUESTION/PROBE TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE Leading Questions  The investigator makes a statement and asks the child to confirm it.  An answer suggested from the interviewer.  Emphasize a desired or expected response.  Imply an answer or assume facts that might be disputable.  Is it not true that he hurt you with his finger?  You were really screaming, were you not? Misleading Questions  A question that assumes an untrue fact, but the child is asked to confirm it.  So, the man wore a blue shirt (but was wearing a white shirt).  Show me where the man hurt your bum (but the child‟s bum was not hurt). Coercion  The use of inappropriate inducements to get the child‟s cooperation or information from the child.  If you tell me what the man did to you, we can go for ice cream. Adapted from Anderson et al. (2010:224), Faller, (2003:112), De Voe and Faller, (2000:17); Faller (2007:94), State of Michigan (2005:19). From the above literature, it is clear that there are questions that can elicit more accurate information from children than others. The investigator is of the opinion that investigators must always start with an open-ended question. If the wished response was not obtained from the child, the investigator can employ the other types of questions, but there after an open-ended question must be posed again. 5.2 Phase 2: Aspects to consider during the pre-forensic assessment of the sexually abused child The following is a schematic outline of the steps to consider during phase 2. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 197 FIGURE 4: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 2 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS In the above paragraphs, the researcher discussed aspects of concern to be considered by the forensic investigator before the child is assessed. Here the researcher will focus on important aspects that need to be paid attention to by the forensic investigator during the assessment process of the sexually abused child. In this phase the forensic investigator will get to know the child, will gain a better understanding of the child‟s developmental stage, and build a trusting relationship with the child in order to obtain detailed disclosure regarding the sexual abuse. Some aspects might not form part of the sexual abuse itself, but can influence the way in which the child experiences the sexual abuse and report on it. As previously stated, the majority of all interviewing protocols for sexually abused children, are designed for those that are ready to make a disclosure (Carnes et al., 2001:230; Faller, 2003:109; Faller et al., 2010:573; Hershkowitz et al., 2006:754). Some children will never disclose information about their sexual abuse encounter during a formal interview, even though there is clear evidence of sexual abuse (Hershkowitz et al., 2006:754). It is also evident from the literature studied by the researcher regarding forensic interviewing protocols that the majority of protocols are only focussing on information regarding the issue of concern and therefore one session is sufficient. It was also evident during “Phase 1, Step 8: Determining how many sessions are adequate?” that one interview with the victim of sexual abuse is usually not sufficient during a forensic investigation (APSAC, 2012:9; Carnes et al., 2001:230; Cronch et al., 2006:202; Faller et al., 2010:572). It has also been suggested that more than one interview is often necessary due to young children‟s limited attention spans, possible discomfort they may feel in disclosing to a stranger, and the need to build rapport, elicit a disclosure and assess the consistency of the child‟s report (Cronch et al., 2006:202). Because of this, the researcher is of the opinion that when a forensic investigator consults with a child for the first time, it is not advisable to expect a full Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 198 disclosure of sexual abuse during that interview. This protocol will be designed in a way to also facilitate the child that is not yet ready to disclose. The researcher is also of the opinion that a pre-forensic assessment is of great importance, since it will assist the investigator to conduct developmentally sensitive investigations, to view the child holistically and to direct the forensic assessment. The researcher is also of the opinion that a pre-forensic assessment contributes to the investigator‟s objectivity and neutrality as he/she does not start immediately with a forensic assessment, assuming abuse had occurred. The importance of developmental aspects that need to be considered during the forensic investigation was discussed in article one. The researcher is of the opinion that before the forensic investigator starts to elicit abuse-specific information, investigators must familiarise themselves with the child‟s level of cognitive functioning. Fouché (2007:111) is also of the opinion that in order to determine children‟s ability to provide information on the events they had experienced, it is necessary for the investigator to have a basic understanding of the developmental milestones as well as the general characteristics of the applicable period. Considering this information, one can assume that it will also be necessary to evaluate the child‟s developmental level, especially the child‟s language and cognitive development, as this will have a significant influence on the way the child reports the sexual abuse. Berliner (2011:219) states that research indicates that families with children that have been sexually abused are thought to have certain characteristics of being less cohesive, more disorganised and generally more dysfunctional. Children that have been neglected, have a parent with a problem of alcohol abuse or a battered mother, have been reported to be at risk for child sexual abuse (Dong, Anda, Dube, Giles & Felitti, 2003:626; Dong, Anda, Felitti, Dube, Williamson, Thompson, Loo & Giles, 2004:772). When considering the literature and research of respected researchers, it becomes clear that apart from information on the sexual abuse encounter from the child, other information is also needed from the child, in order to gain a clear understanding of the sexual abuse and what could have contributed to it. The researcher experienced that the court relies heavily on this type of information to come to a fair decision. This additional information might also be needed to safeguard the child. The researcher calls this assessment the “pre- forensic” assessment, since the forensic assessment will follow thereupon. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 199 5.2.1 Step 1: Starting the interview The researcher is of the opinion that the interview with the child starts when the investigator meets with the child for the first time. Greenspan and Greenspan (2003:171) state that interviewing already starts in the waiting room and that the forensic investigator must observe the child in the presence of his or her parents in terms of their spatial relationship and the interaction between them. Wilson and Powell (2001:46) state that the investigator must start by greeting the child. Greenspan and Greenspan (2003:171) indicate that after the investigator has greeted the child, the investigator can ask the child to accompany him or her to the interviewing room. When the researcher conducted interviews, she usually granted the child an opportunity to first become familiar with the environment and then separated the child from the person accompanying him. Poole and Lamb (1998:122) state that it can distort an interview if the child is not granted the opportunity to glance at the interviewing room. When entering the interviewing room, it is a good idea for the investigators to state their names and roles once more. The researcher used to also afford the child the opportunity of introducing him during this phase. In cases where investigators make use of video recordings, the equipment must also be introduced and explained why it is used. Investigators can explain their role by telling the child that is being interviewed that it is their duty to make sure that children are safe, or to talk to children experiencing problems (Faller, 2007:70; Poole & Lamb, 1998:122; Wilson & Powell, 2001:46). 5.2.2 Step 2: Rapport building Rapport refers to the positive relationship that is important to develop between the investigator and the child. Rapport also implies that there is a strong element of trust between the investigator and the child. Investigators, who are overly sympathetic or concerned about the child, can destroy rapport (Wilson & Powell, 2001:47). Most of the available guidelines on how to interview sexually abused children mention that investigators must spend a reasonable amount of time on developing rapport with children (Saywitz et al., 2011:343; Vallano & Compo, 2011:965; Wood & Garven, 2000:110). However, there is limited research on what is the best way to establish rapport with children (Teoh & Lamb, 2010:154; Vallano & Compo, 2011:960). Rapport with children can be established in a variety of ways. An environment that is comfortable, a warm investigator demeanour, attentive listening, good facilitation skills, as well as developmentally sensitive questioning, contributes to building rapport with a child. Investigator demeanour combined with a child- Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 200 friendly environment can assist in communicating that it is a safe place for the child (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:106). While building rapport, the investigator must show interest in the child and must ask questions about the child‟s life in order to develop a relationship between them. These questions can include those concerning the child‟s school, friends or family (Faller, 2007:72). Asking these questions to the child, the researcher assumes that the investigator must listen to the answers. Wilson and Powell (2001:47) state that in order to listen, the investigator cannot do all the talking and in order to establish this situation, the researcher must ask open-ended questions. Researchers found that building rapport with open-ended questions produced more accurate information than utilizing direct questions (Faller, 2007:72; Irwin & Johnson, 2005:824; Roberts, Lamb & Sternberg, 2005:198; Saywitz et al., 2011:344; Vallona & Compo, 2011:961). The researcher is also of the opinion that by asking these questions, and instructing the child to tell everything from the beginning to the end, teaches the child how the investigator wants the questions answered during the entire interview. This is consistent with literature (Poole & Lamb, 1998:131). Investigators can use the following methods to build rapport with children (Scottish Executive, 2003:28);  Ask the children to identify their favourite topics or events, such as a television programme  Use open-ended questions to gather details: Who?, What?, Where?, When?, How?  Ask the children to describe their feelings, sounds, smells, tastes  Use open-ended prompts to encourage the children to keep talking: “Tell me more” Mart (2010:328) is of the opinion that some investigators have little experience in establishing rapport, or that they do not value the need to make children feel comfortable and safe. A lack of report can be observed by a number of behaviours that are presented by the child. These behavioural signs can vary from subtle to more obvious. Subtle signs can include a lack of eye contact, minimal verbal responses and a lack of smiling. Less subtle signs can include that is fidgeting, signs of anxiety, crying or expression of feelings of fear and apprehension. Some investigators do not realise that they may spend enough time on activities not directly related to the matter at hand (Mart, 2010:328). What investigators do not realise, is that rapport building serves several functions (Roberts et al., 2004:189-190):  Building rapport with children may help to alleviate anxiety and discomfort and therefore can lead to more complete reports of sexual abuse.  Building rapport with children can lead to more accurate information. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 201  Children‟s suggestibility will be reduced by someone appearing warm and approachable.  During rapport building, children‟s verbal skills, cognitive functioning and emotional state can be evaluated in a developmentally sensitive manner.  The rapport-building phase can be used to explain the purpose as well as the ground rules of the forensic interview. The researcher experienced that children are sometimes tense when they come for an interview to a strange person, especially if they do not know what is expected of them. Children are also often confused about the purpose of interviews or might be afraid that they are in trouble (New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:16). After ground rules have been established, children tend to be more relaxed. The researcher also determines the children‟s perception of why they had to come for the interview. Wilson and Powell (2001:49) support this habit of the researcher and are of the opinion that this can even lead to disclosure. Greenspan and Greenspan (2003:172), on the other hand, do not support this as they are of the opinion that it limits the potential range of responses the child might show. Many children were under the impression that they were going to play the whole time with lots of different toys and then the researcher had to correct them. Faller (2007:70) states that the investigator can explain the purpose of the interview to the child. The researcher used to tell children that the purpose of this interview is for the investigator to get to know the child and to determine whether something is perhaps making him unhappy. The investigator informed the child that although they will play sometimes, they are actually going to work hard through the interview. It is clear that the importance of rapport building can never be underestimated during a forensic interview. Rapport building grants the child the opportunity of relaxing and of building a trusting relationship with the forensic interviewer. It is also clear from the literature that the investigator must make use of open-ended questions to build rapport with the child. When the researcher conducted forensic interviews with children, she used to ask them open-ended questions about a neutral topic such as school, their friends, or hobbies they are interested in. The researcher is also of the opinion that the child‟s ability to give a free narrative can already be tested and enhanced during this phase. The researcher also experienced that the children feel valuable and important when questions are asked about their everyday life and when the investigator shows interest in their lives. Hence the investigator is of the opinion that rapport building plays a crucial role during the forensic interview. The researcher is also of the opinion that with every interview with the child, even Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 202 if a good relationship had been established during a previous occasion, time must be spent to establish rapport once again. Research done by the Scottish Executive (2003:28) supports this statement of the researcher by saying that even in cases where children are already familiar with the investigator through previous contact, time must be spend on fresh rapport building before commencing the interview. 5.2.3 Step 3: The Competency assessment The researcher is of the opinion that the competency assessment is an extension of the rapport-building phase. There are no uniform guidelines regarding the need for discussing truth and lies during a forensic interview and some protocols do not even cover this phase. (Poole & Lamb, 1998:124; State of Michigan, 2005:10). Mart (2010:332) states that some investigators often neglect this phase of an interview, but some investigators often assess children‟s understanding of differentiating between the truth and a lie (APSAC, 2012:17; Cronch et al., 2006:200; Faller, 2007:70). Connell (2009:460) is of the opinion that the truth and lie assessment may increase the likelihood of children telling the truth. Lyon (2011:69) states that the law distinguishes between two different types of child witness competency, namely basic competency and truth-lie competency. The truth-lie competency test is to determine the child‟s comprehension of the difference between truth and lies and the importance of telling the truth (Faller, 2007:70; Lyon, 2011:69; Wilson and Powell, 2001:14). The basic competency assessment is meant to determine the child‟s ability to perceive, remember and communicate. This can be demonstrated by eliciting the child‟s report on recent events (Faller, 2007:70; Lyon, 2011:69). Graffam-Walker (1999:97) also defines the basic competency as the ability to observe, remember and to communicate but adds that the child must also possess a consciousness of the duty to speak the truth. Here the investigator can ask the children to tell the investigator about their last birthday they can remember, or to tell them about their school or family. FIGURE 5: ASPECTS OF THE COMPETENCY ASSESSMENT Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 203 Asking the child directly what it means to tell the truth or a lie is an abstract question and therefore it is not advisable to ask a child a question to this effect, since they often encounter problems understanding abstract terms. It is better to make use of concrete examples to test the child‟s ability to distinguish between the truth and a lie (Poole & Lamb, 1998:46; State of Michigan, 2005:11). The following is an example of how this ability can be tested. The investigator can present a pen to the child and ask the child to identify the object in the interviewer‟s hand. After identifying the object the investigator can tell the child: “If someone says this is a pen, is that person telling the truth or a lie?” If the child states it is a pen, the investigator acknowledges this. The investigator can take a next object and can ask the child to identify the object, for instance a book. Once the child has responded by saying it is a book, the investigator can ask the child: “If someone says this is a scissor, is that person telling the truth or a lie?” It is recommended that this concept be tested in this manner, rather than asking them directly to define the terms “truth” and “lie” (Poole & Lamb, 1998:46; State of Michigan, 2005:11). It is also advised that children give a verbal statement that they will only tell the truth (State of Michigan, 2005:11; Talwar, Bala & Lindsayl, 2002:409; Wilson & Powell, 2001:15). Testing children‟s truth-lie competency does not predict total honesty, but eliciting the child‟s promise to tell the truth, does increase honesty (Lyon, 2011:69). Studies have indicated that it is also important to include questions regarding the moral implications of telling lies (Cronch et al., 2006:200). This can be determined by asking the child what will happen if someone tells a lie. The researcher found in practice that it is best to rather say “if someone”, as it might be intimidating for children to say that the investigator is lying. This is consistent with other researchers‟ findings (Lyon, Saywitz, Kaplan & Dorado, 2001:90) By “true account”, it is expected from the child to report what they believe had happened. Investigators must emphasise that they want the child to report what the child saw with their own eyes, heard with their own ears, smelled with their own noses and tasted with their own mouths. Investigators can inform the child to do the following (Scottish Executive, 2003:26):  Investigator must inform children that they want to be told what really happened, even if it differs from what they told someone else.  They must not pretend that something happened.  They must not guess about something (State of Michigan, 2005:19).  They must not tell what someone else told them to say. Taking this into consideration, it explains why the investigator may not make use of fantasy or pretend techniques during a forensic investigation and must concentrate only on facts Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 204 (APSAC, 2012:4; Faller, 2007:6; Poole & Lamb, 1998:108; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114). The researcher used to demonstrate the fact that children must not guess what happened in the following way. The researcher explained to children that they must not guess and would then ask them if they know what the researcher‟s dog‟s name is. If they say they do not know, the researcher will acknowledge it and thank them for not guessing. If they guess, the researcher would explain to them again that they must not guess. Investigators must also understand that it is not a guarantee that if children can distinguish between truth and lies, that they will only be telling the truth. Researchers have also found that children who pass this test are not more accurate of less suggestible than their peers that had failed this test (Connell, 2009:461; Faller, 2007:71; Poole & Lamb, 1998:46). It emerged from the literature that no consensus exists among researchers as to whether it is necessary to assess the child‟s ability to distinguish between a truth and a lie. However, the researcher supports the statements of those researchers that are of the opinion that it is important to determine this ability – it is important for children to realise the seriousness of the assessment process and that if they are lying, it can have a negative influence on someone else‟s life. Although the APSAC guidelines state that the competency assessment may be conducted at the end of the interview (APSAC, 2012:17) the researcher disagrees with this statement, as she is of the opinion that the child must realise from the onset of the interview, the seriousness thereof. 5.2.4 Step 4: Establishment of ground rules The researcher is of the opinion that the ground rules arise from the competency assessment and similar to the competency assessment, it also forms part of the rapport- building phase. Most protocols provide children with rules for the interview to enhance their knowledge of what is required of them (Faller, 2007:74). During the ground rules phase, the investigator motivates the child to answer accurately with a series of brief, simple instructions (State of Michigan, 2005:10). Ground rules, also known as interview instructions, must be introduced at the beginning of the interview. This will help to orientate the child to the unique expectations of a forensic interview and will also explain permissible responses. When ground rules are properly presented, they can reduce the inclination to guess, increase the willingness to ask for clarification and increase the resistance to suggestion (APSAC, 2012:16; Teoh & Lamb, 2010:153). It is also advised that when the child performs well with this, that it be acknowledged in a positive manner (APSAC, 2012:16). The following important ground rules need to be introduced during the forensic Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 205 interview and was adapted from the indications of the following researchers that had agreed that the following ground rules need to be applied (APSAC, 2012:16; Faller, 2007:74; Orbach et al., 2000:738; Poole & Lamb, 2001:126-130; Roberts et al., 2004:192; Saywitz et al., 2011:348-349; Scottish Executive, 2003:53; State of Michigan, 2005:11; Teoh & Lamb, 2010:157; Walker, 2002:168-169; Wilson & Powell, 2001:35-36):  Permit children to say they do not know The investigator must stress to the child that the investigator does not know what has happened. The researcher found that children occasionally are reluctant to tell adults that they do not know, especially if the adult is a stranger to them. In practice, the researcher demonstrates this in the same way as discussed in the previous step, where the researcher would ask the child to tell the interviewer‟s dog‟s name. Then the researcher explains to them that it is okay if they do not know an answer, as long as they do not guess, but rather inform the researcher that they do not know the answer.  The investigator must explain to the child that the investigator was not present during the abuse The more the child can tell the investigator about what happened, the better. Children must tell the investigator everything they can remember, even if they think it is unimportant. Children do not know the level of detail that is required. Therefore it may be useful to state to them explicitly that anything they remember can be useful. The researcher once interviewed a child that was reluctant to give information about sexual abuse. When she explored this, the child stated that the investigator already knew, seeing that the researcher had “seen” what had happened. The researcher then explained that she knew nothing about the abuse except what the child had told her. Once the child understood more detailed information followed. Children must also be informed that even if they think the investigator already knows something, they must still tell them anyway. Children often do not like to repeat information they think the investigator already knows. For the most accurate report from the child, investigators must avoid indicating that they know what had happened (Buck et al., 2011:154). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 206  The investigator must inform children that they must tell the investigator if there is something they do not understand Children might occasionally say they do not know the answer, while they actually do not understand the question. The researcher once asked a child a question to which she answered that she did not know. The researcher realized that the child must know the answer, but suspected that the child did not understand the question. The researcher rephrased the question and the child was able to give a clear answer to the question.  The child must be informed that it is acceptable for them to not remember, or to not remember everything The child must be informed that it is in order if they cannot remember everything and that they only have to tell what they remember. It often happens that children are able to remember only a part of what had happened.  The investigator must promise the child that they will not get angry or upset about anything the child tells them Investigators must inform children explicitly about that they will not get angry or upset about anything the child tells them, because if they are not aware of this it may prevent them from disclosing. This is applicable especially to sexual abuse-related matters. The researcher once interviewed a sexually abused child that gave her explicit sexual information but not to the police‟s investigating officer who had also interviewed her. When the researcher explored this fact, the child answered that she was afraid they would reprimand her for knowing this information.  The children must be informed that it is acceptable to use the words they want to use and are familiar with Children need to know that they are allowed to use sexually explicit language during the forensic interview. The investigator frequently assessed children who were too shy to use sexually explicit language, because they were afraid of getting into trouble. The researcher informs children that in the interview room they can tell the investigator anything by making use of any language, even if they were told by someone that it is not acceptable. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 207  The child must be informed that the interview is only about things that really happened Investigators must avoid telling children to pretend that something has happened or must imagine certain things (Lamb, Malloy & La Rooy, 2011:36). The investigator can also explain this to the child during the competency assessment. The researcher always informs children that they must only talk about things that really happened and not what they think happened or what someone told them had happened. The researcher once assessed a girl who gave information about being sexually abused by her father while she was asleep. She explained to the researcher that she is aware that it happened because her mother told her that it had taken place.  If questions are repeated, it does not mean the answer was wrong It is important to explain to children that the investigator will ask many questions and that the investigator is going to repeat some questions – not because the answer was wrong, but because the investigator wants to make sure of the right answer. Wood and Garven (2000:110) state that the repetition of the same question in ways suggesting that the original answer was wrong can cause children to change their original answer, even though it was the right answer.  If the investigator makes a mistake, or says something that is not true, the child must correct the interviewer The investigator must explain to children that if the investigator makes a mistake, it is the child‟s duty to correct the interviewer. The researcher explained this in practice with a practical example. The researcher explained this principle to the children and would then deliberately make an obvious mistake such as giving the child the wrong surname. If the child corrected her, she would acknowledge it in a positive manner. The researcher added the following ground rules when interviewing children:  Inform the investigator about the need to go to the bathroom The researcher always explains to children that if they have the need to go to the bathroom, they must inform the investigator in this regard. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 208  The child can inform the investigator if they are tired, hungry of thirsty The researcher informed children that if they are tired, hungry or thirsty, they could inform the investigator in this regard. The researcher always brought a snack for the child and something to drink. However, the researcher only gave it to the child if they explicitly informed the researcher that they were hungry of thirsty, or after termination of the interview, so that the child could not interpret it as coercion.  Note-taking The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must inform children that they will be taking notes. The investigator must also inform the child that the purpose of the note- taking is to make sure that the investigator remembers everything that has been said during the interview. The researcher is of the opinion that it is of great importance to establish and follow these ground rules. The establishment of ground rules can contribute to the success of the interview. It is important that ground rules must be flexible, and investigators can remind children of the ground rules at any point during the interview. The order of these phases vary somewhat from interview to interview depending on children‟s initial comments and their ages (State of Michigan, 2005:9), but the researcher is of the opinion that it must be established after the formal rapport-building phase, and that it also forms part of the rapport- building phase. 5.2.5 Step 5: The developmental assessment Fouché (2007:111) points out that in order to determine children‟s ability to provide information about the events they have experienced, it is necessary for the investigator to have a basic understanding of the developmental milestones, as well as the general characteristics, of the specific period. Prinsloo, Vorster and Sibaya (1996:32) contend that children‟s experience and behaviour always depend on a specific level of physical, emotional, cognitive, normative and social development. It is also important to note that no two children are alike, not even two children of the same chronological age (Perona et al., 2005:84). Children‟s cognitive abilities as well as developmental and trauma histories play an important role during the investigation process (La Raque et al., 2006:1142). The investigator must assess the child‟s developmental skills such as language, reasoning and any apparent developmental delays (Mart, 2010:330; New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:17). Some interview structures make provision for including an Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 209 assessment of the child‟s developmental levels (Faller, 2007:73). Unfortunately, this part of the interview is often either neglected or incompletely assessed (Mart, 2010:330). Investigators must assess children‟s developmental levels formally or informally (Poole & Lamb, 1998:131; Saywitz & Comparo, 1998:2) before the onset of the questioning phase. This procedure can facilitate realistic expectations about the type of information as well as the level of detail the child will be able to present. The interviewing pace and structure can also be matched to the child‟s ability to cope with stress, and the child‟s answers can be interpreted from a developmental framework (Saywitz & Comparo, 1998:2). Investigators must use developmentally appropriate language while interviewing children about sexual abuse matters. Children‟s developmental levels will determine the necessary manner of questioning and the type of information the investigator can expect to obtain (Perona et al., 2005:84). Investigators must determine the child‟s level of communication and the extent of the child‟s vocabulary and then tailor their verbal communication to that of the child. The interviewer‟s questions must also contain as many words as the child‟s responses (Faller, 2007:73). The researcher is of the opinion that the investigator must be knowledgeable about children‟s language development in order to understand the child‟s responses, know the limitations of the child and ask developmentally sensitive questions. The researcher is also of the opinion that as far as possible, children must be interviewed in their home language, regardless of whether or not they are fluent in another language. Some investigators determine whether the child understands concepts of prepositions and prepositional phrases such as inside, on top, behind and under (Faller, 2007:73). This can be determined, for instance, by asking the child to put a pencil on top of the table, or inside a glass. The researcher is of the opinion that it is important to determine the child‟s concepts of prepositions, as sexual abuse statements often contain issues regarding prepositional concepts. However, knowledge of prepositional concepts may not translate into knowledge of sexual activities (Faller, 2007:73). The investigator must determine the child‟s perception of numbers, time and position (Mart, 2010:330). However, the researcher is also of the opinion that children‟s ability to distinguish between different colours are important, as this ability often plays a significant role during sexual abuse investigations. The researcher once assessed a child that described the colour of semen as yellow. When the researcher assessed her ability to distinguish between different colours it appeared that she was not able to name a single colour correctly, although she was five years of age. During the developmental assessment the researcher realised that the child was also experiencing problems in other Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 210 developmental areas. In cases such as this and depending on what the problem entails, the researcher is of the opinion that the child must then be referred to a specialist in order to address the problem. In this case, the child was referred to an educational psychologist that assessed the child‟s developmental abilities properly. This psychologist found that the child was cognitively functioning on the level of a three-year-old child. The researcher‟s recommendation was that although the child‟s chronological age is five years of age, her cognitive age is that of a three-year-old; therefore she had to be assessed as if she was three years of age. The researcher found that assessing the child‟s developmental functioning can be done during the entire course of the assessment process. This can be done especially when children‟s concentration starts to decline, or when they are getting tired. This can also be employed when they were traumatized or got upset by the information they had provided. The researcher found that the children enjoy doing this throughout the assessment process. According to the researcher, the developmental assessment also contributes to building rapport with the child. 5.2.6 Step 6: Obtaining baseline information from the child Berliner (2011:219) states that research indicates that families with children, who have been sexually abused, are thought to have certain characteristics of being less cohesive, more disorganised and generally more dysfunctional. Children that have been neglected, have a parent with a problem of alcohol abuse or a battered mother, have been reported to be at risk for child sexual abuse (Dong et al., 2003:626; Dong et al., 2004:772). Due to these facts, the researcher is of the opinion that it is important for the forensic investigator to also gain information from the child regarding family dynamics. The New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force (2003:17) states that baseline information can include information about the child‟s environment, capabilities, who live with the child in his house and who visits the family. This can be done by asking the child a series of open-ended questions about the person the investigator wants to inquire about. Wilson and Powell (2001:70) mention that the interviewer‟s ability to communicate with the child will depend on the interviewer‟s awareness of the child‟s family and cultural, intellectual or personal background. According to these researchers, the following information can be obtained from the child (Wilson & Powell, 2001:71): Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 211  Family background and parental relations Here the investigator can determine the child‟s attitude towards his or her caregivers. The family‟s reaction to the alleged offence can also be determined.  Siblings The influence of siblings on the child can also be established. Investigators may include the exploration of the children‟s self-understanding as well as their self-esteem, in session activities. The perceptions they have of others in their environment are also explored. Children may be asked to discuss people they like or dislike to be with and may be asked about favourite or least favourite things about these people. The alleged offender as well as the non-offender is discussed. Daily activities or routines are also discussed (Carnes et al., 2001:238). When considering this information, the researcher is of the opinion that it is important to assess the child‟s perception of his school, day care arrangements and friends during this phase. Considering the literature, the researcher is of the opinion that it is important to assess the child‟s functioning in the family as well as in other spheres of life, as it can indicate to the forensic investigator possible risk areas in the child‟s life. 5.2.7 Step 7: Identification of different body parts The investigator is of the opinion that it is important for the investigator to be aware of whether children can distinguish between different body parts. The investigator is also of the opinion that this must be determined during the pre-forensic part of the investigation, because it may be suggestive to determine the names of different body parts only during the forensic interview. Another reason why the investigator is of the opinion that body parts must be identified during the pre-forensic interview is that children can give information on inappropriate touching during this part of the interview involving certain body parts, without the investigator knowing that the child is actually referring to sexual body parts. The investigator also experienced that a large number of children will make a disclosure of sexual abuse when they identify different body parts, or the investigator can get an indication of sexually inappropriate information. Potgieter (2002:13) states that the majority of children will see this activity as just another challenge and will name the body parts in their own terms. A child that may have been sexually abused may, however, react in a different manner. Regardless of the child‟s age, the investigator must gather detail about Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 212 how the child refers to both male and female body parts (New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:20). Because the use of anatomic dolls has decreased, the use of anatomically detailed drawings increased to enable the child to identify body parts. However, little research has been conducted regarding its impact on the reliability of information elicited during the interview (APSAC, 2012:14). The RATAC forensic interviewing protocol makes use of anatomic diagrams, concerning both male and female, to facilitate the identification of anatomy and to establish a common language between the child and the interviewer. The child uses own words to identify body parts and there is no wrong or right answer. Moving from head to toe, the investigator can point out the different body parts and ask the child to name them. Children must be allowed to use their own words and investigators must not assume that children know different body parts (Anderson et al., 2010:276-277). Faller (2003:131) also makes use of anatomical drawings to identify different body parts. The State of Michigan‟s interviewing protocol for sexually abused children confirms that the investigator must use the same names the child uses for identifying different body parts (State of Michigan, 2005:270). Drawings are not the only method to use as dolls can also be used to determine the names the child uses for body parts. Regardless of the method the investigator follows, it must be neutral and non-suggestive. Drawings such as gingerbread drawings and stick figures can be used. The investigator is of the opinion that anatomically correct dolls should not be used, as this can be suggestive. Investigators must rather use baby dolls or teddy bears (New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:20). The researcher is of the opinion that it is important to know the names the child has for different body parts. The researcher experienced that children can have the same name for both sexes‟ genitals and in cases such as these the investigator must make sure to which gender the child is referring. According to the researcher it is important for the child to be able to identify front and back body parts and in a non-suggestive manner. The researcher is of the opinion that the investigator must start with general body parts first and end with them as well. Thus, non-sexual body parts must also be explored. The investigator must ask the same questions for all body parts, for instance how it makes the child feel etcetera, otherwise it can create a suggestion that the investigator wants the child to give certain information about the private parts. This is consistent with guidelines provided by the New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force (2003:20) that states that the child must identify body parts from head to toe and that private parts must not be emphasised, as this can be leading. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 213 The investigator is also of the opinion that whenever a child mentions alleged sexual abuse, the child must pinpoint the exact place on the body outline picture where the abuse had taken place and name the part. This must be done, regardless of whether the child had identified the body part prior to the disclosure. This is to ensure that there is no confusion regarding the body part involved in the sexual abuse. The researcher also experienced in practice that especially older children would refer to their genitals as their private parts during the body part identification, but once a trust relationship is established and rapport is well build, the child would use the terms they use at home, to indicate the body parts involved. The child will for instance refer to their “noenoe” instead of their private parts. Then this can be useful to give them the body outline again and ask them to identify their “noenoe”. 5.2.8 Step 8: Determining possible risk factors by means of various techniques The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator can employ any technique that they are trained to use in this phase in order to determine possible risks and threats in the child‟s life. However, if the forensic investigator employs a technique, it must be one that is scientifically validated and has survived empirical scrutiny in laboratory or field research. Techniques must also be legally defensible (Carstens, 2006:192; Poole & Lamb, 1998:108). The investigator did not discuss any techniques in this phase, as various professionals are trained in various techniques. This model can also be employed by other professionals than social workers, for instance psychologists. Each professional is trained to use various techniques and some techniques may only be used by specific professionals. For this reason, the researcher refrained from including any techniques in this phase. Children‟s ability to provide information that will satisfy an adult‟s expectations of a persuasive account of sexual victimization and their willingness to disclose it varies. Eliciting verbal statements and demonstrations from children in cases of alleged sexual abuse is an abiding concern for investigators as well as researchers in this field. Issues involve developmentally appropriate methods and techniques that will not potentially traumatise the child and that will hold up in court (Faller, Grabarek, Nelson-Gardell & Williams, 2011:238). Investigators must weigh the techniques they employ during forensic investigations against the following criteria (Vieth, 2009:189; Walker, 2002:154):  Whether the technique can be and has been tested.  Has the theory or technique been subjected to peer review and publication? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 214  Are the potential error rate and existence and maintenance of standards controlling the operation of a particular scientific technique known?  What is the “general acceptance” within a relevant scientific community? It is vital to remember that assessment in forensic contexts differs from assessment in therapeutic contexts in important ways that forensic practitioners strive to take into account when conducting forensic examinations. Forensic investigators must consider the strengths as well as limitations of employing traditional assessment procedures in forensic investigations. Forensic practitioners also strive to ensure the integrity and security of test materials and results. If validity of an assessment technique has not been established in the forensic context or setting in which it is going to be used, the forensic practitioner must strive to describe the strengths and limitations of any test results and explain the extrapolation of these data to the forensic context. Because of the differences between the forensic and the therapeutic contexts, forensic practitioners consider and seek to make known that some examination results may warrant substantially different interpretations when administered in forensic contexts. Forensic practitioners consider and seek to make known that forensic examination results can be affected by factors unique to, or differentially present in, forensic contexts, including response style, voluntariness of participation, as well as situational stress associated with involvement in forensic or legal matters (American Psychological Association, 2013:15). As previously mentioned, in this part of the interview, investigators can employ any technique they are comfortable with, as long as it meets the above-mentioned criteria. These techniques can include the following: “House and community plan, the egg technique, Family graphic and emotion cards, the Robot and the Timeline technique (Fouché, 2006:218-221). Techniques used by forensic investigators must be based on the following forensic interviewing principles (Fouché, 2006:218):  The investigator must not make use of leading or suggestive questioning.  Investigators must not make their own interpretations.  New topics and questioning must be introduced by means of open-ended questions.  The child‟s comprehension of instructions and new concepts must be clarified by contextualizing them within neutral topics.  Investigators must summarise at the end of each topic to verify that the child was understood correctly, before a new topic is introduced.  The investigator must ask whether there is anyone else that has not been mentioned. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 215 The investigator experienced that during this first interview with the child, children will often inform the investigator about possible threats in their lives or they will tentatively disclose sexual abuse, but are reluctant to talk about it during this phase. According to the interviewer, this can be attributed to the fact that the investigator as well as the interviewing environment is still strange to them. Usually in this phase, if children give information about alleged sexual abuse, the investigator facilitates and addresses it, but does not probe the child to give detailed information. The researcher rather utilized “phase 2” or the so-called “pre-forensic assessment” to focus on aspects of importance that can help to put the sexual abuse into context. In cases where there is a tentative disclosure, the investigator schedules a “forensic interview” to address the sexual abuse matter in detail. This phase will be discussed in detail later on. 5.2.9 Step 9: Closing the interview The researcher is of the opinion that this is an important step in the interviewing process, regardless of the outcome of the interview. This is also consistent with available literature. In cases where the child did make a disclosure, the investigator can begin the closure phase of the interview by asking whether there is anything else the child would like to tell the interviewer. In fact this question can be asked regardless of a disclosure. The investigator must not thank the child for the disclosure of information, but can thank the child for coming to the interview. Investigators must guard against making any promises to the child (State of Michigan, 2005:20). During the closure phase, the investigator must give a summary of what was discussed during the interview (Wilson & Powell, 2001:67). Investigators can initiate closure by asking the child whether they wish to say anything else (Poole & Lamb, 1998:144). Wilson and Powell point out that the way the interview is closed is as important as any other part of the interview and should not be neglected (Wilson & Powell, 1998:66). Therefore investigators must always bear in mind that it is essential to end every interview properly with a closure phase. This is always relevant, even if the interview has had to be terminated prematurely or no disclosure has been made (Scottish Executive, 2003:34). Investigators must bear in mind that it is important for them to always conclude the interview on a positive note. This is usually done by shifting the discussion to a neutral topic. It is important for the child to regain composure and leave the interview room feeling as good as possible (APSAC, 2012:21; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:112; Poole & Lamb, 1998:145; Scottish Executive, 2003:35; State of Michigan, 2005:20). Different researchers have recommended a number of strategies for use during the closing phase of the interview Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 216 (APSAC, 2012:20; Faller, 2007:79-80; Poole & Lamb, 1998:144-145; State of Michigan, 2005:20; Wilson & Powell, 2001:67):  Recapitulating the child’s account using the child’s words Here the investigator can summarise the content of the interview by using the same words the child used.  Asking about other abuse Sometimes children are victims of other abuse as well. Here the investigator must ask the child whether someone else has also sexually abused the child, in cases where the child made a disclosure.  Switching to a neutral or positive topic It is important to change the topic to a neutral and positive topic before the child leaves.  Explaining what will happen next Information disclosed during the interview may have life-changing consequences. If possible, the investigator can inform the child about possible consequences.  Thanking the child The investigator can thank the child for coming to the interview, but not for the information disclosed.  Giving the child the interviewer’s contact information Investigators can give their contact details to children that are old enough to understand it. A contact name and telephone number can be provided.  Grand opportunity for the child to ask questions During this phase the investigator must grant the child the opportunity of asking questions in order for the child to clarify any misconceptions. The researcher agrees with the Scottish Executive (2003:35) that states that the investigator must never make the child feel like a failure or that they had disappointed the interviewer. The researcher is of the opinion that the closure phase can be changed in order Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 217 to adapt to the circumstances of the interview. For instance, if a child did not disclose any sexual abuse, there will be no questions asked about other abuse matters. The researcher is of the opinion that the importance of the closure phase should not be underestimated. The researcher is also of the opinion that the investigator must never make any promises to the child, especially promises contradictive to the professional‟s code of ethics. Such an example is when investigators promise the child that they will also keep the abuse a secret and will not report it to the necessary authorities, as the child requested them not to. The investigator should also not tell children that they will ensure that they do not suffer any negative consequences as a result of their disclosure. 5.3 Phase 3: Interviews with relevant role players The researcher is of the opinion that it is important to interview relevant role players in cases of sexual abuse – the information provided by the child during the interviews will determine all relevant role players. For instance, if the child had mentioned that she had disclosed the sexual abuse to her teacher, the investigator must schedule an interview with the relevant teacher. The researcher is of the opinion that in cases of child abuse, the child‟s parents as well as the offender must be interviewed. 5.3.1 Step 1: Interview with non-offending parents or alleged perpetrator The following is a schematic outline of the steps to consider during phase 3. FIGURE 6: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 3 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS Forensic interviews are likely to be the subject of a defence attack when the interview is the only evidence (Vieth, 2009:214). The comprehensive assessment model, which is the basis of the researchers interviewing protocol (see phase one, step 2), also involves interviews with others such as the non-offending parents, the alleged offender and others who may Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 218 have relevant information. Other relevant sources may include other children, stepparents, teachers and day care providers (Faller, 2003:145). These role players include individuals such as the alleged offender, non-offending parents, schools, medical practitioners and reports from other professionals. The researcher is of the opinion that this interview must be conducted after the initial interview with the child, in order for the researcher to remain objective. It is strongly recommended that forensic investigators act as objective and neutral fact finders (Saywitz, Esplin, Romanoff, 2007:222; Connell, 2009:439; Pence, 2011:327; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:78-79). Regardless of the outcome of the pre-forensic interview with the child, the first question the researcher always asks the parents or other primary care givers is: “What was the reason you brought the child for an interview?” If the parents of primary care givers state that there are allegations of possible sexual abuse, the researcher does not talk about these allegations at all. The researcher explains to parents or care takers the importance of objectivity and that the researcher needs to see the child a few more times to complete the investigation process. The nature and content of the abuse allegations are not addressed in any manner. However, if the child is in immediate danger, the investigator will employ measures to safeguard the child. Pence (2011:330-332) suggests that it is also important to interview the person that had reported the abuse. This researcher further states that interviews with witnesses are a normal part of the investigative process and states that the following persons are usually interviewed:  family members,  persons acquainted with the child and family,  neighbours,  other children and/or friends of the victim,  other professionals that know the child and family,  the non-offending parent. According to the researcher, the investigator can also avail him/herself of this opportunity to confirm certain information from the parent, or to compare the information the child provided during the assessment with that of the parent. The researcher is also of the opinion that the investigator can utilize this interview to determine the parents‟ involvement with the child. The researcher once assessed a child who pronounced the name of her school in a manner that the researcher could not understand and used this opportunity to clarify this information Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 219 with the parent. The following issues might be addressed during the collateral interview (Carnes et al., 2001:237; Hewitt, 2012:123; Poole and Lamb, 1998:114);  Child‟s name, age and relevant developmental or cultural considerations, for instance developmental delays.  Nature of allegations and circumstances surrounding the allegation. As previously explained, the investigator is of the opinion that when there are allegations of sexual abuse and the child had given information during the pre-forensic interview regarding possible sexual abuse, the nature and content of the abuse must only be discussed with the parents after the forensic interview had been conducted with the child.  The composition of the family or custody arrangements. This will include information regarding the child‟s siblings and who else lives with the family. In cases of divorce, the investigator must gain information on the custody arrangements.  The names of family members or other care takers. The investigator must obtain the names of people looking after the child as well as their names. The investigator assessed a child once who revealed that “Boetie” is touching him inappropriately. When the investigator consulted the parents about this, they informed the researcher that this was a person who looked after the child.  The schedules of the child‟s care taking and the environments where the child is taken care of, as well as the child‟s names for these places. It is important for the investigator to obtain information about who takes care of the child after school and where the child stays.  Medical treatment or medical conditions the child suffers from. This includes information concerning chronic diseases and any medication the child is taking.  Family habits or events that can be related to abuse allegations such as showering or bathing with the child. This can include information about who the child baths with or who baths the child  The content of recent sex education the child received. These days, children are educated about sex at a very early age. It is important for the investigator to determine the content and nature of this education.  Family names for body parts. This can include the names the family use for genitals as well as other body parts. A young child constantly referred to her “koenoe” and indicated that it was her bellybutton. The parents confirmed this information.  Possible motivation for making false allegations. This can happen in cases of divorce or perhaps when parents are in hostilities with neighbours or other family members. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 220  Possible risk factors. This can include drug or substance abuse, the attachment between the parents and the child etcetera. In practice, the researcher also interviews parents on the above-mentioned aspects. If there is no reason to be further involved in the investigation process, it can be terminated at this stage. If there is the possibility of sexual abuse, the researcher recommends that the investigator must move to the next phase, which is the forensic interview. The researcher supports the fact that the forensic investigator must be objective at all times. The researcher is of the opinion that one way of succeeding in this is by involving the alleged perpetrator at all times in the investigation process. All the opportunities that were granted to the non-offending parties to explain their case must be granted to the alleged perpetrator. Pence (2011:334) states that the interview with the suspect requires as much thought as the interview with a child or non-offending parent. Therefore the respondent posed a quantitative question to determine the number of respondents that involve the suspect during their investigation. Fouché (2006:235) states that there is no consensus on whether or not the alleged perpetrator must be interviewed by the forensic interviewer. In cases where the perpetrator has already been charged, the alleged perpetrator has the right to remain silent and may also have his lawyer present during the interview. Investigators must be able to substantiate their decisions in terms of their protocol. 5.3.2 Step 2: Interview with members of the multi-disciplinary team and investigating officer Guidelines provided by the APSAC (2012:7) recommends the active participation as part of a multi-disciplinary team and says whenever possible, the investigator should consult with other professionals involved with the child, or the child‟s family. Policy makers worldwide, promote interagency teamwork (Cross, Jones, Walsh, Simone & Kolke, 2007:1033; Connell, 2009:425; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:72; Vieth, 2009:214). According to Pence (2011:326), it is best practice to make use of a multi- disciplinary team when conducting investigations of child sexual abuse. The researcher always kept the investigating officer up to date with the latest aspects of the case, as the researcher received all referrals from the investigating officer from the South African Police Service and occasionally from the state prosecutor. Fouché (2006:235) confirms that corroborating interviews with the investigating officer or other professionals may be conducted. She also recommends that the investigator must summarise emerging themes and other issues to be discussed or clarified with other professionals involved in the case. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 221 When the literature mentioned above was consulted, it became evident that the investigating officer can also be consulted here. The members involved in the investigation process, will vary according to the dynamics of the case. After these interviews, phase three will be concluded. 5.4 Phase 4: Choosing a forensic interviewing protocol The following is a schematic outline of the steps to consider during phase 4. FIGURE 7: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 4 AND THE APPLICABLE STEPS When the previous phases have been concluded and the investigator has reason to believe that there is a possibility that the child has either been sexually abused or exposed to sexual abuse, the investigator must conduct a forensic interview. The forensic interview is conducted as part of a larger investigative process. The purpose of a forensic interview is to elicit information that is uniquely that of the child and this information can be used to further law enforcement as well as to protect the child (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100). Saywitz and Comparo (2009:114) state that the forensic investigator is considered a forensic fact finder that gathers information objectively. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must choose a forensic interview protocol that is suitable for them and is legally defensible in court. For this purpose, the researcher chose the “National Institute for Child Health and Development (NICHD) Investigative Model” (Lamb et al., 2008). Although the name contains the word “model” it is a forensic interview protocol. The National Institute for Child Health and Development Investigative Model (hereafter referred to as the NICHD) is the most extensively studied child forensic interview protocol and was developed by Michael Lamb and his colleagues (Saywitz, et al., 2011:340). The researcher is of the opinion that it is advisable for forensic investigators in the South African context, to utilize this protocol and the model will therefore be discussed in detail by the researcher. The NICHD model will also be utilised in the researcher‟s model as the basis for Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 222 conducting the forensic interview. By making use of this protocol, field researchers have examined the quality of children's memory reports in relation to factors such as age, rapport building, open-ended questioning, the use of drawings, as well as other interview-relevant factors. Based on thousands of NICHD Protocol interviews conducted in countries such as Israel, Lamb and his colleagues have worked on pinpointing interviewing techniques that will produce the best quality of information from children (Saywitz, et al., 2011:340). According to Orbach et al. (2000:734) as well as Lamb, Hershkowitz, Orbach and Esplin (2009:85), the NICHD is a flexible and structured protocol that incorporates a wide range of strategies, believed to enhance the retrieval of information from children. Herman (2009:261) states that although other interview guidelines and protocols exist, no other protocol or guideline has equal levels of empirical support as the NICHD protocol. This researcher is also of the opinion that the NICHD protocol is currently the golden standard for forensic interviewing in cases where sexual abuse is suspected and recommends that it should be adhered to in all cases of child sexual abuse. For purposes of this article, the phases of the NICHD model will be discussed below. It is the duty of forensic investigators to be familiar with current interview methods and the supporting literature (Tully, 2011:200). When forensic investigators use recommended interview procedures, they enhance the quality of information elicited form alleged victims of sexual abuse (Sternberg et al., 2001:1002). Structured protocols prevent defective interviewing and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi- structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (APSAC, 2012:10; Orbach et al., 2000:734; Saywitz et al., 2011:340;). Structured protocols are designed in such a manner that it includes different phases (Carnes et al., 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz, et al., 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). Some of the phases that form part of the NICHD forensic interview protocol have already been discussed as they also form part of the pre-forensic interview. During the applicable phase, investigators must adhere to the same principles as was previously discussed during the pre-forensic interview. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 223 5.4.1 Step 1: Conducting a forensic interview employing the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol 5.4.1.1 The pre-substantive part of the interview In this phase, investigators must adhere to the same principles as in “Phase 1, Step 5: Choosing an environment for the interview”. The researcher is of the opinion that each time the investigator interviews a child the investigator must ensure that the interviewing environment is conducive to interviewing children. In this phase, a supportive environment must be created. In order to provide this relaxed and supportive environment, investigators are requested to ensure that the room is free from distractions such as irrelevant people, toys and noises such as incoming phone calls. Rapport must also be built with the child early in the interview. It is believed that a supportive and distraction-free environment will make a child-witness feel more comfortable and thus more willing to disclose information, while their retrieval capabilities are also enhanced (Lamb et al., 2009:84-85). 5.4.1.2 Introductory Phase: Explaining the purpose and Ground rules The researcher is of the opinion that ground rules must be explained to the child during every single interview. Ground rules can be established the same way as in “Phase 2, Step 4: Establishment of ground rules”. Lamb et al. (2009:85) explain that the investigators introduce themselves, clarify their role as well as the child‟s role and explain ground rules and expectations. The role of the child is to describe events in detail and to tell the truth. Investigators explain to children that they are obliged to tell the truth and that they are unique sources of information because the investigators were not present when the alleged events happened. It is important to instruct the child to only talk about events that really happened and not events that they heard about or imagined. During this phase children are also encouraged to answer: “I do not know”, or “I do not remember”. In this phase, children are also informed that they can correct the interviewer, when the investigator makes mistakes. Clarification of rules of communication is believed to diminish confusion and inaccuracy. 5.4.1.3 Rapport-building phase According to the researcher, it is important to build rapport during every interview session with the child, even if rapport was established previously. Here investigators must adhere to the same principles as in “Phase 2, Step 2: Rapport building”. According to Lamb et al. (2009:87) the next phase in this protocol is the phase of rapport building with the child. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 224 These researchers explain that this rapport-building phase comprises two sections. The first section is designed to create a relaxed and supportive environment for children so that rapport can be established between the child and the interviewer. Primarily the investigator gets to know the child. During this phase the child is encouraged to talk openly about both positive and negative issues. They are also prompted to respond in detail to the gentle questioning asked by an attentive and interested interviewer. 5.4.1.4 Narrative training phase It is important that investigators make children aware of how much detail is expected of them. Investigators must train children to provide more spontaneous descriptive responses and to elaborate on their narratives about events they experienced. Before the interview takes place, the investigator is advised to identify a recent positive event the child experienced so that questions can be asked about that event (Lamb et al., 2009:88-89). These researchers explain that the interaction must be as follows: “I want to know more about you. A few days ago, you attended grade eight for the first time. Tell me everything that happened”. Sometimes this probing is sufficient and the child gives adequate information. In these cases, the investigator may proceed to the substantive phase. The investigator must inform the child to tell everything about the incident, both good and bad. Lamb et al. (2009:89) recommend that if a child gives a poor description of the event, the investigator must continue to prompt discussions of neutral experienced events. The investigator can prompt the child in the following way: “I really want to know about the things that happened to you. Tell me everything that happened on that day, from the time you woke up until you went to bed again”. 5.4.1.5 The Substantive part of the interview After the pre-substantive phase, the investigator attempts to shift the focus of the child to the substantive issues as non-suggestively as possible, in order to start the recollection phase. The investigator will use completely open prompts such as: “Now that I know you a little better, I want to talk about why you are here today”. When the child gives information that raises concern, the investigator will respond by prompting the child to tell him/her everything about that. If that is not the case, the investigator can respond by saying: “I understand that something may have happened to you. Tell me everything that happened from the beginning to the end”. Questions like: “Did someone do something to you that bothered you”, can also be asked (Lamb et al., 2009:89). Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 225 According to the researcher, the investigator can use the information that was gained during the pre-forensic interview to introduce the topic of sexual abuse. The investigator can use a prompt like: “last time we spoke, you told me that Uncle Joe did something to you, please tell me everything about that”. The researcher is of the opinion that it is important to use the same words the child used to describe the acts of sexual abuse. If the child, at this point, has not made any disclosure of possible sexual abuse yet, it is recommended that the investigator must consider terminating the interview and perhaps proceed at another occasion. 5.4.1.6 The free recall phase Lamb et al. (2009:93) explain that when an allegation of abuse is made, the free recall phase begins with the first substantive invitation of: “Tell me everything that happened from the beginning to the end as best as you can remember”. After that the investigator will make use of more open-ended prompts like: “Then what happened?” or “Tell me more about that”. These open-ended prompts are aimed at eliciting spontaneous recall accounts of the alleged abuse incidents. Investigators will continue to ask “Then what happened?”, until the child communicates that he/she has provided a complete version of the alleged abuse. Open-ended questions and prompts are exhausted to invite narrative information from children. Focused questions are only used at the end of the questioning phase to elicit essential information that might still be missing. It is then recommended that the investigator returns to open-ended questioning. Contextual cueing or references to events, actions, people, places or events that was mentioned by the child, are used throughout the interview as open-ended techniques to refocus children on material they have disclosed, before they have elaborated on that (Lamb et al., 2009:94). An example would be: “Tell me more about Uncle Steven” or “Tell me more about the day at the school”. 5.4.1.7 Where there may have been multiple incidents Lamb et al. (2009:94) recommends that forensic investigators elicit information form event- specific memories of incidents that are investigated instead of generic statements, especially when interviewing children that have been exposed to multiple incidents of abuse. Adults as well as children unfortunately tend to report features common to multiple incidents on the basis of common features to all abuse incidents, without elucidating distinctive features of the incidents. Therefore investigators need to communicate the need for information regarding specific events and must direct children to recount events that are Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 226 most accessible to their memories. Incidents such as the first or last time the abuse happened. Once children have completed their initial narrative, investigators try to determine whether the abuse had taken place on one or more occasions. Thereafter they proceed to secure information regarding a specific incident by communicating the need for accounts of specific incidents and directing children to recount the events that are most accessible to their memories (Lamb et al., 2009:95). 5.4.1.8 Follow-up questions Lamb et al. (2009:94) explain that when some important details of the alleged abuse are still missing or unclear after all the open-ended questions are exhausted, the investigator may need to ask direct questions. Open invitations must be linked to direct questions whenever appropriate. The child‟s attention must first be focused on the mentioned detail and then direct questions can follow: “You said you were at the school. Where exactly were you?”  Essential details regarding sexual abuse information This is not an actual phase in the NICHD protocol, but the researcher deemed it necessary to include this part, as it can play an important role in the investigation process. The researcher experienced that this is the type of information the court wants to hear from the child. Occasionally a child may not be able to say how many times an act had taken place, or what someone was wearing. They may, however, be able to tell what the experience felt like or what was said (Anderson et al., 2010:203). There are additional areas of information the investigator must also explore in order to be fully informed about the sexual abuse (Faller, 2003:136). Faller (2003:136) as well as Wilson and Powell (2001:56) compiled a list of questions that needs to be explored if the child indicates sexual abuse:  General areas of inquiry/ Information about the nature of the alleged abuse incident The investigator will gather general information about the sexual abuse from the child by asking the questions from the following categories:  The frequency and the duration of the abuse  How many times did it happen?  Did it happen once or more than once can be asked for young children.  How many times did it happen in a week or a month? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 227  Onset  When did the abuse start? It is important to use the same words the child uses to describe the abuse.  How old was the child when the abuse started for the first time?  What grade were you in, the first time it started?  Where were you living when the abuse started?  It may be useful to gather detail about the first time the abuse had taken place, because the last time is the most recent and the child will perhaps remember more detail concerning it.  Last abuse incident  When did the abuse happen for the last time? It is important that the investigator uses once again the same word the child uses to describe the abuse events.  The investigator must request the child to tell everything about the last incident that he/she can remember.  Another Salient time  The child must inform the investigator of another time it happened.  The child must be instructed to tell the investigator everything from the beginning, then the middle and then about the end.  First time  The child is requested to tell the investigator about the first abuse incident he/she can remember.  Children must be instructed to only tell what they can remember.  Contextual information Contextual information must be gathered about each abuse incident the child mentions.  Where did it happen?  Where was the child when it happened?  At what place did it happen?  What room did it happen in?  Where in the room did it happen?  The child can be requested to draw a picture of the location of the abuse. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 228  Where was the offender when it happened?  Who committed the abuse?  The location and an approximate date and time of the abuse.  Whereabouts of other people/ the location of other people during the abuse  Where were other people?  Was anyone else present during the abuse?  At what time of day did it happen? The child can be asked whether it happened before or after bedtime, supper, school etc.  Clothing  Does the child remember what he/she was wearing?  Were any of the offender‟s clothes taken off.?  Which clothes were taken off?  Inducements  Did the offender say anything to the child before the abuse?  How did the offender explain the abuse to the child?  Admonitions not to tell  Did the offender say anything about telling other people of the abuse?  What would happen if the child did tell someone of the abuse?  Substance use  Were there any drugs or alcohol involved?  Who drank or used them?  How did the person react after taking the substance?  Idiosyncratic events  Idiosyncratic events may include information from the child‟s perspective. This is for instance when a child says that when the perpetrator‟s penis was in his mouth, the perpetrator urinated in his mouth. The child does not have knowledge of ejaculation. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 229  Abuse-specific information Here the forensic investigator must gain abuse-specific information from the child. The investigator must enquire about the following aspects:  Body parts involved  What part of his/her body did the offender use?  What part of the child‟s body was involved?  Skin contact  Was the touching inside or outside the child‟s clothing?  Was there any touching on the child‟s bare skin?  Child and offender position  Can you explain to me your positions (e.g. sitting, standing, lying etc.)?  Sensorimotor details  What did the abuse feel like?  Can the child remember any smells?  What did the semen taste like (if this is applicable to the abuse situation)?  Could the child hear anything?  Was there any moving?  Penetration  Did anything penetrate the child?  Ejaculation  Did anything come out of a penis (use the child‟s name for penis)?  What was the colour or the semen?  What happened with the semen?  Force  Did the offender hurt the child?  Did the force leave any scars or bruises?  Where were the marks? Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 230  Anything the offender might have said to the child during the abuse, like threats, coercion or rewards.  Concluding questions These questions can be asked to complete the inquiry about sexual abuse.  Other sexual acts  Did the offender do anything else to the child?  Did anyone else do something similar to the child?  Whether the child is aware of any other victims and potential witnesses.  The existence and location of physical evidence such as photos, magazines and lubrication.  Other victims  Is the child aware whether the offender did the acts with any other children?  If the above statement is applicable, who was it?  The child must be requested to tell the investigator everything in that regard.  Disclosure information  How did people find out about the sexual abuse?  Did the child tell anyone about the sexual abuse?  Who did the child tell about the sexual abuse?  Who was the first person the child disclosed the abuse to, what was said and how that person reacted. It emerged from the literature that the above questions are important in order to establish the nature and extent of the sexual abuse. However, the questions as set out will not necessarily be asked in that form, but will be asked in a developmentally sensitive manner. The type of questions that will be asked during the interview will also be determined by the nature and extent of the abuse, as well as the information disclosed by the child. 5.4.1.9 Questions to avoid Interviewing techniques that are suggestive such as toys and props must be avoided. Yes and no questions must also be avoided (Lamb et al., 1998:96). Here investigators must adhere to guidelines as set out in Phase 1, Step 9: Be familiar with the acceptable questioning strategies during the interviewing process. The researcher experienced Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 231 that many forensic investigators use anatomical dolls during their investigations. Therefore the use of anatomical dolls will be discussed in detail. There are a number of challenges to the use of anatomical dolls (Faller, 2007:114) and much controversy over the use of these dolls, and the results regarding whether the dolls are a useful tool for conducting investigative interviews with sexually abused children are mixed (Hlavaka, Olinger & Lashley, 2010:521). Researchers also disagree on the value and function of anatomical dolls. However, existing research does not supports the assertion that anatomical dolls will cause non-abused children to state that they have been sexually abused (Faller, 2007:128). However, some pre-school children may insert their fingers in the anatomical dolls or present sexualized behaviour, and together with leading questions, this can lead to false reports (New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:32). Research also raises concerns about the reliability of the evidence gathered that was gathered with the use of anatomically-correct dolls, especially young children (Scottish Executive, 2003:37). Children must realise that the doll is an object itself and also a representation of the child (Hungerford, 2007:85; Poole & Lamb, 1998190; Scottish Executive, 2003:37; State of Michigan, 2005:22). Young children often struggle with these concepts. Therefore investigators must avoid using dolls with very young children (Poole & Lamb, 1998:190; Scottish Executive, 2003:37; State of Michigan, 2005:22). Investigators typically use anatomically detailed dolls in order to help children to recall the abuse information because they have limited cognitive and language abilities. They can also use the dolls to represent their experiences when they are unable to verbally articulate these experiences (Hungerford, 2007:77). Hlavaka, Olinger and Lashley (2010:540) confirm this statement and state that investigators use anatomical dolls to clarify children‟s statements and provide internal consistency and corroboration between children‟s verbal statements and doll demonstrations to help children distance themselves from their own bodies and to help children communicate with investigators when they cannot or will not fully disclose their experiences regarding the sexual abuse. Researchers have reached consensus that dolls must not be introduced to the child before the child has made a verbal disclosure about the sexual abuse (APSAC, 2012:23; Faller, 2007:129; Poole & Lamb, 1998:186). Researchers have set out the following guidelines for the use of anatomical dolls (APSAC, 2012:23; New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:32; Poole and Lamb, 1998:191); Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 232  The investigator must introduce the doll as something to help the child show the investigator what happened and it is not a toy to play with. Anatomical dolls should also not be used as a psychological test and to diagnose abuse (Poole & Lamb, 1998:186).  The dolls must only be used if they are needed to assist the child in communicating detail of the sexual abuse.  The dolls must be used in a developmentally appropriate manner.  The dolls must be presented fully clothed.  Once the child has finished demonstrating the abuse, the dolls must be put away.  The dolls must not be used together with leading, suggestive or direct questions. Only ask open-ended questions and do not assume what happened. The investigator must also not model sexual behaviour.  Reputable professionally produced dolls must be used.  Dolls with culturally appropriate features must be used, for instance similar skin tones, and hair colour.  The investigator must never identify the dolls as the child or the suspect.  Anatomical dolls must only be used by professionals trained to use them.  Do not use play language that may encourage any form of fantasy.  Nakedness must not be assumed.  The investigator must always follow up on demonstrations by using clarifying questions.  The investigator must accurately describe what the child said.  The investigator must be careful not to over interpret the child‟s behaviour with dolls in absence of clarifying questions. For instance, if a child does not look at the doll‟s breasts, the investigator must not assume it is because the offender did something to the child‟s breasts.  The investigator must be weary of the child describing the doll and not himself or the offender. It is clear from the research that only trained people can use anatomical dolls and that they must use it according to guidelines. The anatomical dolls can be used to assist the child in demonstrating to the investigator the abuse, but only after a disclosure has been made and the investigator needs to clarify certain aspects. If the anatomical dolls are properly used, they can be a valuable aid to use during interviews (Hlavaka et al., 2010:524). 5.4.1.10 Break After the asking of open-ended questions and before asking potentially contaminating questions, the investigator can give the child a short break. During this break, the Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 233 investigator must review the information and seek for any missing information. Focused questions must now be formulated in writing. After asking a direct question, the investigator must follow it up with an open question. Once these questions have been asked, the investigator can go back to topics not mentioned by the child. Focused questions may only be asked once the investigator has tried other approaches, but still feels that some important forensically information is missing. In cases of multiple incidents, the child‟s attention must be directed to the relevant incident. An example of a focused question, followed by an open question can be directed in the following manner: “When you told me about the time in the bathroom, you mentioned that he took off his shirt. Did he do something with your clothes? Tell me everything about that”. When children disclose multiple incidents of abuse, the investigator may elicit answers from the child in a variety of ways. First the investigator can request the child to tell about the first time it happened or to tell about a time it was different. Investigators can also ask children about any other incident they can recall (New York Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:24). Sometimes it might happen that a child does not mention wanted information to the interviewer. The child told something about the abuse to a friend, for example, but does not mention it to the interviewer. Then it might be necessary to ask potentially contaminating questions. In such cases the investigator can tell the child: “I heard that you spoke to Peter. Tell me what you talked about”. If the child gives any valuable information, the investigator can elicit additional information by prompting the child to tell everything about the conversation (Lamb et al., 1998:97-98). 5.4.1.11 Information concerning the disclosure If the child mentions something about telling someone else about the abuse, the researcher can ask the child to tell him/her everything about it. If the child did not mention disclosing the abuse to someone, the investigator can ask the child whether someone else knows. The investigator can also ask the child how other people knowing of the abuse found out about it. Open questions such as: “Tell me everything about it”. 5.4.1.12 Closure The questioning phase is completed by the investigator asking the child whether he/she has any additional information they would like to add. The child is then thanked for coming. It is important to gain the following information from the child:  Determine whether here is anything else the child thinks the investigator must know, Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 234  Is there anything else the child wants to add?  Are there any questions the child wants to ask? The investigator must assure the child that if he/she wants to talk to the investigator again, it would be possible. The child must then be provided with the interviewer‟s phone number. Hereafter the child and the investigator must talk for a few minutes about a positive and neutral topic (Lamb et al., 1998:100). The investigator must adhere to the same principles indicated in step 9 of phase 2. 5.5 Phase 5: Interview with parents/offender and other role players The following is a schematic outline of phase 5 FIGURE 8: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 5 In this phase the investigator must adhere to the same principles as set out in PHASE 3: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS. The same questions can be asked to relevant role players during this phase. In this phase the non-offending parties, the alleged offender as well as members of the multi-disciplinary team may be interviewed. The researcher is of the opinion that when the investigation process has progressed to this phase, it is most likely that a possible offender would have been identified. During phase 3 the researcher did not focus much on interviewing the offender - she regards the investigation process as the appropriate time for interviewing the offender. The interview of a suspect requires the same effort as the interview with a child or the non-offending party. Suspects in cases of child sexual abuse must also be granted the opportunity to explain their perception of what happened (Pence, 2011:334). Van Niekerk (2006:109-113) notes that it is important to pay attention to the following aspects, when interviewing the offender: Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 235  Information must be gathered regarding the sexual crime. Although it might not be appropriate to gather information about this aspect, early in the interview with the offender.  The offender‟s family history.  The present family structure and functioning of that family.  Past and present significant peer and adult relationships of the offender.  A detailed sexual history of the offender.  Previous physical or psychological therapy for physical and psychological conditions the offender may have suffered from.  Does the offender accept responsibility for the sexual offence?  Does the offender have empathy for the child victim?  An attitude of remorse towards the present situation?  Is the offender motivated to go for treatment?  The use of substances, including alcohol and the influence it has on the offender‟s behaviour.  The offender‟s impulse control.  The offender‟s criminal history.  The offender‟s school and work history. 5.6 Phase 6: Investigating multiple hypotheses and formulating an opinion The following is a schematic outline of phase 6 FIGURE 9: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 6 Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 236 The investigator must maintain a supportive but objective and hypotheses-testing stance throughout the interview (Anderson et al., 2010: 314; Bow et al., 2002:572; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Fouché, 2006:206; Herman, 2009:262; Scottish Executive, 2003:20). Investigators must generate alternative hypotheses about sources as well as meanings of allegations. Investigators must attempt to rule out alternative explanations for the abuse. Investigators must always bear in mind that forensic interviews are hypotheses testing rather than hypotheses confirming (State of Michigan, 2003:1). When the investigator considers a report of alleged maltreatment, the investigator must draw on experience to construct a working hypothesis about what might have happened (Connell, 2009:439; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:113; Pence, 2011:327; APSAC, 2012:4). The following hypotheses must be examined when investigating cases of child sexual abuse (Faller, 2003:172-176; Fouché, 2006:237):  The questioned case is a false allegation,  There is a suspicion of abuse, but it cannot be confirmed,  There is not sufficient evidence to draw a conclusion,  A correlation exists between the child‟s statement and behavioural indicators and those of other victims of child sexual abuse in this age group; hence sexual abuse is a possibility,  The child is providing a description of an actual experience of sexual abuse,  The child has misinterpreted a benign activity,  The statement of the child has been misinterpreted by adults,  Communication problems with the child,  The child has been coached by someone to make a false allegation of sexual abuse,  The child has obtained sexual knowledge from another source,  The child has been sexually abused, but is attributing the activity to the wrong offender,  The child is knowingly making a false allegation,  The child is fantasizing about something, although this is quite rare,  The child is seeking attention,  Exaggeration of actual abuse by the victim or adults,  The child or adults acknowledge sexual abuse, but minimizes it.  Routine health care was misinterpreted.  Vindictiveness.  The child tries to escape punishment for misbehaviour. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 237 Fouché (2006:237) states that when a forensic investigator formulates an opinion, the following options may be considered:  The questioned case is a false allegation,  There is insufficient evidence to come to a conclusion,  There is a correlation between the child‟s statement and behavioural indicators and those of other victims of child sexual abuse in this age group and therefore sexual abuse is a possibility. The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator may never state as a fact that a child was indeed sexually abused, unless the investigator was a witness of such abuse, as the forensic investigator will take over the role of the court when doing that. Fouché (2007:238) supports this statement of the researcher. The researcher is of the opinion that it is important to explore all alternative hypotheses before drawing any conclusions of possible sexual abuse. The researcher is also of the opinion that this contributes to objectivity and neutrality, which is one of the most important characteristics of a forensic investigator (Faller, 2007:6). 5.7 Phase 7: Report writing The following is a schematic outline of phase 7 FIGURE 10: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 7 A good court report does not paint a favourable picture of the client‟s case, but rather gives a full discussion of the facts at hand and the expert‟s analysis of the facts. The report must contain a clear conclusion as well as an opinion. All possible hypotheses must be considered and discussed in the report. After a report has been submitted and the investigator has had a change of mind, this should be communicated through legal representatives without any delay (Fouché, 2007:193). The researcher is of the opinion that the forensic investigator must include a paragraph in the report that states that the investigator came to the conclusion with the available information at hand and has the right Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 238 to a change of opinion should any new information comes to light. The researcher is also of the opinion that the forensic report must create a good impression and must be without spelling and typing errors. 5.8 Phase 8: Expert testimony in court The following is a schematic outline of phase 8 FIGURE 11: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 8 A distinction can be drawn between two types of witnesses, namely a lay witness and an expert witness. The lay witness has personal knowledge of relevant facts. An expert witness is a person with special knowledge that can assist the court in understanding technical, clinical or scientific issues (Myers & Stern, 2002:379-380). Black (179:519) defines an expert as “one who is knowledgeable in a specialised field, that knowledge being obtained from either education or personal experience. Evidence may take on the form of substantive/direct evidence or rehabilitative evidence. During substantive evidence, the expert will testify on issues that prove that the child was sexually abused. Rehabilitative evidence takes place when the expert restores a child witness‟s credibility after it has been attacked by the defence attorney (Carstens, 2006:189- 190; Myers & Stern, 2002:380). Expert testimony may usually take on one of the following forms (Myers & Stern, 2002:382):  An opinion,  An answer to a hypothetical question,  A lecture to provide background information on a pertinent subject.  A combination of the above. Before the expert goes to court to testify in a case of sexual abuse, the person must ask him-/herself the following questions: Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 239  When an opinion was formulated, did the expert consider all possible and relevant facts?  How much confidence can be placed in the facts that underlie the opinion of the expert?  Does the expert have an adequate understanding of pertinent clinical and scientific principles?  Have the principles on which the expert‟s understanding is based been tested?  Are the principles or theories the expert relies on, published in peer-reviewed journals?  Are the principles and theories the expert relies on, accepted as reliable by other experts in the field?  Were appropriate methods of assessment employed by the expert?  Can the expert draw defensible inferences and conclusions?  Is the expert reasonably objective? The researcher is of the opinion that expert testimony is the last phase in the investigation process. The researcher is convinced that all forensic investigators can expect to go to court to testify in their cases on hand, as the court is the client of the forensic investigator (Faller, 2007:5). 5.9 Phase 9: Closing the case The following is a schematic outline of phase 9 FIGURE 12: SCHEMATIC OUTLINE OF PHASE 9 The researcher is of the opinion that after a case has been closed, the forensic investigator no longer plays a role in the sexual abuse matter. The forensic investigator can refer the child for therapy if it is a request from the child or the care giver. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 240 6. DISCUSSION  The focus of this article was the development of a forensic assessment model for sexually abused children that will be acceptable in the South African context. Forensic investigations into child sexual abuse are a relatively new field in the South African context, with limited research in this field. There are also no recognised guidelines for professionals in this field. The researcher developed this model by means of a thorough literature study as well as the results obtained from professionals in the field of forensic investigations during the previous article. The researcher developed a forensic assessment model that is divided into different phases as researchers recommend that a phased approach must be followed during the investigation of child sexual abuse.  It became evident during this study that professionals conducting forensic investigations must possess a postgraduate qualification as well as experience in the field of child development and sexual abuse dynamics. The court is the client of the forensic investigator and one of the functions of the forensic investigator is to educate the court on sexual abuse matters in order for the court to make a fair decision. For this to take place, it is also important for the forensic investigator to make use of a scientific model that can be legally defended in court.  During this study it also became evident that there are no guidelines for forensic investigators in the South African context. Some forensic investigators even conduct forensic investigations without proper training or the necessary expertise. Hence the researcher recommends that all forensic investigators must receive specialised training in order to conduct forensic investigations. It is also important for relevant entities such as the South African Council for Social Service Professions to acknowledge the lack of guidelines in the field of forensic investigations and to establish relevant guidelines for professionals that conduct forensic investigations. These guidelines must also include specifications regarding essential qualifications, experience and expertise. Not only will these guidelines and properly trained professionals protect and guide the professional in terms of their responsibilities, capabilities and limitations, but also ensure effective service delivery to the court, children as victims as well as the offender who all have the right to a forensic investigation by a fully qualified forensic investigator.  As mentioned several times during this research, it is important for the forensic investigator to be objective and neutral at all times. To contribute to this objectivity, the researcher included phases in the model that grant the investigator the opportunity to consult with the non-offending parties, the offender as well as members of the multi- disciplinary team. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 241  The researcher included a pre-forensic phase in the model that will assist forensic investigators to gain information from the child that can assist the investigator in putting the information regarding the abuse in perspective. During this pre-forensic assessment the investigator focuses on the cognitive developmental level of the child as well as the child‟s emotional and social functioning in the different spheres of the child‟s life. The pre-forensic assessment also contributes to the objectivity of the forensic investigator as the researcher promotes that these assessments must be conducted allegation blind. In this way the forensic investigator does not assume that something had happened to the child. The pre-forensic assessment also guides the forensic investigator towards the decision of whether or not a forensic assessment is necessary.  During the phase of the forensic assessment, the researcher used the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol that was developed by Michael Lamb and his colleagues. The reason for this is that this is one of the most researched protocols. This protocol elicits the needed information from children, is based on science and therefore legally defensible. 7. SUMMARY Forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse in the South African context are a relatively new field with limited research. There are no standardised guidelines for forensic practitioners to follow. Therefore the researcher developed a forensic assessment model to assist forensic investigators during their investigation process. This model can be utilised by different professions involved in forensic investigations and not only social workers. The model will guide the professional from the decision to be made whether the referral can be accepted until the case is finalised. The following article provides an evaluation of the forensic assessment model. Article 3 ARTICLE 3: THE PROCESS OF A FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 242 8. REFERENCE LIST Allagia, R. 2004. Many ways of telling: expanding conceptualizations of child sexual abuse disclosure. Child abuse and neglect, 28(11):1213-1227. American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). 2012. Practice guidelines: forensic interviewing in cases of suspected child abuse. Oklahoma City, Okla.: APSAC. American Psychological Association. 2013. Speciality guidelines for forensic psychology. Washington, D.C.: APA. Anderson, J., Ellefson, J., Lashley, J., Lukas, A., Miller, S.O., Russel, A., Stauffer, J. & Weigman, J. 2010. 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Wood, J.M., Nathan, D., Nezworski, M.T. & Uhl, E. 2009. Child sexual abuse allegations: lessons learned from the McMartin and other daycare cases. (In Bottoms, B.L., Najdowski, C.J. & Goodman, G.S., eds. Children as victims, witnesses, and offenders: psychological science and the law. New York: Guilford Press. p. 81-101.) Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 252 Smith, S, Wessels, CC and Strydom, H. Smith, S is a PhD student, Wessels, CC is an associate professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division and Strydom, H a professor in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division, Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. KEY TERMS Evaluation, Forensic assessment model, sexually abused children, middle childhood, South African context. OPSOMMING Die navorser het ‘n forensiese assesseringsmodel ontwerp wat riglyne insluit wat professionele persone sal bystaan in forensiese ondersoeke, vandat hulle die aanmelding ontvang totdat die saak afgesluit word. In hierdie ondersoek is die ontwikkelde model deur ‘n paneel respondente wat betrokke is by ondersoeke van kinders wat seksueel misbruik is, geëvalueer. Die ontwikkelde forensiese assesseringsmodel is deur staatsaanklaers, deskundiges op die gebied van forensiese ondersoeke, sowel as nagraadse studente wat opleiding in forensiese pratkyk ontvang, geëvalueer. ARTICLE 4 THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFIRCAN CONTEXT Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 253 1. INTRODUCTION n the previous article, the researcher developed a forensic assessment model for professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. This model comprises different phases. This model has the purpose to assist professionals from the moment of receiving a case of child sexual abuse, until they are ready to close the case. This model can also serve as a guideline to assist forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse cases, since no such guidelines have as yet been developed for the South African context. In this article, a panel of respondents were approached to evaluate the developed forensic assessment model. The results, consisting of qualitative and quantitative data, will be discussed during the course of this article. 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT In South Africa, sexual abuse of children is a major problem as the number of sexual abuse cases is alarmingly high (Fouché & Joubert, 2003:12). A daily newspaper reports that 104 913 serious crimes against children were reported to the South African Police Service since 2010. Another 49 550 serious crimes against children were reported during 2012/2013 at the South African Police Services (Meiring, 2013:7). From early days, social workers have had the responsibility of acting as witnesses in court regarding cases of child sexual abuse and of drawing conclusions, reporting on findings and making recommendations in this regard. Many professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse experience uncertainty and insecurity during these investigations (Cussons & Strydom, 2013:60). Professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse need specialised knowledge in order to protect those children (Botha, 2010:3; Spies, 2006:44). Powell, Fischer and Hughes-Scholes (2008a:214) are of the opinion that forensic interviewing of children is a complex task that involves an array of skills as well as competencies. To ensure that the evidence obtained from a child witness is both accurate and admissible in court, investigative investigators require specialised training (Powell, Fischer & Hughes- Scholes, 2008b:1007). Spies and Carstens (2005:38) are of the opinion that social workers with a degree in social work, working with sexually abused children, do not qualify as experts and must therefore not attempt to give expert testimony in court. Cronch, Viljoen and Hansen (2006:195) agree with this statement and point out that in child sexual abuse cases, skilful forensic interviews are an important aspect in the investigation into such cases I Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 254 in order to ensure the protection of innocent individuals and the conviction of perpetrators. Unfortunately, the majority of professionals in South Africa that conduct assessments on sexually abused children and give testimony on it in court do so without the proper qualification or specialised expertise (Carstens, 2006:185; Kaliski, 2006:2). Several international guidelines exist concerning interviews with children. However, in South Africa there are no such guidelines (Fouché & Joubert, 2009:42). The researcher is supportive of this statement, as no such guidelines could be traced. The researcher is of the opinion that professionals in South Africa working in the field of child sexual abuse are facing a dilemma, since no guidelines in this regard exist. With this in mind, the researcher is of the opinion that professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse fail to protect and act in the best interest of both the alleged offender that might be innocent, and the child that might be sexually abused. This is in contrast with the constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) (28) (1) and the New Children‟s Act (38 of 2005) (36) (d) that states that a child‟s best interest is of paramount importance. Hence it is important for professionals to ensure that they always conduct investigations in a legally defensible way (Fouché & Joubert, 2009:43). Researchers reported a significant improvement in the quality of child witnesses‟ interviews once the investigators were trained (Powell et al., 2008a:214). Considering these aspects, as well as the fact that there are no guidelines for the professionals working in cases of child sexual abuse, the researcher developed a forensic assessment model that will assist forensic investigators from the moment of receiving a referral until closing the case. With reference to these statements, the researcher wishes to answer the following research question: How will South African professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse evaluate the developed forensic assessment model? 3. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the developed forensic assessment model by means of an empirical study with professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse. 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The methods used for this research were a literature study and an empirical investigation. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 255 4.1 Literature study Rubin and Babbie (2011:143) are of the opinion that one of the most important steps, not only in the problem formulation phase but also in the entire process of designing a study, is the review of literature. A search was conducted to trace the existing literature on factors influencing forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse. Attention was further given to forensic interviewing protocols as well as forensic models that can be employed during forensic investigations. The researcher also focussed on additional aspects forensic investigators must be knowledgeable about, in order to conduct a successful forensic investigation such as child development and the correct questioning strategies. The central focus of this study was to design a forensic assessment model for children in South Africa. Although the researcher focussed on children in middle childhood the model can be implemented with children of all ages. Bailey (2007:43) states that reading a wide range of literature facilitates the analysis process. In order to identify appropriate sources, the following databases were used: NEXUS; Scholarly journal; Social Science Index: Social Work Abstracts; ERIC; RSAT; EbscoHost; PsycLit; Questia online library; and Catalogue – Ferdinand Postma Library, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. 4.2 Research model A research design focuses on the end product and all the steps in the process to achieve the anticipated outcome (Fouché, Delport & De Vos, 2011:143). According to Gravetter and Forzano (2012:34), “selecting a research design involves making decisions about the specific methods and procedures that the researcher will use to conduct the research study”. In this article, the intervention model was used. De Vos and Strydom (2011:475) define the intervention research model as studies carried out with the aim of “conceiving, creating, and testing innovative human service approaches to prevent or ameliorate problems or to maintain the quality of live”. The D & D model, according to Rothman and Thomas (1994:12), can be conceptualised as a problem-solving process for seeking effective intervention and helping tools to deal with given human and social difficulties. Rothman and Thomas (1994:9) stipulate six phases of the D & D model. The first and second phases were conducted during this part of the study: Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis Phase 3: Design Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 256 Phase 4: Early development and testing Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development Phase 6: Dissemination This article focuses on phases 4, 5 and 6, the evaluation and advanced development and the dissemination of the newly developed forensic assessment model, as seen in Figure 1. FIGURE 1: PHASES 4, 5 AND 6 OF THE INTERVENTION RESEARCH MODEL Adapted from De Vos and Strydom (2011:476-483). Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 257 4.2.1 Phase 4: Early development, implementing and testing The second and third steps were followed during this part of the research.  Step 2: Conducting a pilot test Pilot tests are implemented in settings convenient to the researcher and are somewhat similar to ones in which the intervention will be used. These pilot tests assist in determining the effectiveness of the intervention and in identifying which elements of the prototype may need to be revised (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:484). There is always the possibility of error when collecting data. The surest protection against such errors is by testing the questionnaire fully or partly by a representative sample. The entire programme was not pilot tested, but the content of the programme was given to external forensic investigators to comment on before finalization of the design.  Step 3: Applying design criteria to the preliminary intervention concept The appropriate community intervention is determined by using common guidelines and values. Relevant questions include: Is the intervention effective? Is it replicable by end- users? Such criteria assist in guiding the design of interventions subjected to pilot testing and formal evaluation (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:485). It was determined that the appropriate community for this programme intervention will be the professionals involved in the investigation into child sexual abuse cases. 4.2.2 Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development Rothman and Thomas (1994:37) believe that the use of pilot tests and field replications to test and refine the intervention distinguishes intervention research from programme evaluation. There are four major operations or activities in the evaluation and advanced development phase: selecting an experimental design, collecting and analysing data, replicating the intervention under field conditions and refining the intervention (Rothman & Thomas, 1994:37-39). However, during this study, the researcher changed step 1 “Selecting an experimental design” to “Selecting an evaluation purpose”. The researcher is of the opinion that an experimental design will not be appropriate during this study, as it will be unethical to subject sexually abused children to an assessment performed by untrained professionals. The researcher was also of the opinion that the assessment model must first be evaluated by other relevant role players before the implementation thereof. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 258  Step 1: Selecting an evaluation purpose Normally when employing Intervention research, “selecting an experimental design”, would be the first step of phase 5, which is the phase of Evaluation and advanced development (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:485). However, during this study the researcher did not make use of an experimental design. The researcher did not make use of any pre-tests or post-tests during this research in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the forensic assessment model, but used an evaluative approach. The reason being that the researcher is of the opinion that it would be unethical to subject children to a forensic assessment model that was not proof to be effective. Thus the researcher decided that the model first had to be evaluated by role players in the field before being used on children. The purpose of evaluation can be summarised as follows (Fouché, 2011:452-453):  gathering information in order to improve the design,  development, formation and implementation of a programme (formative evaluation),  describing the process of a programme as it is being developed (process evaluation),  assessing the impact, outcome or worth of a programme (summative evaluation). During this research, the researcher did not make use of summative evaluation. A discussion of the different forms of evaluation used by the researcher will follow:  Development, formation and implementation of a programme (formative evaluation) The purpose of formative evaluation is to gather information for forming or improving a programme. Researchers can reach this goal by means of a needs assessment or by means of an evaluability assessment (Fouché, 2011:455). The purpose of a needs assessment is to objectively determine whether a programme being considered is really needed or whether an existing programme still needs to be used (Fouché, 2011:455). Barker (2003:291) explains that a needs assessment can be performed to evaluate existing resources and to determine whether the needs of a particular group are being met by using current programmes and services. The researcher presented the forensic assessment model to postgraduate students of the North-West University currently enrolled for a Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice. All of these respondents were previously confronted with forensic investigations into child sexual abuse and were of the opinion that they lack the skills and expertise to perform legally defensible forensic investigations. Hence one can say there is a need among social workers to perform forensic investigations into cases of child sexual abuse. These students performed blind assessments (only the child‟s name and age was known to them before the Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 259 assessment) on children by making use of the designed assessment model. The researcher gathered information from these participants in order to improve the design of the forensic assessment model. The researcher also involved state prosecutors working on a regular basis with cases of child sexual abuse in order to evaluate whether the designed assessment model will address their needs. Kreuger and Neuman (2006:425) differentiate between different needs. According to them, a normative need refers to a circumstance, situation or condition identified by an expert that has been able to determine a gap in existing services related to the needs of a sub- population. During this study, it became evident that no forensic assessment model exists that has been designed to fit the South African context. It was also evident that forensic investigation into child sexual abuse is a specialised field which requires postgraduate training, but in many instances it is performed by professionals that lack the necessary training, skills and expertise. Hence the researcher developed a forensic assessment model to address this need. Kreuger and Neuman (2006:425) also state that the demand for an intervention or services by the actual clients or those that received services, or are awaiting the services, is defined as an expressed need. The state prosecutors as well as the postgraduate students expressed the need of a forensic assessment model. From this discussion it is clear that the researcher employed formative evaluation in order to evaluate the designed forensic assessment model.  Describing the process of a programme as it is being developed (process evaluation: programme monitoring) The purpose of process evaluation is to gain information for describing and delivering (Fouché, 2011:455). Programme monitoring is an on-going process and responses to this assessment allow problems to be addressed as they are identified. Patton (2002:159-160) states that a focus on process involves looking at how something happens rather than examining the outcomes. Programme monitoring has one goal and that is to improve the program (Fouché, 2011:455). Apart from the postgraduate students and state prosecutors that evaluated the programme, the researcher also involved experts in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse to evaluate the assessment model in order to make improvements to the model. Hence the researcher also employed process evaluation.  Step 2: Collecting and analysing data During the testing and evaluation of an intervention, data is continuously collected and analysed (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:486). The effectiveness of the programme was Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 260 determined by professionals involved in the investigation into child sexual abuse cases. The researcher involved three groups, namely postgraduate students trained to do forensic investigations, state prosecutors that prosecute offenders in child sexual abuse cases and experts in the field of forensic social work that conduct child sexual abuse investigations on a regular basis. The researcher utilised self-structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to evaluate the assessment model. A detailed discussion of collecting and analysing data will follow in paragraphs 4.5 and 4.7.  Step 3: Replicating the intervention under field conditions The programme was presented to postgraduate forensic social work students of the North- West University. The main goal of the intervention, according to De Vos and Strydom (2011:486), is to develop an intervention that is effective in a variety of real-life contexts. The students used the assessment model to assess children and evaluated the effectiveness of the model afterwards. Replication under different field conditions helps in assessing the validity of the effects of the intervention.  Step 4: Refining the intervention Errors are helpful and the results of full field-testing are used to resolve problems with the measurement system and intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:486). Feedback from the participants in this programme, and their recommendations, were recorded in order to adapt and refine the programme. 4.2.3 Phase 6: Dissemination phase The last phase of this research process is to prepare research reports in order to communicate findings to the appropriate audience. This is called dissemination. Dissemination further indicates that potential markets for the intervention are selected and identified, a demand for the intervention is created, appropriate adaptation is encouraged, and finally adopters are provided with technical support (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:487).  Step 1: Preparing the product for dissemination Maree and van der Westhuizen (2009:47) explain that potential outcomes of the research endeavour must be meticulously planned, be it in the form of articles, chapters in books or a presentation at a conference. This research will be published in the form of articles. The programme must also be ready for dissemination. The standards for use of the programme were maintained by insisting that participants must be trained before they can implement Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 261 the model, as it became evident during this study that forensic investigators need specialised training in order to conduct forensic investigations (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:487).  Step 2: Identifying potential markets for the intervention In defining a market of potential users for a community intervention, researchers should ask certain questions, such as: Which people could benefit from the intervention? Which media approach would be most suitable? Which market segment would most likely adopt the intervention? (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:488) The forensic assessment model can be used by other forensic investigators, or it can be used for the educational preparation of forensic investigators.  Step 3: Creating a demand for the intervention Disseminators must convince potential purchasers that they will benefit from the intervention (De Vos & Strydom, 2011:489). Marketing the value of the programme especially among professionals involved in the investigation into child sexual abuse cases will create a demand for the intervention. Apart from prospective forensic investigators, judicial officers can also benefit from the programme as this will provide them with knowledge of a sound forensic investigation and what they can expect from forensic investigators. It became clear during the research that state prosecutors are not well informed about child sexual abuse matters and what they can expect from forensic investigators.  Step 4: Encouraging appropriate adaptation It might be necessary to adapt the programme according to the specific target group or to fit certain conditions.  Step 5: Providing technical support to adopters Technical support may be critical to implementation to maintain long-term client satisfaction. The researcher will be available to assist in providing technical support if there are other adopters of the programme. The researcher will especially assist the postgraduate students new in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse. Adopters of the programme may require support from the researcher to assist with troubleshooting or with adapting the intervention to meet their specific needs (De Vos, 2005a:406). Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 262 4.3 Research Approach Presently there are two known and recognised approaches to research, namely qualitative and quantitative approaches. Prospective researchers must familiarise themselves with the differences between the two approaches and orientate themselves in this respect, and then decide which one would be answer best to the needs of their research project (Fouché & Delport, 2011:63). Prospective researchers can even decide to combine both quantitative and qualitative research approaches, also known as the mixed methods approach (Bergman, 2008:1). Mixed methods research, according to Delport and Fouché (2011:434), “is a combination of at least one qualitative and at least one quantitative component in a single research project or programme“. During this research, the researcher employed the mixed methods approach since she employed quantitative and qualitative data collection methods (Delport & Fouché, 2011:435). The qualitative and quantitative data were collected concurrently, hence the embedded mixed methods design was employed (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007:67). The Quantitative research focuses on the use of surveys and measuring instruments. The quantitative method often employs a measuring instrument (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011:171) and in this regard the researcher used self-structured questionnaires. A qualitative approach is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014:4). During this study, the researcher additionally conducted qualitative research. During qualitative research, the researcher is concerned with describing and understanding, rather than explaining or predicting human behaviour (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:53). A qualitative study is concerned with non-statistical methods as well as small samples that are often purposively selected. The unit of analysis is holistic and concentrates on the relationship between elements and contexts (Fouché & Delport, 2011:65-66). The interpretation of collected data forms part of qualitative research. According to Schurink et al. (2011:325), qualitative data analysis is the search for generalizations and relationships, building structure and making sense of accumulated data. 4.4 The research objective Botma, Greeff, Mulaudzi and Wright (2010:83) explain that basic research is done to generate knowledge without a defined goal or purpose. Neuman (2000:23) states that the basic research provides a foundation for knowledge and understanding. Applied research, however, is aimed at solving specific policy problems of helping practitioners in accomplishing tasks. It is focused on solving problems in practice and is directed at a Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 263 defined and purposeful end (Botma et al., 2010:83; Neuman, 2000:23). In this study, applied research was used to develop a scientific forensic assessment model for forensic investigators to assist them to conduct legally defensible and scientific assessments. The researcher was also directed towards a defined and purposeful end. Applied research can be descriptive, exploratory or explanatory (Babbie, 2014:94; Botma et al., 2010:185; Grinnell & Unrau, 2008:21). However, Fouché and De Vos (2011:95-98) combined a more comprehensive list which also includes correlation research, evaluation research, intervention research and action research. During this study a combined approach between exploratory, descriptive and evaluation research was implemented. Descriptive research focuses on the “how and why” questions, according to Fouché and De Vos (2011:96). Descriptive research was conducted to describe the elements of a forensic assessment model in detail in order to answer the questions as to how forensic investigations must be conducted and why it must be conducted in a certain manner. Exploratory research is conducted to gain insight into the problem, situation or phenomenon or when information is lacking or when it is a new area of interest (Babbie, 2014:94; Fouché & De Vos, 2011:95). Forensic social work is a new field in the South African context with limited information and literature on this phenomenon. Exploratory research was used in order to determine what the elements of a forensic assessment model must be. Babbie (2014:374) states that evaluation research, in its simplest sense, is a process of determining whether a social intervention has produced the intended result. Evaluation research can include any effort to judge or enhance human effectiveness through systematic data-based inquiry. Objectives might be included as part of evaluation research, such as programme evaluation, social indicators research, social impact assessment or empowerment evaluation (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:98). The researcher wanted to enhance forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse and the model the researcher developed will be evaluated during this part of the research. 4.5 Respondents Researchers distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling (Babbie, 2014: 197: Botma et al., 2010:123-124; Strydom, 2011a:222). Probability sampling is an action of selecting a group of subjects from a population in which each one has the same known probability of being representatively selected (Babbie, 2014:205; Botma et al., 2010:125; Strydom, 2011a:228). As previously indicated, the researcher involved a panel of respondents to evaluate the forensic assessment model. This panel consisted of State prosecutors regularly working Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 264 with cases of child sexual abuse, expert investigators in cases of child sexual abuse and postgraduate students in forensic practice at the North-West University. Each category will be discussed separately. 4.5.1 State prosecutors The researcher utilised snowball sampling to select the state prosecutors, as this method is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate (Castillo, 2009:1). Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. The researcher used this sampling technique because the number of state prosecutors in the North West Province working on cases of child sexual abuse is limited. This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest (Castillo, 2009:1).  Types of snowball sampling In this research, the Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling (Castillo, 2009:1) was used as state prosecutors referred other state prosecutors either working with them, or known to them, to link in with the research. This sampling was selected, as it was difficult to get respondents to complete the questionnaire – these state prosecutors are limited number-wise. In order to have a larger respondent group, more effort needed to be made to reach more state prosecutors. Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling (Where among the multiple referrals by the primary subjects at each level, only one is chosen as the subject of research) By means of this method, four semi-structured interviews were conducted with state prosecutors in the North West Province working with cases of child sexual abuse. The focus of the interview schedule was to evaluate whether the expectations of the state prosecutors regarding forensic investigations are compatible with the designed forensic assessment model. The purpose of the interview schedule was also to evaluate the state prosecutors‟ knowledge of forensic investigations. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 265 4.5.2 Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse To select experts in the field of forensic investigations, the researcher utilised a non- probability sampling technique known as purposive sampling or judgemental sampling (Babbie, 2014:200; Botma et al., 2010:127; Monette, Sullivan & De Jong, 2011:152; Rubin & Babbie, 2005:247). This type of sampling is based entirely on the researcher‟s judgement, in that a sample is composed of elements containing the most characteristic, representative or typical attributes of the population serving the purpose of the study best (Babbie, 2014:200; Botma et al., 2010:126; Grinnell & Unrau, 2008:153; Monette et al., 2011:153). The criteria used by the researcher were that the respondents must preferably be in possession of a postgraduate qualification regarding forensic investigations, which implies that a degree in Social Work was a requirement for the respondent to enrol for such a qualification. Most important, they must conduct forensic investigations on a regular basis and must have extensive experience in investigating child sexual abuse cases. The reason why the researcher chose to employ purposive sampling is that the number of experts in this field is very limited, as this is a relatively new field in the South African context. By means of this method, eight questionnaires were distributed and a total of seven were received back. The focus of these questionnaires was to evaluate how experts are currently assessing sexually abused children in the South African context and whether it is compatible with the researcher‟s assessment model. 4.5.3 Postgraduate students The researcher involved postgraduate students enrolled for their Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice at the North-West University. Postgraduate student implies that the student has already obtained a degree in Social Work. The total population of the students were involved, namely 12 students (N=12); therefore no sampling method was employed. The criterion applied was that the postgraduate students had to attend all the classes presented by the researcher. The respondeds also had to assess actual children during their practical examinations uitlising the developed forensic assessment model. By means of this method, 12 respondents were handed out a self-structured questionnaire to complete. The focuses of the self-structured questionnaires were to evaluate whether the model that was designed by the researcher during this study, can be implemented in practice, to establish whether the respondents will be capable of conducting effective forensic investigations and to afford the respondents the opportunity of making recommendations regarding the effectiveness of the model. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 266 4.6 Data gathering The researcher utilised different methods for gathering data from the three respective groups. A discussion on the different methods of data gathering will follow: 4.6.1 State prosecutors The researcher utilised semi-structured interviews in order to obtain information from the state prosecutors. Greeff (2011:352) explains that with a semi-structured interview, the researcher will have a set of pre-determined questions on an interview schedule. The interview will be guided rather than dictated by the schedule. The researcher has the flexibility to follow up particular avenues of interest that emerge during the interview (Botma et al., 2010:208; Greeff, 2011:352). The interview schedule is a written questionnaire to guide interviews and called an interview schedule (Greeff, 2011:352). The researcher compiled this interview schedule herself. The schedule (Addendum 3) comprised two sections, namely section A and B. Section A dealt with the biographic details and Section B with the assessment process followed by forensic investigators. The schedule contained open-ended and closed- ended questions. The interview schedule was pre-tested and revisited with a state prosecutor before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. 4.6.2 Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. The questionnaire (Addendum 4) comprised three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, dealt with all the phases of the assessment model, and contained both closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained both open- and close- ended questions on general aspects of a forensic investigation. These questionnaires were emailed to the different respondents, as they were spread over the entire country and were therefore the most appropriate method of reaching them. The email contained ground rules and a reminder of when to respond. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink et al. (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 267 assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. 4.6.3 Postgraduate students For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. Questionnaires contain recorded questions and respondents respond directly on the questionnaire, without the aid of the interviewer. Questionnaires can be handed directly to the respondents, it can be mailed or the researcher can send it online (Monette et al., 2011:164). In this case, the researcher handed the questionnaires directly to the respondents. The questionnaire (Addendum 5) comprised two sections. The first part, section A, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section B, afforded them the opportunity to evaluate the assessment model that was designed by the researcher and contained both closed- and open-ended questions. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink et al., (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. 4.7 Research procedure The following steps were followed during the research procedure:  The Forensic assessment model was presented to the postgraduate students over a period of eight months. This process was not continuous and they attended classes for six weeks.  The researcher compiled the interview schedules for the semi-structured interviews conducted with the state prosecutors (Addendum 3).  The researcher arranged appointments with the different state prosecutors and conducted the semi-structured interviews.  The researcher compiled self-structured questionnaires and mailed the questionnaires with instructions to the experts in the field of forensic investigations (Addendum 4).  The researcher compiled the self-structured questionnaire for the postgraduate students (Addendum 5). Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 268  These respondents were asked to evaluate the model by means of the self-constructed questionnaire.  All participants were prepared by explaining the detail of the research to them.  All the quantitative data was analysed and presented in graphs and tables in this research report.  The interviews and responses in the questionnaires were analysed to determine themes and categories in a qualitative manner.  The study was presented in a bound research report. 4.8 Data analysis The data from the open-ended questions in this study were analysed by means of Tesch‟s approach (Poggenpoel, 1998:343-344) and reported in the form of narratives. Kruger, De Vos, Fouché and Venter (2005:217-219) point out that professional research can be analysed manually or by computer. Data was sorted to reflect the most interesting view, arranged into topics, and data belonging to each separate category were correspondingly clustered together in one group according to themes (Creswell, 2014:197-198; De Vos, 2005b:338; Schurink et al., 2011:403). The quantitative data were analysed by plotting data onto different charts. The quantitative data were also analysed by the researcher. 4.9 Trustworthiness of qualitative research Trustworthiness is an important aspect of qualitative research and credibility is the primary criterion when evaluating qualitative research (Mc Millan, 2011:277). Guba‟s model for trustworthiness of qualitative research was utilised as a guideline to ensure validity during this study. Four strategies to ensure trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability will be discussed (Shurink et al., 2011:419-421): FIGURE 2: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS EPISTEMOLOGICAL STANDARDS STRATEGIES APPLICATION Truth Value Credibility can be defined as the extent to which data, data analysis and conclusions are believable and trustworthy (Mc Millan, 2011:277). The goal is to demonstrate that the research was conducted in a The researcher ensured that prolonged engagement was applied by establishing self- rapport with participants during the semi-structured interviews. Field notes were written directly after each interview with a Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 269 manner to ensure that the phenomena were accurately identified and described (Shurink et al., 2011:419). respondent. Consistency Reliability is described by Mc Millan (2011:278) as “…the extent to which what is recorded as data is what actually occurred in the setting that was studied”. This criteria suggests the consistency of data, it implies that the findings would be consistent if the research was replicated with the same subjects or in similar circumstances (Shurink et al., 2011:419). During this study, the procedure is described in detail in order to ensure replicability, although it must be borne in mind that each situation is unique. This implies that even if the research data is reliable or replicable, it still needs to be adapted to individual needs within the social context. . Applicability It is the transferability of one set of findings to another context and is the alternative to external validity or generalisabilty (Shurink et al., 2011:420). Lincoln and Guba (as quoted by Schurink et al., 2011:419) point out that triangulation is a strategy to ensure transferability Selection of the sample was clearly described. Saturation of data was determined by the sources in the study. Neutrality Conformability refers to the fact that it is necessary to ask whether the results of the research study are confirmed by another study (Shurink et al., 2011:419-412). In this study the results could be confirmed by literature. Field notes taken by the researcher will be comprehensive and will be available for auditing. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 270 4.10 Reliability and validity of quantitative data To obtain valid and reliable data, researchers need to ensure that before they implement the study, the measurement procedures and the measurement instruments they intend using have acceptable levels of reliability and validity. Validity and reliability are two of the most important concepts of measurement (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011:172) and will be summarised as follows: EPISTEMOLOGICAL STANDARDS STRATEGIES APPLICATION Validity Validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the true meaning of the concept under consideration. In other word, it measures what it intends to measure (Babbie, 2014:155,157). Content and face validity will most likely be established before the instruments are used to collect data. Criteria and construct validity are established after the instrument has been used (Delport & Roestenburg, 2011:173).  Content Validity – the degree to which a measure covers the range of meaning included within a concept (Babbie, 2014:156). Here the researcher conducted a thorough literature review and stated clear and logical definitions. Experts evaluated the instrument and the instrument was also pre- tested on a small sample of the population.  Face validity – that quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable (Babbie, 2014:155). The questionnaire was relevant to the respondents who completed it. They all were role players in forensic investigations.  Criterion validity – the degree to which a measure relates to some external criterion (Babbie, 2014:155). Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 271 The researcher used more than one measuring instrument during the research.  Construct validity – the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships (Babbie, 2014:156). During this study, the researcher identified conntections between verialbles. Reliability Reliability refers to the fact that when a specific technique is applied repeatedly to the same object, the same result will be obtained each time (Bab bie, 2014:152). The researcher implemented the following procedures as suggested by Neuman and Kreuger (2003:179-180) and Salkind (2006:108) in order to increase the reliability of measures:  The researcher eliminated unclear items in questionnaires.  The researcher standardised the conditions as well as the instructions under which the tests were taken down. All the respondents received the same in instructions with regard to the completion of the questionnaires. The respondents received their questionnaires sumeltaniously and thus completed the questionnaires at the same Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 272 time under the same conditions.  The researcher ensured that the questionnaires were not too difficult but easy to complete.  The researcher maintained consistent scoring procedures.  The researcher pre-tested the questionnaires before applying the final version. 4.11 Ethical aspects Babbie (2014:63) states that anyone involved in social science research must be aware of the general agreements on what is proper and improper in the conduct of scientific inquiry. Subjects should also not be harmed during research, but must rather benefit from it (Babbie, 2014:65). Ethical permission for conducting this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus). This study also complied with ethical standards as set out by the South African Council for Social Service Professions (SACSSP). Respondents participated on a voluntary basis. Cultural differences were respected and dealt with in a professional manner. Research must be based on mutual trust, acceptance, cooperation, promised and well-balanced conventions and expectations between the parties involved in a research project (Strydom, 2011b:113). Permission to undertake this project was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the North- West University (number NWU-00027-09-A1) (Addendum 2). The researcher paid attention to the following ethical aspects as set out by Strydom (2011b:115-121): For this research study, the following aspects were taken into consideration:  Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all the different respondents that had participated in this research and all the aspects of the research were explained to both parties prior to and participation. All the participants were informed about the goal of the research possible advantages and disadvantages were also communicated to the participants (Rubin & Babbie, 2005:77; Strydom, 2011b:117). Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 273  Harm to respondents In order to protect respondents against any harm, sensitivity towards emotionality and physical comfort were maintained (Strydom, 2011b:115). The respondents' rights to withdraw from the programme at any time were respected and communicated to them. The researcher emphasised this especially to the postgraduate students.  Confidentiality and anonymity Confidentiality was also maintained by carefully explaining the general aim of the study and procedures to be followed. The questionnaires were completed anonymously and the names of the individuals were not disclosed. Even during the semi-structured interviews, the researcher did not write down any of the respondents‟ names. The data collected was put in a file and locked up in a cabinet in the social worker‟s office. The researcher is a registered social worker at the SA Council for Social Service Professions (Babbie, 2014:68; Van Zyl- Edeling & Pretorius, 2005:107-113).  Voluntary participation In the case of this study the participants were regarded as volunteers; therefore they were not forced to participate in the study (Strydom 2011b:116); thus adhering to Babbie‟s (2014:64) indication that no one must be forced to participate in a research project. The respondents knew that they had a choice to participate and could withdraw at any stage.  Deception of respondents Deception refers to the misleading of participants, deliberately misrepresenting facts or withholding information from the participants (Struwig & Stead, 2001:69). The researcher did not withhold any information, offer incorrect information or deliberately misrepresented facts. Accurate and complete information was given to the respondents regarding the purpose of the research study.  Actions and competence of the researcher Strydom (2011b:124) points out that an ethical obligation rests on researchers to ensure they are competent and adequately skilled to undertake the intended investigation. The researcher is a registered at the SA Council for Social Service Professions as a social worker and has 12 years of experience. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 274 5. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY MEANS OF A SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW In this regard, four state prosecutors in the Klerksdorp and Potchefstroom area were consulted by means of semi-structured interviews. The purpose of these interviews was to determine whether the forensic assessment model developed by the researcher as guidelines for forensic investigators will meet the expectations of the court. As previously mentioned, the researcher utilised semi-structured interviews in order to obtain information from the state prosecutors. Greeff (2011:352) explains that with a semi- structured interview, the researcher will have a set of pre-determined questions on an interview schedule. The researcher compiled this interview schedule herself. The schedule (Addendum 3) comprised two sections, namely sections A and B. Section A dealt with the biographic details and Section B with the assessment process followed by forensic investigators. The schedule contained both open-ended and closed-ended questions. By means of snowball sampling, the researcher was only able to reach four (N=4) state prosecutors. The researcher decided to include state prosecutors in the research as Faller (2007:3) states that professionals from different disciplines, including prosecutors, occasionally need to interview children to determine whether they were sexually abused. Another reason for their inclusion is that the term forensic means belonging to the court, and the forensic investigator‟s client is usually the court (Faller, 2007:4-6). 5.1 Demographic details of the respondents (Section A) Demographic information was obtained in the first section of the questionnaire (Section A). The demographic information is presented to provide a demographic profile of the sample used in the project. The following section deals with the analysis of the quantitative results. In this section, information was obtained in relation to age, gender, years in experience, the province in which the respondents work, language, geographic area and highest qualifications. In some instances, the respondents chose more than one option; therefore the percentages will not calculate up to 100%. Their responses can be summarised as follow: TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS (STATE PROSECUTORS) N=4 BIOGRAPHIC DETAILS THEME F % N AGE IN YEARS 31-40 years 2 50% N=4 41-50 years 2 50% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 275 GENDER Male 2 50% N=4 Female 2 50% FIRST LANGUAGE Afrikaans 3 75% N=4 Xhosa 1 25% QUALIFICATIONS BProc 1 25% N=4 LLB 3 75% BL-Uris 1 25% Master‟s Degree in Labour Law. 1 25% PROVINCE North West 4 100% N=4 GEOGRAPHIC AREA Semi-urban 4 100% N=4 AREAS SERVED Ikageng 1 25% N=4 Potchefstroom 3 75% Ventersdorp 3 75% Klerksdorp 1 25% Fochville 2 50% YEARS OF EXPERIENCE 6-10 years 2 50% N=4 21-25 years 2 50% TYPE OF COURT Regional Court 4 100% N=4 5.1.1 Age All the respondents indicated their age. From the table above it can be summarised that two (50%) of the respondents were between ages 31 and 40 years. Two (50%) respondent were between ages 41 and 50 years. When considering the age of the respondents, one can conclude that they are experienced state prosecutors. 5.1.2 Gender Two (50%) respondents were female and two (50%) male. Men as well as women participated in the research. No distinction is drawn between male and female prosecutors and both genders have to prosecute cases of child sexual abuse. 5.1.3 First Language The majority, namely three (75%) of the respondents, indicated Afrikaans as their first language and one (25%) respondent indicated Xhosa as his first language. The researcher regards this as problematic as it implies that children speaking African languages will have to be questioned by means of an interpreter. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 276 5.1.4 Qualifications of the state prosecutors One (25%) respondent indicated that she obtained a BProc qualification, one (25%) obtained a B-Uris and three (75%) respondents indicated an LLB as their qualification. One (25%) respondent had a Master‟s degree in Labour Law. It was remarkable to the researcher that the respondent with the Master‟s degree in Labour Law, has to conduct sexual abuse prosecutions. It is evident from the responses received that some state prosecutors possess more than one qualification and that they are adequately qualified. 5.1.5 Province, Geographic area and areas served All of the respondents were located in the North West Province. Three (75%) were situated in Potchefstroom and one (25%) in Klerksdorp. These are all semi-urban areas. Although the respondents were situated in semi-urban areas, they occasionally have to serve rural areas such as Fochville and Ventersdorp. 5.1.6 Years of experience Two (50%) respondents indicated that they have between six and ten years‟ experience and two (50%) respondents had between 21 to 25 years of experience in cases of child sexual abuse. Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that the respondents were adequately experienced to contribute to the research in a meaningful manner. 5.1.7 Type of court All of the respondents indicated that they serve a regional court in Northwest. The reason therefore is because more serious crimes like child sexual abuse are prosecuted in a regional court. 5.2 The assessment process (Section B) Section B consisted of both open-ended and closed-ended questions. The responses are discussed below. 5.2.1 Utilisation of forensic investigators A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine whether they had ever subpoenaed a forensic investigator to testify in a case of child sexual abuse. Their answers can be presented as follow: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 277 GRAPH 1: RESPONDENTS MAKING USE OF A FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR DURING A CASE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSEN=4 From the responses it is evident that the respondents did make use of forensic investigators to assist the court in cases of child sexual abuse. This is consistent with literature stating that the forensic investigator‟s client is the court (Carstens, 2006:192; Faller, 2007:6) and that forensic investigations are utilised in order to determine whether legal actions are necessary (Saywitz, Esplin & Romanoff, 2007:222). Carstens (2006:191) defines the concept forensic as “…the application of scientific principles and methods to a legal problem with the primary function of providing expert testimony in a court of law”. From both literature and the responses received, it is evident that forensic investigators are frequently subpoenaed to testify in court on sexual abuse matters. With this in mind, the researcher came to the conclusion that forensic investigators are indeed utilised by state prosecutors to testify in cases of child sexual abuse. Hence one can say that there is a need among state prosecutors to utilise the services of forensic investigators. Therefore state prosecutors will indeed benefit from forensic investigators that are trained in a forensic assessment model that will assist them in conducting forensic investigations. It must also be borne in mind that the role of the forensic investigator is to give an objective and neutral opinion on the case at hand in order for the court to come to a fair conclusion. 5.2.2 General experience of the forensic investigator The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine their general experiences of forensic investigators. The researcher could identify the theme of “very helpful” from the responses received. One respondent mentioned that the testimony of the forensic investigator was very helpful, and the presence of the forensic investigator strengthened the case. Although this was not an identified theme, the researcher found this statement valuable and worth mentioning. All the respondents indicated during the semi-structured interviews that they definitely will Did subpoena a forensic investigator (4 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 278 again make use of forensic investigators in future. In this regard one respondent had the following to say: “Overall it was very good. The expert witness was able to give a clear and logical explanation on how the conclusions were reached”. From the feedback received from the respondents it appears that they were in general satisfied with the testimony of the forensic investigators and experienced it as necessary and helpful. This confirms the researcher‟s previous statement that state prosecutors will benefit from properly trained forensic investigators. 5.2.3 Specialised training, specific knowledge, skills and expertise of the forensic investigator A qualitative question was posed to the respondents to determine what they regard as specialised training, specific knowledge, skills and expertise the forensic investigator needs to possess. The following is a summary of the themes the researcher identified: TABLE 2: SPECIALISED TRAINING, SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND EXPERTISE OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR SPECIALISED TRAINING, SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND EXPERTISE OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR Knowledge of court and court proceedings Recommendations for children testifying through intermediary Field of expertise asked to testify to Play therapy Developmental aspects of children Four-year degree The respondents stated that the forensic investigator must have knowledge of the court and court proceedings. This is consistent with literature as stated by Koocher (2009:83) that professionals must know enough about the law, including judicial and administrative rules, in the applicable jurisdiction to precede in this case. The respondents indicated that the forensic investigator must have knowledge of recommendations for children that must testify through intermediaries. The researcher is of the opinion that this is consistent with the recommendations of Kuehnle (1996:27) that states that the forensic investigator must be knowledgeable of the dynamics of sexual abuse as well as behavioural and emotional problems the sexually abused child may encounter. This will enable the forensic investigator to make a recommendation in this regard. The respondents also indicated that the forensic investigator must have knowledge of any field of expertise the forensic investigator is asked Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 279 to testify on. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must only testify within their field of expertise. Carstens (2006:194) is supportive of this statement. The respondents were of the opinion that the forensic investigator must be trained in play therapy. This statement is inconsistent with literature as it is clear that there is a distinct difference between therapy and forensic investigations (Faller, 2007:4-6 Smith, 2007:43; Walker, 2002:151-152). The respondents stated that the forensic investigator needs experience in developmental aspects of children, for instance language development. Walker (2002:178) and Kuehnle (1996:27) agree with this statement. Another two (50%) respondents stated that the forensic investigator must have the skill to interview children and to communicate with them effectively. Walker (2002:178) agrees with this statement. Some of the respondents stated that the forensic investigator must have a four-year degree. This is inconsistent with literature as researchers agree that the forensic investigator must have a postgraduate qualification. Researchers agree that interviewing children in the forensic context is difficult and that it requires cognizance of a growing body of specialised knowledge rarely taught in the traditional training programs (Fouché & Joubert, 2009:43; Saywitz & Comparo, 1998:1). It is evident from the feedback of the respondents that they are in agreement that the forensic investigator must possess specialised training in order to conduct forensic investigations. This is consistent with literature of Powell and Snow (2007:57) stating that the act of eliciting reliable and detailed information from children on events or situations, such as abuse, is a complex process that requires specialised skills in forensic interviewing. This is also consistent with the opinion of other researchers (APSAC, 2012:3; Koocher, 2009:83; Kuehnle, 1996:27; Spies & Carstens, 2005:40-41; Walker, 2002:178) stating that in order to conduct forensic investigations one must have specialised training, knowledge, skills and expertise - aspects that do not form part of undergraduate studies. However, it became evident that some of the respondents are confused as to what this specialised knowledge should entail. Therefore the researcher came to the conclusion that forensic investigators must educate the state prosecutors in this regard. The forensic assessment model, as developed by the researcher, makes provision for guidelines in terms of qualifications and training for forensic investigators. 5.2.4 Caseload of respondents A quantitative question was posed to determine from the respondents what their caseload is. It can be summarised as follows: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 280 GRAPH 2: CASELOAD OF STATE PROSECUTORS PER MONTH N=4 From the responses it is clear that the state prosecutors deal with high case loads. This is consistent with literature stating that South Africa has a high number of child sexual abuse cases. Statistics reveal that an average of 60 children is raped on a daily basis in South Africa (Reyneke & Kruger, 2006:31). Note must be taken that these statistics refer to cases of rape only, but sexual abuse does not always entail rape. Deeds such as exposure to pornography and fondling of children also constitute sexual abuse. The reality is that approximately a quarter of South African children has been or will be sexually abused before their eighteenth birthday (Richter, Dawes & Higson-Smith, 2007:6). The model that underwrites the investigation process of the researcher is the comprehensive assessment model. Unfortunately this model is very time consuming (Faller, 2007:42) and may therefore increase the need for more forensic investigators or place a burden on the available investigators. 5.2.5 Working as part of the multidisciplinary team A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine if they prefer forensic investigators to work as part of a multi-disciplinary team. Their responses were as follow: 30 or more cases 15-20 cases 10-14 cases 50% 25% 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 281 GRAPH 3: WORKING AS PART OF A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM N=4 Three respondents (75%) indicated that they prefer the forensic investigator to work as part of a multi-disciplinary team. One (25%) respondent indicated that it is not important to work as part of the multi-disciplinary team and stated the following in this regard: “especially if the forensic investigator is well qualified”. The researcher does not agree with this statement, as she is of the opinion that when working as part of the multi-disciplinary team, where possible, will contribute to neutrality and objectivity. Guidelines provided by the APSAC (2012:7) recommend the active participation as part of a multi-disciplinary team and say whenever possible the investigator should consult with other professionals involved with the child, or the child‟s family. Other researchers also recommend that the forensic investigator must work together with other role players (Connell, 2009:425; Cross, Jones, Walsh, Simone & Kolke, 2007:1033; Pence, 2011:326; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:72; Vieth, 2009:214). The model, as developed by the researcher, also recommends working as part of the multi-disciplinary team. This is consistent with the need of the state prosecutors. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what members they regard as important in the multi-disciplinary team. The researcher summarised the following themes from their responses: TABLE 3: MEMBERS THAT MUST FORM PART OF THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM MEMBERS THAT MUST FORM PART OF THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY TEAM Medical doctor Psychologist Forensic social worker Investigating officer There are no set guidelines as to who should be included in the multi-disciplinary team. As the respondents indicated the team members that mostly form part of the multi-disciplinary Yes it is important (3 respondents) 75% No it is not important (1 respondent) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 282 team are the medical doctor, psychologist, forensic social worker and investigating officer. Each of them has an own specific role to play in the investigation and is usually inter- dependent on each other. It is important that the different members only act in their field of expertise. If they are working in harmony with one another, it can lead to more successful prosecutions. The researcher is of the opinion that any professional that was involved in the investigation of the case at hand, such as the field social worker, must be included and will be determined by the dynamics of the case. 5.2.6 Making use of a scientific protocol during the investigation A quantitative question was posed to the respondents in order to determine whether they prefer forensic investigators to make use of a scientific protocol during their investigations. The following graph is a summary of their answers: GRAPH 4: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC PROTOCOL DURING THE INVESTIGATION N=4 Two (50%) respondents indicated that it is important for forensic investigators to make use of a scientific protocol, one (25%) respondent did not answer this question as he did not know what a protocol entails and another respondent (25%) indicated it is not important to make use of a scientific protocol. The respondents indicating that it is not important to make use of a scientific protocol stated the following: “You can do certain things by the book, but it does not always work”. The respondent explained to the researcher that sometimes professionals possess scientific knowledge, but in some cases it will not work and then one must do what one thinks will work. The researcher followed this question up with a qualitative question and asked the respondents whether they are aware of any forensic protocols and which one they prefer forensic investigators to use. The respondents were not able to name any protocol, hence it is understandable that they were not able to make a recommendation as to which protocol they prefer forensic investigators to employ. This was alarming to the researcher as she is of the opinion that a prosecutor should be aware of what measures the forensic investigator employed in order to elicit information from the child and whether or not it was a scientific Yes it is important (2 respondents) 50% No it is not important (1 respondent) 25% Do not know (1 respondent) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 283 method, as this information can be of great value during court proceedings. During this research, the researcher recommends that the NICHD protocol must be employed. Herman (2009:261) states that although other interview guidelines and protocols exist, no other protocol or guideline has levels of empirical support equal to those of the NICHD protocol. 5.2.7 Making use of a scientific model during the investigation A quantitative question was posed to the respondents in order to determine whether they prefer forensic investigators to make use of a scientific model during their investigations. The following graph is a summary of their answers: GRAPH 5: MAKING USE OF A SCIENTIFIC MODEL DURING THE INVESTIGATION N=4 The respondents‟ answers were similar to their answer to the previous question. One (25%) of the respondents indicated that it is not necessary to make use of a scientific model and motivated his answer by saying: “Science is not everything, practical experience also counts”. One (25%) respondent did not indicate an answer and stated that he is not aware of any models in forensic practice. The remaining two (50%) respondents answered that it is important to make use of a scientific model, but that they were not aware of any model. The researcher followed this question up with a qualitative question and asked the respondents whether they are aware of any forensic models and which one they prefer forensic investigators to use. The respondents were not aware of any models forensic investigators can employ during their investigations. This was also alarming to the researcher as the model that is employed by the forensic investigator is the theory that underwrites the entire assessment process followed by the forensic investigator. Faller (2007:35) conceptualises the current practice into four overlapping, yet somewhat distinct, models for assessing allegations of sexual abuse, namely:  The child interview model  The joint investigation model Yes it is important (2 respondents) 50% No it is not important (1 respondent) 25% Do not know (1 respondent) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 284  The parent-child interaction model  Comprehensive assessment model. For purposes of this study, the researcher is of the opinion that the comprehensive assessment model is the best model for the South African context. 5.2.8 Reasons of state prosecutors for making use of forensic investigators The researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents to determine their reasons for utilising the services of a forensic investigator. The respondents were allowed to choose more than one option; hence their responses will calculate to more than 100%. The following is a graphic outline of their responses: GRAPH 6: REASONS OF STATE PROSECUTORS FOR MAKING USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS N=4 Three (75%) of the respondents indicated that they make use of the forensic investigator to determine whether a child can distinguish between truth and lies and four (100%) respondents indicated that they have used the services of a forensic investigator to determine whether a child will be capable of testifying in court. Three (75%) of the respondents utilised a forensic investigator to obtain a disclosure of sexual abuse from a victim. One (25%) of the respondents indicated that they have asked a forensic investigator to investigate multiple hypotheses and two (50%) respondents indicated that they have utilised a forensic investigator to give expert testimony on the dynamics of child sexual abuse. Four (100%) of the respondents indicate that they have utilised a forensic investigator to make a recommendation as to whether a child must testify by means of an intermediary. One (25%) of the respondents utilised a forensic investigator to educate the court on the dynamics of sexual abuse. No respondents have ever utilised the forensic 75% 100% 75% 25% 50% 100% 25% 50% 50% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 285 investigator to determine a child‟s sexual knowledge or to determine the role grooming played in sexual abuse. Two (50%) of the respondents have asked a forensic investigator to testify on the identity of the offender as well as to determine the terms the child use to refer to body parts. From the received responses, it seems that the respondents utilised forensic investigators to assist them with a wide range of aspects with regard to child sexual abuse matters. This is consistent with the literature of Berliner (2003:13), Faller (2007:4-6) and Fouché (2006:207). However, the researcher is also of opinion that state prosecutors can also request forensic investigators to testify on matters such as grooming, as this often plays a crucial role in sexual abuse cases. 5.2.9 Reasons of state prosecutors for not making use of forensic investigators The researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents to determine their reasons for not utilising the services of a forensic investigator. The respondents were allowed to choose between more than one option, hence their responses will calculate to more than 100%. The following is a graphic outline of their responses: GRAPH 7: REASONS STATE PROSECUTORS DO NOT MAKE USE OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS N=4 One (25%) respondent indicated that the services of the forensic investigator was not utilised, since the respondent was of the opinion that she could obtain the same information from the child as the forensic investigator. With further exploration it appeared that the respondent attributed that fact to inadequate training of forensic investigators and that correlates with the next respondent‟s answer. One (25%) respondent indicated that the forensic investigators in his area were not properly trained; this respondent did not utilise their services. This is consistent with the research of Kaliski (2006:2) stating that the 25% 25% 25% 50% 50% 25% 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 286 majority of forensic experts in South Africa testify in court without proper training. One (25%) respondent indicated that no forensic investigator is available in his region. The researcher attributes this to the fact that forensic social work is a relatively new field in the South African context. Two (50%) of the respondents indicated that forensic investigators are available in their area, but that language is a problem, and two (50%) also indicated that the services of forensic investigators are too expensive. None of the respondents indicated that they do not utilise the services of forensic investigators because they are not willing to testify in court, they write meaningless reports or that their reports are of a poor quality. However, one (25%) of the respondents indicated that they have received reports that are inadequate and one (25%) also indicated that they wait too long for reports. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must communicate with state prosecutors in order to communicate what exactly is wanted from the forensic investigator. The fact that respondents waiting too long for reports can possibly be attributed to the high caseloads also experienced by forensic investigators. The researcher is also of the opinion that since the state prosecutors do not have specialised knowledge of children and sexual abuse matters, they do not know what they can expect from the forensic investigator. The forensic investigator is there to assist the court, but if the court does not know how the forensic investigator can serve them it can create problems that may have a negative outcome on prosecutions. From the responses as received from the respondents, it is evident that state prosecutors do experience some problems with the services rendered by forensic investigators. It also seems inadequate communication takes place between these two parties. Effective communication between these two parties as well as knowledge of each other‟s fields of expertise, can overcome this problem. The researcher is also of the opinion that with proper training of the state prosecutors in the field of forensic social work and the recruitment of more forensic investigators, these problems can be addressed effectively. 5.2.10 Approach during forensic investigation A quantitative question was posed to the respondents to determine how they prefer the forensic investigator to approach a case. Their answers can be summarised as follows: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 287 GRAPH 8: THE PREFERRED ASSESSMENT PROCESS N=4 Three (75%) of the respondents indicated that they prefer forensic investigators to make use of a blind assessment process. One (25%) respondent indicated that he prefers the forensic investigator to follow an informed process, as he prefers to inform the professional on what he wants as it saves the victim, the forensic investigator as well as the court time. The researcher also posed a qualitative question to grant the respondents the opportunity of explaining their answers. Themes the researcher could identify from their responses were that it contributes to objectivity, information will not be contaminated and it is an independent manner of unveiling the truth. Bow, Quinnell, Zaroff and Assemany (2002:572) as well as Cantlon, Payne and Erbaugh (1996:1113) are supportive of blind interviews. The model as developed by the researcher is supportive of blind interviews, as the researcher is of the opinion that blind interviews will contribute to neutrality and objectivity of the forensic investigator. 5.2.11 Expectations of a forensic investigator A qualitative question was posed to the respondents in order to determine their expectations of forensic investigators. The following table is a summary of the themes the researcher identified from their responses: Blind (3 respondents) 75% Informed (1 respondent) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 288 TABLE 4: EXPECTATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR EXPECTATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR Forensic investigator must be capable in his/her field Forensic investigator must concentrate on important aspects Must be of assistance in court To be consistent in conclusions The respondents indicated that the forensic investigator must be capable in their field of expertise and that the forensic investigator must assist the court in cases of child sexual abuse. Furthermore, the respondents also indicated that forensic investigators must be consistent in the conclusions they make. 5.2.12 How the forensic investigator can be of assistance in easing the state prosecutors’ task The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine how the forensic investigator can be of assistance to state prosecutors. Table 5 is a summary of themes the researcher identified from their responses: TABLE 5: HOW FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS CAN ASSIST STATE PROSECUTORS IN MAKING THEIR TASK EASIER ASSISTANCE IN MAKING PROSECUTORS’ TASK EASIER Educate the court on aspects that they are not aware of To provide the court with a complete report The respondents stated that forensic investigators will assist them in their tasks if they educate the court on aspects the court is not aware of and they must provide the court with a complete report. These expectations of the state prosecutors are in line with the functions of the forensic investigator as defined by researchers (Berliner, 2003:13; Faller, 2007:4-6; Fouché, 2006:207). A respondent also stated that the task of state prosecutors will be easier if more forensic investigators were appointed. Although this was not an emerging theme, the researcher regards this as a valuable statement and is supportive of this respondent‟s opinion. In practice, the researcher experienced that there is a shortage of forensic investigators, especially in the rural areas. The fact that the respondents have a need for more forensic investigators, can be addressed when training programmes could be in place, such as the model developed by the researcher. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 289 5.2.13 Video recordings of interviews with the child A quantitative question was posed to respondents in order to determine whether they prefer forensic investigators to make video recordings of their interviews with children. Their responses can be summarised as follow: GRAPH 9: VIDEO RECORDINGS OF INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILD N=4 Three (75%) of the respondents indicated that they do not prefer the forensic investigator to make video recordings of their interviews with children because this can cause problems during cross-examination. One (25%) of the respondents preferred interviews with children to be recorded. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to grant them the opportunity of explaining their answers. The only respondent in favour of video recordings was of the opinion that it will corroborate the child‟s statement and will also prove that the child‟s statement is consistent. The respondent is also of the opinion that it will prove that the investigator was neutral and in cases where there are video recordings, the court can also observe the child‟s non-verbal communication. A theme that emerged from the other respondents‟ response was that there is no need for video recordings as evidence needs to be presented viva voce, in other words it must be presented orally. The opinions of the state prosecutors are inconsistent with the recommendations of some researchers stating that it is necessary to make video recordings of children‟s interviews (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2003:60; Fouché, 2006:233; Wilson & Powell, 2001:37). However, there is no consensus among researchers that this is best practice (Faller, 2003:147; Faller, 2007:60; Poole & Lamb, 1998:115; Vandervort, 2006:1353). Although the researcher is supportive of video recordings, it is not always possible in the South African context and it is an expensive method of record keeping. Hence the researcher recommends that record keeping must be extensive, regardless of the chosen method. Yes (1 respondent) 25% No (3 respondents) 75% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 290 5.3 Training of state prosecutors with regard to child sexual abuse cases The researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents in order to determine whether they have received specialised training in cases of child sexual abuse. The researcher also granted them the opportunity of explaining whether they have the need for more training in this regard. The respondents were allowed to choose more than one option; hence their responses will calculate to more than 100%. Their answers can be summarised as follow: GRAPH 10: TRAINING OF STATE PROSECUTORS N=4 Three (75%) of the respondents indicated that they have received training with regard to the linguistics of the child as well as training in child development. Two (50%) of the respondents indicated specialised training in memory and suggestibility as well as in the process of disclosure. One (25%) of the respondents indicated that he had received no specialised training in working with sexually abused children. One (25%) of the respondents indicated that a need for specialised training with regard to child sexual abuse matters definitely exists. Another one (25%) respondent indicated that the training is sufficient, but that devoted state prosecutors in this field are scarce, since they are over-worked and suffering from burn-out. 5.4 Conclusion and recommendations from state prosecutors  The researcher was only able to interview four state prosecutors in this regard. All of the respondents were situated in Potchefstroom or Klerksdorp and utilised the services of forensic investigators. All the state prosecutors served regional courts and had substantial experience. 75% 75% 50% 50% 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 291  It emerged from the responses that all of them have subpoenaed forensic investigators to testify in their court cases. This is consistent with literature stating that forensic investigators can expect to be subpoenaed to testify in court cases. Aspects of the necessary expertise forensic investigators need in order to testify in court as well as expert testimony are included in the developed assessment model.  The state prosecutors reported that they were, in general, very satisfied with the services of forensic investigators. With that in mind, the researcher concluded that forensic investigators are helpful to state prosecutors and they benefit from the services rendered to them. With the assessment model, as developed by the researcher, more forensic investigators can be trained. State prosecutors will benefit from it, as they are generally satisfied with the services of forensic investigators.  Problems that the state prosecutors did encounter with forensic investigators were ineffective report writing.  It seems that inadequate communication exists between state prosecutors and forensic investigators. It also appears that state prosecutors are not aware of how forensic investigators can assist them during prosecutions of cases of child sexual abuse. Effective communication between these two parties as well as knowledge of each other‟s fields of expertise, can overcome this problem. The researcher is also of the opinion that with proper training of the state prosecutors in the field of forensic social work and the recruitment of more forensic investigators, these problems can be addressed effectively.  It is evident from the responses of the respondents that they have realistic experiences in terms of the training, knowledge and skills of the forensic investigator, but some respondents do have unrealistic expectations, as they included play therapy among the needed qualifications of the forensic investigator. It is recommended that state prosecutors must receive thorough training with regard to the necessary qualifications of forensic investigators. In the assessment model as developed by the researcher, qualifications, skills and training are addressed thoroughly so that all the role players can be knowledgeable regarding it. It appeared that the respondents did not realise how much of a specialised field forensic investigations into child sexual abuse cases are.  The researcher concluded that the state prosecutors have very high caseloads of child sexual abuse. This is also consistent with literature. The model the researcher developed is based on the comprehensive assessment model. As the name states, the model is very comprehensive and therefore, investigators with high caseloads may find the investigating process very time consuming. However, the researcher is of the Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 292 opinion that quality may not be sacrificed for the sake of quantity. Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that more forensic investigators need to be trained, especially in all the official languages of South Africa.  The majority of the respondents recommended that the forensic investigator work as part of the multi-disciplinary team. This is consistent with what literature recommends and the developed assessment model also promotes working in accordance with the multi-disciplinary team.  None of the respondents was aware of any scientific model or protocol forensic investigators must work according to. However, the majority of them recommended that the forensic investigator work according to scientific models and protocols. The researcher is of the opinion that all forensic investigators must work according to a scientific model and protocol as this form the basis for all investigations. In this regard, the researcher is of the opinion that state prosecutors must be trained in that matter.  During the research it emerged that although the state prosecutors do utilise forensic investigators to assist them during court cases, they are not fully aware of all the aspects forensic investigators can assist them with. For instance, no respondent has ever asked a forensic investigator to testify on grooming, which plays an important role in child sexual abuse cases. The researcher is also of the opinion that forensic investigators must inform the court as to the aspects they can assist the court with.  Some of the respondents have indicated that they do not utilise the services of forensic investigators due to problems they experience with their service delivery. The reasons mainly are that forensic investigators mainly are inadequately trained, or a lack of forensic investigators is experienced and case loads of forensic investigators are high. Aspects such as problems with report writing are addressed when employing the researcher‟s assessment model. The fact that there are untrained forensic investigators rendering their services to the court is consistent with literature and indicates that there is a need for proper training within the field of child sexual abuse investigations. Hence the researcher‟s developed assessment model can be employed to train prospective forensic investigators. The respondents stated that there is a lack of forensic investigators, especially in certain languages. Hence one can assume that the assessment model as developed by the researcher can be employed to train more forensic investigators.  The majority of the respondents indicated that they prefer allegation blind assessments during investigations of child sexual abuse cases. This is consistent with the recommendations of the researcher‟s developed assessment model. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 293  The majority of the respondents were of the opinion that it is not necessary to make video recordings of interviews with children. Although it is clear from research that many benefits can be derived from this method of documentation, the researcher is aware of the fact that it is not always possible in the South African context. In the assessment model, as developed by the researcher, guidelines are included in terms of extensive record keeping, regardless of the method employed by the investigator.  Some of the respondents indicated that they did receive training in how to work with sexually abused children and some stated that a need for them to receive more training definitely exists. However, during this research, the researcher came to the conclusion that they are not adequately trained in this regard and recommends that they receive training in the dynamics of child sexual abuse investigations.  When considering the information that emerged in this part of the research, it is evident to the researcher that the assessment model as developed by the researcher is in line with the expectations of the court and that they will benefit if forensic investigators were trained in the assessment model in the way it was developed by the researcher. 6. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY EXPERTS IN THE FIELD OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE CASES In this regard, eight experts in the field of forensic investigations were consulted by means of a self-structured questionnaire. The purpose was to determine whether the forensic assessment model developed by the researcher as guideline for forensic investigators, will meet the standards of experts in the field. A self-compiled questionnaire consisting of qualitative as wells as quantitative questions were used during this part of the study. The questionnaire consisted of different phases that were representative of the phases of the developed assessment model. Eight (8) forensic investigators regarded as experts in this field, across the whole of South Africa, received an electronic questionnaire. Seven (N=7) responded. The response rate therefore was 87.5%. 6.1 Demographic details of the respondents (Section 1) Demographic information was obtained in the first section of the questionnaire (Section 1). The demographic information is presented to provide a demographic profile of the sample used in the project. The following section deals with the analysis of the quantitative results. In this section, information was obtained in relation to age, gender, years in experience, the province the respondents work in, language, geographic area and highest qualifications. It can be summarised as follows: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 294 TABLE 6: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=7 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS THEME F % N AGE 21-30 years 1 14.28% N=7 31-40 years 3 42.85% 41-50 years 3 42.85% GENDER Female 7 100% N=7 HIGHEST QUALIFICATION 4-Year Degree in Social Work 1 14.28% N=7 Master‟s Degree in Social Work 6 85.71% PROVINCE Gauteng 2 28.57% N=7 Limpopo 1 14.28% North West 2 28.57% Free State 1 14.28% Western Cape 1 14.28% GEOGRAPHIC AREA Urban 5 71.42% N=7 Semi-Urban 1 14.28% Rural 1 14.28% YEARS OF EXPERIENCE AS FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR No response 1 14.28% N=7 1-5 years 1 14.28% 6-10 years 2 28.57% 11-15 years 2 28.57% 16-20 years 1 14.28% WORKPLACE Private Practice 3 42.85% N=7 South African Police Service 3 42.85% School Social Worker 1 14.28% 6.1.1 Age From the table above it can be summarised that only one (14.28%) of the respondents was between ages 21 and 30 years. Three (42.85%) of the respondents were between ages 31 and 40 years and another three (42.85%) of the respondents were between ages 41 and 50 years. The researcher is of the opinion that the experience of the older respondents are valuable to the practice, as they usually have both generic experience and experience in the field of forensic investigations. 6.1.2 Gender All of the respondents were female. A possible explanation for this occurrence is that social work is traditionally viewed as a female profession. This is also supported by Earle‟s (2008:23) findings that reveal that social workers are overwhelmingly female and that the South African welfare service is a female-dominated service industry. The researcher also experienced that the majority of social workers trained in the field of forensic social work are female. The researcher is of the opinion that this is a matter of great concern in forensic Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 295 social work, as there are many male victims of sexual abuse. The researcher experienced that it occasionally is better for victims to talk about their encounter to a person of the same sex, especially in cases where the victim is a teenager. 6.1.3 Highest qualification The majority of the respondents, namely 6 (85.71%) had a Master‟s degree in Forensic practice. One (14.28%) of the respondents did not have a Master‟s degree but is busy completing her Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice, but had between 16 and 20 years of experience in the field of forensic investigations. From the responses received, it is clear that the respondents have the necessary postgraduate qualifications and experience to qualify as experts in the field of investigating cases of child sexual abuse. 6.1.4 Province Two (28.57%) of the respondents were situated in Gauteng and another two (28.57%) were from the North West Province. One (14.28%) of the respondents was situated in the Limpopo Province and another one (14.28%) was from the Free State. One (14.28%) respondent from the Western Cape also participated. Because forensic investigation into child sexual abuse is a relatively new field in the South African context, the researcher struggled to find respondents in other provinces. 6.1.5 Geographic area The majority of the respondents, namely five (71.42%) rendered their services in urban areas. One (14.28%) respondent was situated in a semi-urban area and one (14.28%) of the respondents was from a rural area. This is alarming to the researcher as the assumption can be made from the respondents‟ responses that the much needed services of forensic investigators are not readily available in urban and semi-urban areas. 6.1.6 Years of experience as forensic investigator One (14.28%) of the respondents did not state her years of experience. The one respondent (14.28%) with the least amount of experience had between one and five years of experience. Two (28.57%) respondents stated that they have between 6 to 10 years of experience in the field of forensic investigations. Two (28.57%) respondents had between 11 and 15 years of experience and one (14.28%) respondent had between 16 and 20 years of experience as a forensic investigator. From these responses, it seems that the respondents are quite experienced in the field of forensic investigations. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 296 6.1.7 Workplace Three (42.85%) of the respondents worked in private practices and three (42.85%) respondents were from the South African Police Service. One (14.28%) respondent worked as a school social worker. A possible reason for this might be that the South African Police Service specifically employs forensic social workers to assist in the investigation into child sexual abuse cases. The private practice is also an employer of a large number of forensic social workers. 6.2 Phase 1: Aspects to consider prior to the assessment (Section 2) In this part of the questionnaire, the researcher posed qualitative and quantitative questions to the respondents. The purpose of this phase was to evaluate aspects forensic investigators must pay attention to before they can conduct forensic investigations. 6.2.1 Qualifications of the forensic investigator The researcher made a statement to the respondents saying that the forensic investigator must possess a postgraduate qualification in order to conduct forensic investigations. The choices the respondents were provide with were: “I agree”, “I am not sure” and “I do not agree”. The following is a graphic outline of their responses: GRAPH 11: VIEWS OF EXPERTS ON A POSTGRADUATE QUALIFICATION FOR THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR N=7 The researcher is of the opinion that all of the respondents responded in this manner because they are directly involved in the field of forensic investigations and therefore realise that forensic investigations into child sexual abuse is a specialised field where forensic investigators are expected to give expert testimony in cases of child sexual abuse. An expert is according to Carstens (2006:188) someone who:  Has education or specialised training,  Has superior knowledge regarding a subject,  Can deduce correct conclusions, I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 297  Can formulate an accurate opinion. When referring back to paragraph 6.1.3 it reveals that the majority of the respondents possessed a Master‟s degree and the one respondent that did not have a postgraduate qualification was busy with a Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice. The researcher asked a follow-up question in this regard. The researcher posed an open- ended question to the respondents in order to determine what their opinion is on what a forensic investigator‟s qualifications must be. Their responses can be summarised in the following themes: TABLE 7: QUALIFICATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR QUALIFICATIONS OF THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR Master‟s degree in forensic practice Postgraduate qualification The respondents stated that the forensic investigator must have a Master‟s degree in forensic practice in order to qualify as a forensic investigator. They were also of the opinion that the forensic investigator must possess a postgraduate qualification. One respondent stated the following in this regard: “Die inligting waaroor jy moet beskik word nie voorgraads aangebied nie. Dit is absoluut „n spesialisveld” (The information you must have is not presented on pregraduation level. It is an absolute specialised field). This is consistent with the recommendations of researchers (APSAC, 2012:3; Koocher, 2009:83; Kuehnle, 1996:27; Spies & Carstens, 2005:40-41; Walker, 2002:178). In the developed forensic assessment model the researcher recommended that forensic investigators must possess a postgraduate qualification. This recommendation of the researcher is consistent with both literature and the recommendations of experts in the field of forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse. 6.2.2 Working in accordance with a forensic assessment model The researcher made a statement to the respondents saying that forensic investigators must work according to a scientific forensic model. The choices the respondents were provided with were: “I agree”, “I am not sure” and “I do not agree”. Their answers can be summarised in a graph as follows: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 298 GRAPH 12: EXPERT’S OPINION ON WORKING IN ACCORDANCE WITH A SCIENTIFIC FORENSIC MODEL N=7 All of the respondents agreed that forensic investigators must make use of a scientific forensic assessment model during investigations into child sexual abuse cases. The researcher followed this statement with a qualitative question where the respondents were asked what model they think would be the most suitable for the South African context. The majority of the respondents, namely four (57.14%), recommended the comprehensive assessment model. This recommendation is consistent with the recommendation of the researcher. However, it emerged during the research that the remaining three (42.85%) of the respondents did not have knowledge of forensic models. This is alarming to the researcher as this raises the question as to what theory they use to underwrite their forensic investigative process 6.2.3 Approach to follow during forensic investigation The researcher posed a multiple-choice question to the respondents where they were afforded the opportunity of choosing whether forensic investigations must be performed: “blind, history-free (limited information is obtained beforehand), or informed”. The following is a graphic outline of their responses: GRAPH 13: APPROACH TO FOLLOW DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N= 7 Agree (7 respondents) 100% Blind (3 respondents) 42.86% History free (3 respondents) 42.86% Did not respond (1 respondent) 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 299 Three (42.86%) of the respondents stated that forensic investigations must be performed blind and another three (42.86%) that forensic assessments must be performed history-free (only limited information is gathered prior to the investigation). One (14.28%) of the respondents did not answer the question. No respondents stated that the forensic investigation must be performed informed. Although there is no consensus among researchers, the researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigations must be performed blind. Cantlon et al., (1996:1113) state in this regard that allegation blind interviews yielded a statistically higher disclosure rate. Bow et al., (2002:572) are of the opinion that the forensic investigator must have no involvement prior to the case and must be neutral and objective all the time. Guidelines do not comment on which practice is preferable, but only state that the structure of the interview process should at all times be unbiased and support the search for alternative explanations for the findings or allegations (La Raque, De Mattia & Low 2006:1142). Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that blind investigations will contribute to the researcher‟s objectivity and neutrality. However, Poole and Lamb (1998:112) state that blind interviews require a more highly trained interviewer, and also state that the blind interview might not always be successful with younger children. This must be borne in mind when making recommendations regarding the approach during forensic investigations. The researcher granted the respondents the opportunity of commenting on the approach they choose during forensic investigations. Themes the researcher identified were that the respondents were of the opinion that it is better for the legal system if the forensic investigator performed blind assessments, as the legal professionals question this method the least. The researcher is of the opinion that as long as no information is gathered regarding the nature and content of the abuse prior to the investigation, the forensic investigator can maintain a neutral and objective stance. Another theme the researcher identified was that the respondents are of the opinion that in some instances it is just not possible to perform blind assessments. An example would be of a child that is too young to make a disclosure or a disabled child. 6.2.4 Consent from parents prior to the assessment of children The researcher advanced an assertion to the respondents stating that forensic investigators must obtain the consent of parents prior to the assessment of children. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graphic summary of their responses: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 300 GRAPH 14: CONSENT FROM PARENTS PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN N=7 The majority of the respondents, namely five (71.43%), agreed that forensic investigators must obtain the consent of the parents prior to the assessment of children. This is consistent with the recommendations from the researcher‟s forensic assessment model (Bow et al., 2002:572; Fouché, 2006:217; Wilson & Powell, 2001:28). The respondents were also granted the opportunity to motivate their statements. One (14.28%) of the respondents was not sure and another respondent (14.28%) did not agree in this regard. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to grant them the opportunity of motivating their answers. Themes that arose from the respondents that agreed that it is necessary to obtain consent from parents were that forensic investigators are ethically obliged to obtain consent. They also stated that if the parents do give consent, they are more likely to cooperate with the process. However, the respondents explained that if a parent withholds consent, for instance where the parents are alleged offenders in the case, the court can grant the necessary consent, if it would serve the best interest of the child. This is consistent with the principal of “in the best interest of the child”, as stated in the New Children‟s Act 38 of 2005. 6.2.5 Record keeping during interviews with the children The researcher posed a question to the respondents as to what they regard as the best method for keeping record during interviews. The respondents could choose between video recordings, audio recordings and written notes. Some respondents chose more than one option in this regard. Their responses can be summarised as follows: Agree (5 respondents) 71.43% Do not agree (1 respondent) 14.28% Not sure (1 respondent) 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 301 GRAPH 15: RECORD KEEPING DURING INTERVIEWS WITH THE CHILDREN N=7 Three (42.85%) of the respondents indicated that forensic investigators must make use of video recordings for the purposes of record keeping and two (28.57%) indicated that audio recordings are sufficient for this purpose. None of the respondents indicated that written notes are sufficient. Audio recordings as well as written notes were indicated by one (14.28%) of the respondents as an acceptable method for record keeping and another one (14.28%) indicated that video recordings as well as written notes are an acceptable method for record keeping. The researcher followed up the question regarding documentation with a qualitative question and asked the respondents, regardless of their previous answer, what method they employ in order to keep record of their interviews with children. All of the respondents (100%) indicated that they make use of written notes in order to keep record of their interviews with children. Two (28.57%) of the respondents indicated that they make use of both written notes and audio recordings. One respondent had the following to say in this regard: “Video recordings etc. are just too expensive”. Another respondent explained that although she makes use of written notes and audio recordings, she occasionally experiences technological problems, such as recording machines that just stop or tapes that need to be changed. The respondent also stated that human errors can at times be over- emphasised in court. This is consistent with the opinion of three (75%) of the state prosecutors (compare paragraph 5.12.2) that also stated that errors can cause unnecessary problems during cross-examination. According to this respondent, children that were victims of the manufacturing of pornography also tend to withdraw when video recordings are made during interviews. However, two (28.57%) of the respondents that indicated that they make Video recordings (3 respondents) Audio recordings (2 respondents) Audio recordings & written notes (1 respondent) Video recordings & written notes (1 respondent) 42.85% 28.57% 14.28% 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 302 use of written notes were of the opinion that video recordings will be the best method for record keeping. From the results of the research it seems that consensus neither among researchers nor the respondents exists as to what method must be employed to keep record during forensic investigations. However, it seems that making use of video recordings are currently not the best option in the South African context. It is also not a substitute for the child‟s testimony in court. During forensic interviews, the forensic investigator must make use of extensive documentation, which often includes video recordings (Faller, 2007:5). Amongst professionals working with child sexual abuse cases there is universal agreement that investigators interviewing children on the sexual abuse, need to employ some method of documentation. This documentation can consist of written notes, audiotapes or videotapes (APSAC, 2012:8; Faller, 2003:147; Faller, 2007:58-60; Wood, Nathan, Nezworski & Uhl, 2009:94). From the research it emerged that no real consensus exists among researcher as to what method is best to employ. Koocher (2009:94) states that the investigator must be able to answer the following question: “Have I collected, in a thorough manner, data necessary to explore all relevant and competing hypotheses applicable to the referral questions?” Regardless of the method of documentation employed by the forensic investigator, sufficient information must be gathered during the investigation process. The researcher is of opinion that the forensic investigator must keep record of all actions during the investigation process and that the forensic investigator‟s actions must be transparent. This can be assured by extensive and complete record keeping. The methods recommended by the researchers, are consistent with the recommendations made by the researcher. Considering these facts, the researcher is further of the opinion that it is of great importance that forensic investigators must paint a true reflection of the investigator had followed, as well as the information disclosed by the child, and indeed by means of a comprehensive report. 6.2.6 Multiple interviews with children The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that forensic investigators must make use of multiple interviews during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 303 GRAPH 16: MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=7 Four (57.15%) of the respondents agreed that the forensic investigator must conduct multiple interviews with the child. Two (28.57%) of the respondents did not agree in this regard, one respondent (14.28%) agreed and one respondent (14.28%) was not sure. The researcher posed a qualitative question, where the respondents were granted the opportunity of motivating their answers. The respondents that did not agree that children must be interviewed more than once did not motivate their answers. The following themes could be identified from the respondents‟ statements that agreed that one interview is not enough: TABLE 8: MAKING USE OF MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS WITH A CHILD DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS MAKING USE OF MULTIPLE INTERVIEWS WITH A CHILD DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS Disclosure is a process You need more than one interview to confirm the child‟s statement The respondents stated that disclosure is a process and therefore the child needs more than one interview. The respondents were also of the opinion that the child must be interviewed more than once in order to confirm the child‟s statement. Some researchers do not recommend multiple interviews (Connell, 2009:426), but most professionals in the field of child sexual abuse appreciate that a single interview may be inadequate (APSAC, 2012:9; Carnes, Nelson-Gardell, Wilson & Orgassa, 2001:230; Cronch et al., 2006:202; Faller, Cordisco-Steele & Nelson-Gardell, 2010:572). La Rooy, Lamb and Pipe (2009:327) state that despite the universal preference for single forensic interviews, children are rarely questioned about abuse only once. A policy that limits the investigative or fact-finding process to a single interview is not recommended (APSAC, 2012:9). A single interview gives the child only one chance to disclose (Faller & Nelson-Gardell, 2010:649). I agree (4 respondents) 57.15% I am not sure (1 respondent) 14.28% I do not agree (2 respondents) 28.57% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 304 Repeated non-leading interviews tend to uncover new detail (Hershkowitz & Terner, 2007:1131; La Rooy et al., 2008:353). In the forensic assessment model the researcher recommended that forensic investigators must make use of more than one interview with a child so as to confirm allegations of child sexual abuse. This is consistent with what some literature recommend and also with the recommendations of the majority of the experts. Researchers agree that disclosure is not a once-off incident, but rather a process (Allagia, 2004:1214; Faller, 2003:159; Faller et al., 2010:573; London, Bruck, Ceci & Shuman, 2005;196); therefore, some children might need more than one opportunity to disclose their sexual abuse encounter (Carnes et al., 2001:232; Faller, 2003:159). When this information is considered, the researcher is of opinion that it is important to establish a positive trusting relationship with the child before the child will be able to make a disclosure, but this will require more than one interview. In practice, the investigator also experienced that the majority of children will only disclose sexual abuse once a trusting relationship is established with them, which seldom happens in one interview. The researcher‟s recommendations are consistent with the opinions of experts in the fie ld of child sexual abuse investigations, as well as with the opinions of respected researchers in this field. 6.2.7 Questioning of children The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about correct questioning strategies, as this can influence the outcome of the interview. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: GRAPH 17: QUESTIONING OF CHILDREN N=7 All of the respondents agreed that forensic investigators must be knowledgeable about the questioning of children, as this can influence on the outcome of the assessment. The researcher attributes this to the fact that the experts in the field are aware of the fact that I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 305 questioning of children usually is the only method for obtaining information regarding the crime that had been committed. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to determine what they regard as the most preferred questions during a forensic interview to elicit information from a child. Themes that emerged from their responses can be summarised as follows: TABLE 9: MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS DURING A FORENSIC INTERVIEW MOST PREFERRED QUESTIONS DURING A FORENSIC INTERVIEW Open-ended questions. Questions that promote free narratives. Non-leading questions. Must apply the “funnelling” technique during questioning. The respondents indicated that forensic investigators must make use of open-ended questions during interviews with children. The respondents indicated that forensic investigators must ask questions that prompt the child to give free narratives, and also non- leading questions. Furthermore, they indicated that forensic investigators must apply the “funnelling technique” when questioning children. This technique implies that the investigator starts with an open-ended question and then move to more specific or focussed questions. It is advised that investigators employ more open-ended questions before resorting to more closed-ended questions and they must realise that the answers to more closed-ended questions may be less accurate (Faller, 2007:92). From the responses received, it emerges that the respondents are well educated in questioning children. The researcher is convince that this is an important aspect in forensic investigations as this is often the only way to gain information on a crime that has been committed. Therefore, investigators are advised to be conscious of the type of questions they employ (Faller, 2007:92). The recommendations made in this regard by the researcher are consistent with the opinion of experts, and with what the above literature recommends in this regard. 6.3 Phase 2: The pre-forensic assessment The respondents were asked to evaluate the next phase of the developed assessment model. This phase consisted of the pre-forensic assessment. 6.3.1 Introduction during forensic investigations The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to introduce themselves to children during assessments. The respondents Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 306 could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph reflecting their responses: GRAPH 18: INTRODUCTION DURING FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is necessary for investigators to introduce themselves during an interview with the child. Investigators can explain their role by telling the child being interviewed that it is their duty to make sure that children are safe, or to talk to children with problems (Faller, 2007:70; Poole & Lamb, 1998:122; Wilson & Powell, 2001:46). The researcher included an introductory phase in the assessment model and this is consistent with the opinions of the respondents and with the suggestions from respected researchers. The researcher is of the opinion that this is an important phase during the assessment process as it helps the child to relax, and the investigator to build a trusting relationship between the two of them. From the received responses it seems that the respondents are in agreement with the researcher. 6.3.2 Rapport building with children The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to build rapport with a child during the interview(s). The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: Agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 307 GRAPH 19: RAPPORT BUILDING WITH CHILDREN N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is necessary for investigators to build rapport with children when they are interviewed. When considering these responses, the researcher came to the conclusion that the respondents are aware of the value of rapport building during interviews with children. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to determine what they regard as the role and purpose of rapport building. Themes identified from their responses can be summarised as follows: TABLE 10: ROLE AND PURPOSE OF RAPPORT BUILDING ROLE AND PURPOSE OF RAPPORT BUILDING Creates safe environment where child can trust interviewer Helps facilitate a disclosure Helps child to feel comfortable Helps to build a relationship with the child Determines whether child can give information in the form of a narrative The respondents indicated that the role and purpose of rapport building are to create a safe environment in which the child can trust the investigator and they also indicated the role and function of rapport building as to facilitate a disclosure. The respondents also indicated the role and function of rapport building as to help the child to feel comfortable during the interview. The respondents also stated that the role and function of rapport building is to determine whether the child can provide information in the form of a narrative. Most of the available guidelines on how to interview sexually abused children, mention that investigators must spend time on developing rapport with children (Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:343; Vallano & Compo, 2011:965; Wood & Garven, 2000:110). The researcher included a phase of rapport building with children. Researchers in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse as well as the respondents were of the Agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 308 opinion that rapport building must be included. The responses of the respondents correlate with the functions of rapport building as identified by Roberts, Lamb and Sternberg (2004:189-190). The researcher is also supportive of these functions of rapport building and included those important functions of rapport building in the developed assessment model. 6.3.3 The competency test Lyon (2011:69) states that the law distinguishes between two different types of child witness competency, namely basic competency and truth-lie competency. The researcher tested the respondents‟ perspectives on both the truth-lie competency test, and the basic competency test. 6.3.3.1 The truth-lie competency test The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to determine whether a child can distinguish between truth and lies (truth-lie competency test). The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 20: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TRUTH AND LIES N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important for the forensic investigator to determine whether a child can distinguish between truth and lies during forensic investigations into child sexual abuse. The researcher attributes this to the fact that the respondents have experience in court proceedings and that they are aware of the fact that the legal system requires a child to distinguish between truth and lies before they can testify in criminal proceedings. However, no uniform guidelines exist for the need for discussing truth and lies during a forensic interview and some protocols do not even cover this phase (Poole & Lamb, 1998:124; State of Michigan, 2005:10), but some investigators often assess children‟s I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 309 ability to differentiate between the truth and a lie (APSAC, 2012:17; Cronch et al., 2006:200; Faller, 2007:70). Connell (2009:460) is of the opinion that truth and lie assessment may increase the likelihood that children will tell the truth. Therefore the researcher included that phase in the developed assessment model. This is consistent with the responses of all the respondents as well as with literature. The researcher posed a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to determine whether a child can provide information in a narrative form (basic competency test). The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: GRAPH 21: NEED TO DETERMINE THE CHILD’S ABILITY TO GIVE INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF A NARRATIVE N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important for forensic investigators to include the basic competency test during their investigations into child sexual abuse. The aim of the basic competency assessment is to determine the child‟s ability to perceive, remember and communicate. This can be demonstrated by eliciting the child‟s report on recent events (Faller, 2007:70; Lyon, 2011:69). Graffam-Walker (1999:97) also defines basic competency as the ability to observe, remember and to communicate. The researcher included a phase in which the child‟s basic competency is tested. This is consistent with what experts in the field of forensic investigations recommend, as well as the above researchers. 6.3.4 The establishment of ground rules The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to include ground rules during their interviews with children. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 310 GRAPH 22: ESTABLISHMENT OF GROUND RULES N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important to include ground rules during interviews with children. When ground rules are properly presented, they can reduce the inclination to guess, increase the willingness to ask for clarification and increase the resistance to suggestion (APSAC, 2012:16; Teoh & Lamb, 2010:153). Therefore the researcher included a phase for the establishment of ground rules during interviews with children. This is consistent with the recommendations of both literature and experts in the field of child sexual abuse investigations. The researcher also granted the respondents the opportunity of choosing between a list of ground rules they employ during their interviews with children. The respondents were allowed to choose more than one option; hence their responses will calculate to more than 100%. Their responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 23: GROUND RULES EMPLOYED BY RESPONDENTS N=7 I agree (7 respondents) 100% 100% 71.42% 100% 85.71% 85.71% 71.42% 71.42% 100% 85.71% 85.71% 71.42% 85.71% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 311 From the responses received from the respondents, it emerged that the majority of the respondents apply the ground rules as identified by researchers in the field of child sexual abuse cases (APSAC, 2012:16; Faller, 2007:74; Orbach et al., 2000:738; Poole & Lamb, 2001:126-130; Roberts et al., 2004:192; Saywitz et al., 2011:348-349; Scottish Executive, 2003:53; State of Michigan, 2005:11; Teoh & Lamb, 2010:157; Wilson & Powell, 2001:35- 36; Walker, 2002:168-169). This once again proves that the respondents are experts in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse. 6.3.5 Determining the child’s cognitive functioning The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to determine a child‟s cognitive functioning during a forensic investigation. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 24: DETERMINING THE CHILD’S COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is necessary to determine a child‟s cognitive development during a forensic investigation. The investigator must assess the child‟s developmental skills such as language, reasoning and any apparent developmental delays (Mart, 2010:330; New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:17). The researcher recommends in the developed assessment model that forensic investigators must determine children‟s cognitive functioning. This is consistent with the recommendat ions of the respondents as well as what literature recommends. 6.3.6 Obtain baseline information from children The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to obtain baseline information from children during forensic investigations into child sexual abuse cases. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph of their responses: I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 312 GRAPH 25: OBTAIN BASELINE INFORMATION FROM CHILDREN N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is necessary for forensic investigators to obtain baseline information from children during investigations into child sexual abuse. The researcher followed up this question with a qualitative question in order to determine what type of baseline information they obtain from children during their investigations. The following themes could be identified from their responses. TABLE 11: BASELINE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE CHILD BASELINE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE CHILD Information on school functioning Information on family Information on friends/peers Information on friends of the family Information on living arrangements Information on any other significant others The respondents indicated that they obtain information on the child‟s functioning in school and they indicated that it is necessary to obtain information on the child‟s family. The respondents indicated that information must be obtained on the child‟s friends and the respondents indicated that forensic investigators must obtain information on the friends of the family. Information on the child‟s living arrangements was also identified as a theme and that it is important to obtain information on significant others in the child‟s life. This information is consistent with the recommendations of researchers in this field (Carnes et al., 2001:238; New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:17; Wilson and Powell, 2001:70). The researcher also recommended that investigators obtain baseline information on those spheres of the child‟s life from the child. Although researchers indicate that this may be valuable information to obtain, it is not included in any of the forensic interviewing protocols. The researcher included this phase in the assessment model, since children that have been neglected have a parent with a problem of alcohol abuse, or have a battered Agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 313 mother, have been reported to be at risk of being sexually abused (Dong, Anda, Dube, Giles & Felitti, 2003:626; Dong, Anda, Felitti, Dube, Williamson, Thompson, Loo & Giles, 2004:772). Although researchers agree with this statement, it is not included in any forensic interviewing protocol. 6.3.7 Identification of different body parts The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to ask children to identify different body parts. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph indicating their responses: GRAPH 26: IDENTIFICATION OF DIFFERENT BODY PARTS N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important to let children identify body parts during a forensic investigation. The researcher posed a qualitative question in order to determine why the respondents regard it as necessary for children to identify body parts. The following themes were identified: TABLE 12: REASONS FOR BODY PART IDENTIFICATION REASONS FOR BODY PART IDENTIFICATION Clarifies that child refers to correct body part Evaluate child‟s comfort/discomfort regarding body parts For investigator not to make assumptions about body parts involved The respondents indicated that they ask children to identify body parts in order to clarify that both the investigator and the child are referring to the same body parts. The respondents indicated that it is a manner of evaluating whether the child feels uncomfortable about genitals. The respondents also motivated their choice by saying it prohibits the investigator from making own assumptions about the body parts involved. Regardless of the child‟s age, the investigator must gather detail with regard to how the child refers to both male and I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 314 female body parts (New York State Children‟s Justice Task Force, 2003:20). Hence one can say that the researcher‟s recommendations are in line with the mentioned literature and the opinions of the respondents. The researcher is of the opinion that this is an important phase during a forensic investigation and yet only a few protocols include this phase. 6.3.8 Evaluation of techniques during the forensic investigation The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what criteria they apply to evaluate whether a technique is suitable to use during a forensic investigation. The following themes were identified from their responses: TABLE 13: EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N=7 EVALUATION OF TECHNIQUES Must be legally defendable in court Techniques must be non-leading The respondents indicated that the techniques they apply must be legally defensible and that the techniques must be non-leading. The researcher indicated that the investigators must evaluate whether the techniques they apply are suitable for the purpose. The researcher included the following criteria to evaluate the suitability of a technique (Vieth, 2009:189; Walker, 2002:154):  Whether the technique can be and has been tested.  Is the theory or technique subjected to peer review and submitted for publication?  Are the potential error rate and the existence and maintenance of standards controlling the operation of a particular scientific technique known?  What is the “general acceptance” within a relevant scientific community? Techniques applied by forensic investigators must be based on the following forensic interviewing principles (Fouché, 2006:218):  The investigator must not make use of leading or suggestive questioning.  Investigators must not make their own interpretations.  New topics and questioning must be introduced by means of open-ended questions.  The child‟s comprehension of instructions and new concepts must be clarified by contextualizing them within neutral topics.  Investigators must summarise at the end of each topic, before a new topic is introduced, to verify that the child was understood correctly.  The investigator must ask whether there is anyone else that has not been mentioned. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 315 The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must be educated in this regard in order to make correct choices. From the responses it is evident that the researchers did indeed apply these criteria. 6.3.9 Closing an interview with the child The researcher asked the respondents to indicate what closing statements they make when they terminate an interview with the child and gave them options to choose from. The respondents were allowed to choose more than one option; hence their responses will calculate to more than 100%. Their responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 27: CLOSING STATEMENTS WHEN TERMINATING THE INTERVIEW N=7 Four (57.14%) respondents indicated that they recapitulate the information provided by the child and six (85.70%) of the respondents stated that they change to a neutral topic when they close an interview with the child. Six (85.70%) of the respondents stated that they thank the child for coming and another six (85.70%) of the respondents stated that they grant the child the opportunity of asking questions. Four (57.14%) of the respondents indicated that they explore other possible events. Six (85.70%) of the respondents explain to the child what will happen next and only one (14.28%) of the respondents provide the child with contact information. From the responses received from the respondents, it emerged that they act in line with the recommendations of literature (APSAC, 2012:21; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:112; Faller, 2007:79-80; Poole & Lamb, 1998:144-145; Scottish Executive, 2003:35; State of Michigan, 2005:20; Wilson & Powell, 2001:67) and with those of the researcher. 57.14% 85.70% 85.70% 85.70% 57.14% 85.70% 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 316 6.4 Phase 3: Interviews with relevant role players The next phase in the forensic assessment model is interviews with relevant role players. 6.4.1 Consultations with collateral sources The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to consult with collateral sources during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 28: CONSULTATIONS WITH COLLATERAL SOURCES N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important to interview collateral sources during a forensic investigation. This is evident that the respondents and the researcher alike are of the opinion that forensic investigators must be neutral and objective during forensic investigations into child sexual abuse. The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what collateral sources they consult during forensic investigations. Their responses can be summarised in the following themes: TABLE 14: COLLATERAL SOURCES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION COLLATERAL SOURCES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION SAPS investigating officer Other professionals involved School Parents/Caretakers The respondents stated that they consult with the SAPS investigating officer and with other professionals during the forensic investigation. The respondents also consult with the school and with the child‟s parents or caretaker. I agree (7 repondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 317 The researcher recommended that collateral interviews must take place during forensic investigations. This is consistent with the opinions of the respondents. The comprehensive assessment model, which is the basis of the researchers interviewing protocol, also involves interviews with others such as the non-offending parents, the alleged offender and others who may have relevant information (Faller, 2003:145). Hence one can say that the researcher‟s recommendations are consistent with the available research. 6.5 Phase 4: The forensic interview The next phase in the forensic assessment model is the forensic interview. 6.5.1 Scientific forensic interviewing protocol The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to employ a scientific forensic interviewing protocol. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph portraying their responses: GRAPH 29: FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is important to work according to a scientific forensic assessment model. The researcher asked the respondents to indicate according to which model they work. Their answers can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 30: CHOICE OF FORENSIC INTERVIEWING PROTOCOL N=7 I agree (7 respondents) 100% Michigan protocol (2 respondents) NICHD (3 respondents) APSAC (1 respondent) No response (1 respondent) 28.57% 42.85% 14.28% 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 318 Of the respondents, three (42.85%) indicated that they make use of the NICHD interviewing protocol. Two (28.57%) of the respondents stated that they make use of the Michigan protocol, one (14.28%) of the respondents makes use of the APSAC guidelines and one (14.28%) did not respond to the question. The researcher recommended that the NICHD protocol must be used during forensic investigations. Lamb and his colleagues have worked on pinpointing interviewing techniques that will produce the best quality of information from children (Saywitz, et al., 2011:340). According to Orbach et al. (2000:734) as well as Lamb, Hershkowitz, Orbach and Esplin (2009:85), the NICHD is a flexible and structured protocol that incorporates a wide range of strategies believed to enhance the retrieval of information from children. Herman (2009:261) states that although other interview guidelines and protocols exist, no other protocol or guideline has levels of empirical support equal to those of the NICHD protocol. The researcher‟s recommendations are in line with the procedures followed by the majority of the respondents as well as with the recommendations of respected researchers in this field. 6.6 Phase 5: Interview with parents This phase is similar to phase 3 (Interviews with relevant role players) and also forms part of the collateral sources that need to be consulted. 6.6.1 Interview with the offender The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to interview the offender during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph displaying their responses: GRAPH 31: INTERVIEW WITH THE OFFENDER N=7 Agree (6 respondents) 85.72% No response (1 respondent) 14.28% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 319 Six (85.72%) of the respondents agreed that it is important to interview the offender during a forensic investigation and one (14.28%) of the respondents did not respond to the question. Suspects in cases of child sexual abuse must also be granted the opportunity of explaining their perception of what had happened. The interview with the suspect requires as much thought as the interview with a child or non-offending parent. Therefore the respondent posed a quantitative question to determine the number of respondents that consult the suspect (Pence, 2011:334). The researcher supports this opinion and recommended it in the forensic assessment model. From the responses received, it seems that the majority of the respondents agree with the researcher in this regard. These recommendations are also in line with literature. 6.6.2 Interview with non-offending parent The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to consult with the non-offending parents/parties during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph of their responses: GRAPH 32: INTERVIEW WITH NON-OFFENDING PARENT/PARTY N=7 All of the respondents indicated that it is important to consult with non-offending parents/parties. The researcher posed a qualitative question where respondents were granted the opportunity to explain why they regard this as necessary. Themes from their responses can be summarised as follows: I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 320 TABLE 15: REASONS FOR INTERVIEWING PARENTS/OFFENDER COLLATERAL SOURCES DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION Can verify child‟s information Obtain information about child‟s behaviour Obtain information about relationships in family To identify high-risk situations To contribute to neutrality and objectivity To consider alternative hypotheses The respondents stated that they interview the child‟s parents as well as the offender in order to verify the information that the child provided. The respondents indicated that interviews with these role players can assist them in obtaining information on the child‟s behaviour and they are of the opinion that these interviews will assist them in identifying high-risk situations. The respondents also stated that these interviews assist them in the identification of high-risk situations and they reported that the interviews contribute to neutrality and objectivity. The respondents stated that they conduct the interviews in order to consider alternative hypotheses. As previously mentioned the comprehensive assessment model, which is the basis of the researchers interviewing protocol, also involves interviews with others such as the non- offending parents, the alleged offender and others that may have relevant information (Faller, 2003:145). The researcher is of the opinion that all of the mentioned reasons are relevant and applicable but attach most value to the last two reasons, namely objectivity and neutrality and the investigation of alternative hypotheses. It is strongly recommended that forensic investigators act as objective and neutral fact finders (Connell, 2009:439; Pence, 2011:327; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114; Saywitz et al., 2007:222; Van Eyes & Beneke, 2012:78-79). The investigation of alternative hypotheses is the next phase and will be discussed in detail. 6.7 Phase 6: The investigation of alternative hypotheses The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that it is important for forensic investigators to investigate alternative hypotheses during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph presenting their responses: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 321 GRAPH 33: THE INVESTIGATION OF ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES N=7 All of the respondents agreed that it is necessary for forensic investigators to investigate alternative hypotheses during forensic investigations. The researcher strongly recommends that alternative hypotheses be investigated at all times. This is consistent with the recommendations by researchers (Anderson, Ellefson, Lashley, Lukas, Miller, Russel, Stauffer, & Weigman, 2010: 314; Bow et al., 2002:572; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Fouché, 2006:206; Herman, 2009:262; Scottish Executive, 2003:20). It is also consistent with the opinions of the respondents. 6.8 Phase 7: Report writing during forensic investigations The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that report writing forms an important part of forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph reflecting their responses: GRAPH 34: REPORT WRITING DURING THE FORENSIC INVESTIGATION N=7 All of the respondents indicated that report writing forms an important part of the forensic investigation. A good court report does not paint a favourable picture of the client‟s case, but rather gives a full discussion of the facts at hand and the expert‟s analysis of the facts. The report must contain a clear conclusion as well as an opinion. All possible hypotheses I agree (7 respondents) 100% I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 322 must be considered and discussed in the report. After a report has been submitted and the investigator has a change of mind, this should be communicated through legal representatives without any delay (Fouché, 2007:193). The researcher is of the opinion that report writing is an important aspect during the investigation process, as the court report is the end product of the overall investigation. This recommendation of the researcher is consistent with literature and with the opinions of the respondents. 6.9 Phase 8: Expert testimony in cases of child sexual abuse The researcher made a statement to the respondents stating that forensic investigators can expect to testify in court during forensic investigations. The respondents could choose between the options “I agree, I am not sure, I do not agree”. The following is a graph displaying their responses: GRAPH 35: EXPERT TESTIMONY IN CASES OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE N=7 All of the respondents agreed that forensic investigators during cases of child sexual abuse can expect to testify in court. The researcher is of the opinion that all forensic investigators can expect to go to court to testify in their cases on hand, as the court is the client of the forensic investigator (Faller, 2007:5). This statement is consistent with the mentioned literature and the recommendations of the respondents. During court proceedings the forensic investigator will be granted the opportunity of explaining the investigative process followed during the investigation. Hence it is important for forensic investigators to be prepared to go to court and to educate the court about the case at hand. 6.10 Conclusions and recommendations from the experts in the field of forensic investigations into cases of child sexual abuse  The researcher struggled to find respondents for this part of the research, since experts in the field of child sexual abuse cases are limited.  The respondents all agreed that there are certain aspects that needed to be considered before a forensic investigation can be conducted. They all agreed that the forensic investigator needs a postgraduate qualification and must work according to a scientific I agree (7 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 323 forensic model. Although all the respondents recommended that forensic investigators work according to a scientific forensic model, three (3) (42.85%) of the respondents were not aware of any model that can be employed for this purpose. The researcher recommends in this regard that all forensic investigators must be trained in the theory of forensic models, as the researcher is of the opinion that it forms the basis of a forensic investigation.  The majority of the respondents agreed that it is best to follow a blind or history-free approach when conducting forensic investigations. The researcher is of the opinion that both these approaches will contribute to the objectivity and neutrality of forensic investigators.  The majority of the respondents agreed that it is necessary to obtain the permission of parents before they can conduct a forensic investigation. However, one respondent was not sure about that and the remaining respondents felt that when parents withheld their permission without a valid reason, and when it is in the best interest of the child to be assessed, the parents‟ permission is not necessary.  A significant conclusion drawn is that although it is recommended that forensic investigators must make use of video recordings for the purpose of record keeping, it is currently just not the best option in the South African context. Although some problems may also be experienced with audio recordings, the researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must rather make use of audio recordings during their interviews with children. This can be used in court to compare written notes and audio recordings and will therefore contribute to the forensic investigator‟s trustworthiness.  The respondents also agreed that forensic investigations must not be limited to only one interview with the sexually abused child. It was also agreed upon that questioning strategies during forensic investigations, can significantly influence the outcome of a forensic investigation.  All of the respondents agreed that forensic investigators need to introduce themselves during forensic investigations and rapport building plays an important role during forensic investigations. The respondents also agreed that the competency test plays an important role during a forensic investigation into child sexual abuse. The competency test can be divided into the basic competency test and the truth/lie competency test. The respondents all agreed that both these tests are important during a forensic investigation.  The respondents all agreed that the establishment of ground rules is important during a forensic investigation. However, there are some ground rules that are not applied during Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 324 forensic investigations and the researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must be properly trained in the establishment of ground rules and their value.  All the respondents agreed that it is important to determine a child‟s cognitive functioning during a forensic investigation.  The respondents agreed that it is important to obtain base-line information from children during forensic interviews and explained the areas they regard as important.  The respondents agreed with the researcher that it is important for children to identify different body parts during forensic investigations and stated reasons for their opinions.  The respondents agreed that not just any technique can be employed during a forensic investigation. From the responses it emerged that they are aware of the fact that there are certain criteria to apply for determining whether a technique is suitable, but the researcher is of the opinion that they are not aware of the full extent of that criteria.  The respondents agreed with the researcher that it is necessary to determine an interview with a child with closing statements, but it emerged that they do not utilise all the necessary closing statements. The researcher is of the opinion that attention must be paid to it during the training of forensic investigators.  The respondents agreed with the researcher that is important to have collateral interviews with the caretakers of the child as well as with members of the multi- disciplinary team. The respondents were of the opinion that it contributes to neutrality and objectivity.  All the respondents agreed that it is important to make use of a forensic protocol and the majority of the respondents employ the NICHD interview protocol. This is consistent with the recommendations of the researcher.  This phase is similar to Phase 3. The majority of the respondents agreed that it is necessary to interview the offender in cases of child sexual abuse. One respondent did not respond to this question. All the respondents agreed that it is necessary to interview the non-offending parent as well during cases of child sexual abuse. Some of the reasons for their answers included that it contributes to neutrality and objectivity. They were also of the opinion that it assists the forensic investigator in investigating multiple hypotheses.  All the respondents agreed that it is necessary to investigate alternative hypotheses and stated that it contributes to the forensic investigator‟s neutrality and objectivity.  The respondents agreed with the statement of the researcher that report writing forms a crucial part of the forensic investigation. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 325  All the respondents agreed that expert testimony forms a crucial part of a forensic investigation and that the forensic investigator can expect to have to go to court.  The responses received from the respondents indicated that the forensic assessment model, as developed by the researcher, is mostly in line and compatible with what literature recommends as well as with the way experts in the field are currently performing forensic investigations. However, no standard guidelines currently exist in South Africa as to how forensic investigations ought to be done. The researcher found that the majority of guidelines are designed for children that are ready to make a disclosure regarding child sexual abuse and the guidelines are only on how to elicit that information from the child. Hence the researcher is of opinion that forensic investigators are in need of a set of guidelines to assist them from before the moment they accept a referral, until they close a case. From the responses received from the respondents, it appears that these guidelines as developed by the researcher are applicable to the South African context and that it will be able to assist prospective forensic investigators in a valuable manner. 7. EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL BY POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS The researcher involved postgraduate students enrolled for their Master‟s Degree in Forensic Practice at the North-West University. The total population of the students that attended all classes were involved. For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. By means of this method, the researcher reached 12 respondents (N=12), which included all the respondents. Thus the response rate was 100%. 7.1 Demographic details of the respondents (Section A) TABLE 16: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS N=12 DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS THEME F % N AGE 21-30 years 6 50% N=12 31-40 years 2 16.66% 41-50 years 4 33.33% GENDER Female 8 66.66% N=12 Male 4 33.33% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 326 HIGHEST QUALIFICATION 4-Year Degree in Social Work 11 91.66% N=12 Master‟s Degree in Social Work 1 8.33% GEOGRAPHIC AREA Urban 8 66.66% N=12 Semi-Urban 2 16.66% Rural 2 16.66% YEARS OF EXPERIENCE 1-5 years 5 41.66% N=12 6-10 years 3 25% 16-20 years 3 25% 21-25 years 1 8.33% FIRST LANGUAGE Afrikaans 7 58.33% N=12 Venda 1 8.33% Sotho 1 8.33% Pedi 3 25% 7.1.1 Age The majority of the respondents six (50%) were in the age group 21 to 30 years. This researcher experiences this as positive because these respondents have the potential of practising forensic investigations for a significant period of time. It also means that they are at the beginning of their career and can therefore make significant contributions in this field. Two (16.66%) of the respondents were in the age group 31 to 40 years and also have the potential of practising in this field for a significant period. Four (33.33%) of the respondents were in the age group 41 to 50 years. The researcher is of the opinion that although these respondents might not have that long left in the field, they have valuable experience in the field of social work and can make valuable contributions with this experience and the knowledge they had gained during their postgraduate training in the field of forensic investigations. 7.1.2 Gender The majority eight (66.66%) of the respondents were female. As previously mentioned, social work is a profession that is dominated by females; therefore this is no strange occurrence (Earle, 2008:23). The researcher consider the fact that there are four (33.33%) males in the class, to be very positive, as there is a great need for male forensic investigators – they are very scarce. 7.1.3 Highest Qualification One (8.33%) of the respondents had obtained a Master‟s degree in Social Work and 11 (91.66%) of the respondents had obtained a degree in Social Work. All the respondents are currently busy with a Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice, which is a postgraduate Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 327 qualification. The researcher as well as literature recommend that experts in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse must possess a postgraduate qualification. 7.1.4 Geographic area The majority namely eight (66.66%) of the respondents were working in urban areas. Two (16.66%) of the respondents were from semi-urban areas and another two (16.66%) were from rural areas. The fact that there are limited forensic investigators in rural areas is alarming to the researcher as these areas are much in need of these services. However, the researcher considers it to be positive that there are two forensic practitioners in training that can hopefully serve these areas in the future. 7.1.5 Years of experience The majority of the respondents namely 5 (41.66%) had only between 1 and 5 years of experience. Although it is limited experience, the researcher regards this as positive, as the researcher is of the opinion that when one requires the needed skills and knowledge in order to perform forensic investigations early in one‟s career, one will be able to conduct investigations in the correct manner as described by other experts in the field. Three (25%) of the respondents had between 6 and 10 years of experience and another three (25%) of the respondents had between 16 and 20 years of experience. One (8.33%) respondent had between 21 and 25 years of social work experience. 7.1.6 First language The majority (7) (58.33%) of the respondents‟ first language was Afrikaans. Three (25%) of the respondents spoke Sepedi. One (8.33%) of the respondents spoke Venda and another one (8.33%) of the respondents spoke Sesotho. The researcher experiences it as positive that there is a diverse group of languages involved, as the researcher is of the opinion that children must be assessed in their first language. 7.2 Evaluation of the assessment model (Section B) In this part of the research the postgraduate students will evaluate the forensic assessment model as developed by the researcher. 7.2.1 Reasons respondents enrolled for Master’s in Forensic Practice The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what the reasons were for them to enrol for a Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice. Their responses can be summarised as follows: Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 328 TABLE 17: REASONS FOR ENROLLING IN MASTER’S IN FORENSIC PRACTICE REASONS FOR ENROLLING FOR MASTER’S IN FORENSIC PRACTICE Interested in the investigation process To gain theoretical knowledge of the field, because could not deal with caseload effectively The respondents were interested in the investigation process a forensic investigator must follow but they mostly realised they need more theoretical knowledge in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse, as they could not effectively deal with their caseloads. The researcher regards the fact that the participants realised that they lack the knowledge to conduct forensic investigations and need specialised knowledge, skills and expertise, as a positive aspect. From the above responses it is clear that there is a need to train forensic investigators in South Africa. The researcher could not trace any models, protocols or guidelines designed for the South African context. By evaluating these responses, it is clear that the forensic assessment model, developed by the researcher, can be employed in the South African context and it is also clear that there is a need for such a model. 7.2.2 Strong points of the forensic assessment model The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what they regard as strengths they have been trained in. Themes that were identified from their responses can be summarised as follows: TABLE 18: STRENGTHS OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL STRENGTHS OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL Neutral and objective stance of the investigator Allows you to obtain information from the child Different phases/structures of the interviews with the child Strong guidelines Promotes open-ended questioning and free recall Theoretical knowledge regarding the dynamics of abuse Specialised knowledge and skills that are legally defensible The respondents experienced that the model promotes neutrality and objectivity, which is a strong point. The respondents stated that the model assists them in eliciting information from the child. A respondent stated in this regard: “It is more than just an interview with a child”. The researcher experiences these statements as positive as this was one of the goals of the model and it is also in line with what other experts in this field promote Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 329 (Carstens, 2006:192; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:100; Faller, 2007:5; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:105). The respondents experienced the structure and the different phases of the interviews with the child as a strong point. Structured protocols prevent defective interviewing, and standardization increases adherence to evidence-based practices. Semi-structured interviews afford flexibility but leave more room for error. Unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (APSAC, 2012:10; Orbach et al., 2000:734; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:340). A phased approach is recommended for interviewing sexually abused children (Cordisco-Steele, 2012:104). The respondents experienced open-ended questioning and free recall of information as positive. There is consensus among professionals that as much information as possible must be elicited by formulating open-ended questions (Orbach et al., 2000:734). The respondents experienced the knowledge regarding the dynamics of sexual abuse as a strong point and they regarded the legally defensible specialised knowledge and skills they had acquired as a strong point. This is consistent with the recommendations of Koocher (2009:83) and Kuehnle (1996:27) regarding the knowledge of forensic investigators. When the responses of the respondents are considered, it seems that the respondents identified many strong points in the developed forensic assessment model. These strengths are also consistent with what other respected researchers in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse, recommend. 7.2.3 Weaknesses of the forensic assessment model The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents in order to determine what they regard as weak points of the forensic assessment model. Themes identified from their responses can be summarised as follows: TABLE 19: WEAKNESSES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL WEAKNESSES OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL Cannot identify any weak points Will need continuous supervision Time consuming Will be expensive to employ Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 330 The respondents mainly stated that they could not identify any weak points of the forensic assessment model. Some respondents stated that this model is time consuming and that it will be costly to employ. This statement is consistent with the comprehensive assessment model. The assessment model is based on the comprehensive assessment model. The comprehensive assessment model is an expensive model to employ and very time consuming (Faller, 2007:42). However, the researcher is of the opinion that one cannot compromise quality when it comes to the investigation into child sexual abuse cases. The respondents also stated that newly trained students will need continuous supervision. Kuehnle (1996:27) and Walker (2002:178) are also of the opinion that newly trained forensic investigators need continuous supervision. However, the researcher does not view this as a weak point of the model but rather as an opportunity for forensic investigators to improve their skills and expertise. 7.2.4 Aspects of the forensic assessment model respondents would handle differently The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to determine the aspects of the forensic assessment model they would handle differently. Themes that could be identified from their responses will be discussed. The respondents stated that they would need practical experience in forensic investigations in order to employ the model. The researcher is of the opinion that practical experience and theory are inter-dependent of each other, as prospective forensic investigators must first be trained in the theory before they can apply it in practice. One respondent stated that “it was excellent” to be trained in the model. 7.2.5 Recommendations with regard to the forensic assessment model The researcher posed a qualitative question to the respondents to determine whether they had any recommendations with regard to the forensic assessment model. The following themes were identified from their responses. The respondents recommended that the model be standardised and were also of the opinion that continuous supervision must be availed to students. Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that it will be favourable to all registered members of the South African Counsel for Social Service Professions, if this field can be registered as a specialised field. It will be easy for forensic investigators to become aware of other registered experts in the field that can assist them with supervision. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 331 7.2.6 Investigation of multiple hypotheses The researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents to determine whether they were of the opinion that the assessment model enables investigators to investigate multiple hypotheses. Their responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 36: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12 All of the respondents were of the opinion that the forensic assessment model enables investigators to assess multiple hypotheses. When the investigator considers a report of alleged maltreatment, the investigator must draw on experience to construct a working hypothesis about what might have happened (APSAC, 2012:4; Connell, 2009:439; Cordisco-Steele, 2012:113; Pence, 2011:327). The researcher regards their responses as valuable as the investigation of multiple hypotheses is very important during forensic investigations and contributes to neutrality and objectivity. 7.2.7 Confidence to go to court when model is followed The researcher posed a quantitative question to the respondents to determine whether they are confident to go to court after having employed the forensic assessment model as developed by the researcher. Their responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 36: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12 All of the respondents stated that they will be confident to go to court while employing the model. Forensic investigators‟ client is the court (Carstens, 2006:192; Faller, 2007:6) and forensic investigations are utilised in order to determine whether legal actions are necessary Yes (12 respondents) 100% Yes (12 respondents) 100% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 332 (Saywitz et al., 2007:222). Carstens (2006:191) defines the concept forensic as “…the application of scientific principles and methods to a legal problem with the primary function of providing expert testimony in a court of law”. The researcher regards this response as valuable as forensic investigators can expect to go to court, it is important that they will be confident in the process they followed and testify on their investigative process with the necessary confidence. 7.2.8 The value of the different phases The researcher posed quantitative statements to the respondents in order to give them an opportunity of evaluating each phase. The respondents were requested to evaluate each phase by choosing the most relevant option. The respondents could choose between the following options each time;  of much value  valuable  of less value  of no value  Phase 1: Aspects to consider prior to the assessment of the sexually abused child The first statement was: “Aspects to consider prior to the assessment of the sexually abused child was to me.” Their answers can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 37: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER PRIOR TO THE ASSESSMENT OF THE SEXUALLY ABUSED CHILD N=12 The majority of the respondents, which calculated to nine (75%), regarded “Aspects to consider prior to the assessment of sexually abused children” as of much value. In practice, the researcher experienced that even social workers are not always aware of the fact that Much value (9 respondents) 75% Valuable (3 respondents) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 333 forensic investigation of cases of child sexual abuse is a specialised field. Three (25%) of the respondents chose the option valuable in this regard. From the responses received from the respondents, it seems that the majority of the respondents regarded this phase as of much value and the rest regard it as valuable. Therefore the researcher is of the opinion that this phase must be included in the assessment model.  Phase 2: Aspects to consider during the pre-forensic assessment The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “Aspects to consider during the pre-forensic assessment of the sexually abused child were to me.” The respondents‟ responses can be summarised as follows: GRAPH 38: ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING THE PRE-FORENSIC ASSESSMENT N=12 Regarding this statement, 11 (8.33%) respondents were of the opinion that aspects to consider during the pre-forensic assessment of sexually abused children, were of much value. Only one (8.33%) respondent regarded it as valuable. From the received responses, it emerged that the majority of the respondents regarded this aspect to be of much value, but those that did not agree still regarded this aspect as valuable. Considering these responses, the researcher is of the opinion that this phase is of value and must be included in the forensic assessment model.  Phase 3: Interviews with relevant role players The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “Interviews with relevant role players were to me.” The respondents‟ responses can be summarised as follows: Much value (11 respondents) 91.67% Valuable (1 respondent) 8.33% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 334 GRAPH 39: INTERVIEWS WITH RELEVANT ROLE PLAYERS N=12 Nine (75%) of the respondents regarded phase 3 to be of much value and three (25%) of the respondents regarded this phase as valuable. The investigator is of the opinion that phase three is of importance and was rated by the majority of the respondents as being of much value and must therefore be included in the forensic assessment model.  Phase 4: The forensic interview The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “The forensic interview was to me.” The following graph is a summary of the participants‟ responses: GRAPH 40: THE FORENSIC INTERVIEW N=12 To this statement, 11 (91.67%) of the participants responded that this phase was of much value and one (8.33%) of the respondents indicated that this phase was valuable. The researcher is of the opinion that this phase is of great importance and must be included in the forensic assessment model. Much value (9 respondents) 75% Valuable (3 respondents) 25% Much value (11 respondents) 91.67% Valuable (1 respondent) 8.33% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 335  Phase 5: Interviews with parents and other role players The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “Interviews with parents and other role players were to me.” The following graph will summarise their responses: GRAPH 41: INTERVIEWS WITH PARENTS AND OTHER ROLE PLAYERS N=12 Nine (75%) of the respondents indicated that this phase was of much value to them and three (25%) respondents indicated that this phase was valuable to them. Considering these results, it is clear that the majority of the respondents regarded this phase to be of much value and the rest of the respondents regarded it as valuable. Therefore, the researcher is of the opinion that this phase must be included in the forensic assessment model.  Phase 6: Investigation of multiple hypotheses The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “The investigation of multiple hypotheses was to me.” In the following graph, the researcher will summarise their responses: GRAPH 42: INVESTIGATION OF MULTIPLE HYPOTHESES N=12 Much value (9 respondents) 75% Valuable (3 respondents) 25% Much value (11 respondents) 91.67% Valuable (1 respondent) 8.33% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 336 With regard to this phase, 11 (91.67%) of the respondents rated it as being of much value and one (8.33%) of the respondents rated this phase as valuable. When considering these responses, the researcher is of the opinion that this phase must be included in the forensic assessment model.  Phase 7: Report writing The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stating: “Report writing was to me.” The following graph is a summary of the participants‟ responses: GRAPH 43: REPORT WRITING N=12 Ten (83.34%) of the respondents rated report writing as being of much value and two (16.66%) of the respondents rated report writing as valuable. When considering these responses, the researcher is of the opinion that report writing is a vital phase that must be included in the forensic assessment model.  Phase 8: Expert testimony The researcher posed a quantitative statement to the respondents stat ing: “Expert testimony was to me.” The researcher will summarise their responses in the following graph: Much Value (10 respondents) 83.34% Valuable (2 respondents) 16.66% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 337 GRAPH 44: EXPERT TESTIMONY Nine (75%) of the respondents rated expert testimony as being of much value, while three (25%) of the respondents rated it as valuable. When considering the feedback of the respondents, the researcher is of the opinion that expert testimony is of much value to the respondents and that this phase must be included in the forensic assessment model. 7.2.9 Conclusion and recommendations from responses of postgraduate students  The majority of the respondents were female, but male students also formed part of the group. The majority of the respondents were from urban areas. This is a concern for the researcher, as there is a lack of forensic investigators in rural areas.  The majority of the students enrolled for a Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice, because they were of the opinion that they could not deal effectively with their caseloads of child sexual abuse.  The respondents were of the opinion that the forensic assessment model contributes to neutrality and objectivity – aspects that are expected of a forensic investigator.  Half of the respondents could not identify any weak points in the forensic assessment model. The weak points identified can be easily overcome.  From the responses, it emerged that all the respondents regard the model as effective and stated that they will employ it in practice. They were also of the opinion that the model will assist them in the investigation of multiple hypotheses and they will be confident to testify in court while employing this model.  It emerged during this research that this model is time consuming but the researcher is of the opinion that quality should rather be focussed on than quantity.  It emerged from the study that a need exists among inexperienced forensic investigators for supervision in practice. Much value (9 respondents) 75% Valuable (3 respondents) 25% Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 338 8. CONCLUSION Investigation of cases of child sexual abuse is a relatively new field in the South African context. The researcher could not trace any models, protocols or guidelines that were specifically developed for the South African context, to assist forensic investigators from the moment they receive a case, until the case is closed. The researcher developed a forensic assessment model that is applicable to the South African context and came to the following conclusions in this regard:  It was difficult to find state prosecutors acting in cases of child sexual abuse.  It emerged from the findings that state prosecutors do avail themselves of the services of forensic investigators and are, in general, satisfied with these services. It also emerged that there is a need for more forensic investigators. The problems state prosecutors experienced with forensic investigators mainly were that forensic investigators have inadequate training especially with regard to report writing.  It also emerged during this study that state prosecutors occasionally have unrealistic expectations of forensic investigators, mainly because they are not fully aware of the functions of the forensic investigators. Due to state prosecutors not being fully aware of the functions of forensic investigators, the researcher realised that state prosecutors are not aware of the extent to which they can utilise forensic investigators. It also emerged that state prosecutors are not aware of scientific models and protocols that can be utilised by forensic investigators. This is alarming as this is the basis of any forensic investigation. The researcher also realised that state prosecutors are not properly trained in the dynamics of sexual abuse. Some state prosecutors also have the need to be trained in aspects of child development.  The researcher concluded that if already trained professionals in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse use the developed forensic assessment model as a guideline, they will serve the needs of state prosecutors.  The researcher struggled to find professionals trained as forensic investigators to participate in the research. The researcher also concluded that there is a great need for more professionals to be trained as forensic investigators, especially in all the official languages of South Africa. This will also ensure that quantity will not become a substitute for quality.  The researcher concluded that the developed forensic assessment model was in line with the way forensic investigators are currently practising. However, it also appeared that some forensic investigators do need guidelines to assist them, but that no such guidelines exist for the South African context. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 339  The researcher trained postgraduate students in the developed forensic assessment model. These respondents perceived the training as valuable and stated that they will be confident to testify in court in cases of child sexual abuse, after having implemented the researcher‟s model. 9. SUMMARY The purpose of this article was to evaluate the developed forensic assessment model. Currently no guidelines exist in South Africa for professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. This forensic assessment model serves the needs of state prosecutors in terms of forensic investigations. The forensic assessment model correlates with what literature and experts in the field recommend and postgraduate students trained in this assessment model, perceived the training as valuable. These postgraduate students had confidence in the training. They are also confident to testify in court cases if they had employed the developed forensic assessment model. It provided them with the necessary expertise, knowledge and skills necessary to conduct forensic investigations in cases of child sexual abuse. The following article consists of a summary of the research report with conclusions and recommendation. 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(In Dunbar-Krige, H. & Fritz, E., eds. The supervision of councillors in South Africa: travels in new territory. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. p. 164-177). Vallano, J.P. & Compo, N.S. 2011. A comfortable witness is a good witness: rapport- building and susceptibility to misinformation in an investigative mock-crime interview. Applied cognitive psychology, 25(6):960-970. Article 4 ARTICLE 4: THE EVALUATION OF THE FORENSIC ASSESSMENT MODEL IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT Page 349 Vieth, V.I. 2009. The forensic investigator at trial: guidelines for the admission and scope of expert witness testimony concerning an investigative interview in a case of child abuse. William Mitchell law review, 36(1):186-219. Walker, N.E. 2002. Forensic interviews of children: the component of scientific validity and legal admissibility. Law and contemporary problems, 65(1):149-178. Wilson, J.C. & Powell, M. 2001. A guide to interviewing children: essential skills for counsellors, police, lawyers and social workers. Oxon: Routledge. Wood, J.M., Nathan, D., Nezworski, M.T. & Uhl, E. 2009. Child sexual abuse allegations: lessons learned from the McMartin and other daycare cases. (In Bottoms, B.L., Najdowski, C.J. & Goodman, G.S., eds. Children as victims, witnesses, and offenders: psychological science and the law. New York: Guilford Press. p. 81-101.) Wood, K. & Garven, S. 2000. How sexual abuse interviews go astray: implications for prosecutors, police and child protection services. Child maltreatment, 5(2):109-118. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 350 1. INTRODUCTION This research was conducted to compile a forensic assessment model that can be employed during forensic investigations in the South African context. The researcher identified that cognitive, sexual and language development can have a significant influence during forensic investigations. The researcher studied International models and protocols and used the information that was retrieved from experts in the field of forensic social work to compile a forensic assessment model. This model can serve as a guideline for forensic investigators, which will assist them when working on cases of child sexual abuse, from the moment the referral has been received until the case is closed. The model comprises different phases and also includes a pre-forensic as well as forensic interview with the sexually abused child. Both these assessments will assist the forensic investigator to obtain a complete statement from the child with regard to the sexual abuse. This research project was executed in two phases. The first phase focused on aspects that can influence children‟s statements of sexual abuse. During this phase, the researcher studied International forensic models as well as forensic interviewing protocols and conducted research among experts in the field of forensic social work on the models and protocols they utilise in the field. This was discussed in Articles 1 and 2. The second phase centred on the development, implementation and evaluation of the forensic assessment model, as discussed in Articles 3 and 4. The research report includes the following: SECTION A: GENERAL INTRODUCTION SECTION B: ARTICLES ARTICLE 1 - Interviewing the sexually abused child in middle childhood. ARTICLE 2 - Viewpoints of forensic investigators on international forensic models and protocols for interviewing sexually abused children. SECTION C SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 351 ARTICLE 3 - The course of a forensic assessment model in the South African context. ARTICLE 4 - The evaluation of the forensic assessment model in the South African context. SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this section, the researcher will summarise the study, draw conclusion and make recommendations. The aim, objectives and the central theoretical assumption will also be tested by means of the findings and conclusions. SECTION D consists of various addenda such as questionnaires that were used. SECTION E contained an integrated bibliography. 2. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The most imperative findings and conclusions of this research are summarised in this concluding article and each article will be discussed separately. The researcher answered the following research questions:  What specialised knowledge must a forensic investigator possess before interviewing the sexually abused child?  What does International forensic investigations consist of and how do they compare to the South African context?  What should the process of a South African forensic assessment model be for the investigation of child sexual abuse cases?  How will South African professional role players in cases of child sexual abuse evaluate the developed forensic assessment model? 2.1 Aim and objectives of the study The aim and objectives of the study and how it was reached will be discussed below: 2.1.1 General aim The general aim of this study was to design, compile and evaluate, based on the findings of the empirical investigation and literature study, a forensic assessment model for assessing the sexually abused child in South Africa. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 352 2.1.2 Objectives  The objective to identify, discuss and investigate the specialised knowledge a forensic investigator must have before interviewing a sexually abused child was reached in Article 1, by conducting a thorough literature study.  The objective, to identify by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate their use in the South African context, was reached as explained in Article 2 by means of a literature study and by comparing with international literature, the investigation processes of experts in the field.  The objective, to identify by means of a literature study as well as the information gathered from experts in the field of forensic investigations during the previous phase, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for children in middle childhood, was reached during Article 3 by developing a forensic assessment model for the South African context.  The objective, to evaluate by means of an empirical study the developed forensic assessment model, was reached as set out in Article 4 by implementing and evaluating the developed forensic assessment model 2.2 Section A: General introduction Sexual abuse is a tendency that is constantly on the increase. Berlinger (2003:13) is of the opinion that intervention in cases of child sexual abuse has several important goals, namely:  To assess the risk children are exposed to and to establish a safe environment.  In order to identify sexual offenders, to hold them accountable and to protect the community.  To treat the psychological consequences of the sexual abuse experience.  For the promotion of healthy development that will reduce the risk for long-term negative outcomes because of the sexual abuse. The majority of professionals in South Africa that conduct assessments on sexually abused children and testify on this matter in court do so without proper qualifications or specialization in this field (Kaliski, 2006:62). The reality is that approximately a quarter of South African children has been or will be sexually abused before their eighteenth birthday (Richter, Dawes & Higson-Smith, 2007:6). Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 353 The court sees children as miniature adults and they evaluate their evidence in the same way. This often leads to misunderstandings in court (Müller, 2003:2). Another problem is that the judicial system regards children as unreliable witnesses, because the courts are not aware of the influence children‟s cognitive and language development might have on the child‟s ability to give testimony. However, specialised facilities in court can improve the testimony of victims that will in turn lead to a higher prosecution rate (Ricther et al., 2007:227). The purpose of the forensic interview is to gather facts regarding the incident being investigated (APSAC, 2012:4; Faller, 2007:6; Fouché, 2006:205; Müller, 2001:8; Poole & Lamb, 1998:108; Saywitz & Comparo, 2009:114). The child‟s statement of the sexual abuse experience with adults often is the only available evidence that the sexual abuse had occurred, and the way the child is questioned is often the most critical component of the investigation process (APSAC, 2012:3; De Voe and Faller, 2002:6; Hewitt, 2012:121-122). Saywitz en Camparo (1998:1) are of the opinion that investigators are facing a dilemma, because more and more professionals come to realise that interviewing sexually abused children requires specialised knowledge that is not gained during undergraduate studies. Questioning is an important aspect of an interview. Professionals questioning children on sexual abuse are subjected to a huge amount lot of criticism and the manner in which it is done is often debate on. These issues influenced the development of the proposed sequencing stages in interviews. The sequencing structure is also known as the interview structure or a protocol (Faller, 2007:66). It is important though that the child should not be bombarded with questions concerning the extent and nature of the alleged sexual abuse. It is a well-known fact that investigators must apply non-leading questions or open-ended questions. However, research has indicated that even highly trained forensic investigators still make use of closed-ended questions or suggestions. Due to this problem, Lamb and his colleagues designed a structured interviewing protocol known as the “National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Investigative Protocol (NICHD)”. Their researched recommendations are converted into workable steps. These researchers also found that when investigators made use of a protocol, they obtained more accurate information because it was freely recalled by the child (Lamb, Hershkowitz, Orbach & Esplin, 2009:3,281). Several other International protocols were also designed for the purpose of interviewing the sexually abused child. These include the “Step-Wise” forensic interview protocol developed by Yuille (Poole & Lamb, 1998:95) and the “Child Forensic Interviewing Structure” developed by the National Children‟s Advocacy Center in America (Cordisco-Steele, Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 354 2003:2). However, these protocols only guide forensic investigators in terms of an interview with the child. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators must be guided by guidelines that will assist them in the investigation specifically of child sexual abuse cases. These guidelines must inform them on what to do from the moment they receive a referral of child sexual abuse until they close such case. In the South African context no such model exists. Therefore, during the investigation, the researcher aimed at investigating, compiling and evaluating a research-based forensic assessment model that will develop and evaluate all aspects that form part of the assessment process. 2.2.1 Central theoretical statement Currently no guidelines exist in South Africa for professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. A phased forensic assessment model that gives structure to the assessment process and is applicable to the South African context will provide forensic investigators with the necessary skills, knowledge and expertise to conduct forensic assessments in cases of child sexual abuse. This will lead to a more effective forensic investigation by forensic investigators that in turn can lead to more successful prosecutions. 2.3 Method of investigation By means of a literature and empirical study, this researcher attempted to clarify whether a scientific forensic assessment model in the South African context can assist forensic investigators to conduct forensic investigations. 2.3.1 Literature review A literature study equips the investigator with a complete and thorough justification for the subsequent steps, as well as with a sense of the importance of the research (Fouché & Delport, 2011:133-135). The existing literature on factors influencing forensic investigations into child sexual abuse matters was investigated. The central focus of study was to develop a forensic assessment model in the South African context that could assist forensic investigators during forensic investigations. Evaluation of the existing literature revealed that very limited research appeared to be available on interviewing sexually abused children in the South African context. Also very limited information on forensic interviewing models could be traced and the researcher could not find any literature in this regard that is applicable to the South African context. The researcher could not find literature on forensic models or protocols in the South African context. The researcher obtained most literature from related professions including social work, psychology, medicine and sociology. In order to identify appropriate sources, the following Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 355 databases were used: NEXUS; Scholarly journal; Social Science Index: Social Work Abstracts; ERIC; RSAT; EbscoHost; PsycLit; Questia online library; Catalogue – Ferdinand Postma Library, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. 2.3.2 Empirical research In this intervention research, the Design and Development model (D & D) was used. De Vos and Strydom (2011:475) define the intervention research model as research which is targeted to address the practice application of research. The D & D model, according to Rothman and Thomas (1994:12), may be conceptualized as a problem-solving process for seeking effective intervention and helping tools to deal with given human and social difficulties. Rothman and Thomas (1994:9) stipulated the following six phases of the D & D model and furthermore dubbed intervention research:  Phase 1: Problem analysis and project planning,  Phase 2: Information gathering and synthesis,  Phase 3: Design,  Phase 4: Early development and testing,  Phase 5: Evaluation and advanced development and  Phase 6: Dissemination. Each phase contains a series of steps. Intervention research is a practical and useful model for social work research, supplying new and innovative programmes. 2.3.3 Research design Monette, Sullivan and De Jong (2008:9) define the research design as a plan that outlines how observations will be made and how the researcher will carry out the project. Mouton (2001:55) and Yegidis and Weinbach (1996:89) state that a research design refers to a plan or blueprint of the way a researcher intends to conduct the research. According to Delport and Roestenburg (2011:171), a research design is a guideline according to which we determine the data collection methods. In this research, the exploratary design was applied using quantitative data and qualitative collection methods. During this research project, the exploratory research design was dominant, but there were some characteristics of descriptive research as well. Strydom‟s (1999:78) view of descriptive research is that it is a systematic, objective and complete description of the reality. Descriptive research will present a picture of particular detail of a situation, social setting, or relationship and also focuses on “how” and “why” questions (Fouché & De Vos, 2011:96). Neuman (2000:22) agrees with the statement that descriptive research is seeking answers for “how” and “why” questions. It was important Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 356 during this research to answer these questions when the forensic assessment model was viewed as a scientific method. 2.3.4 Respondents First the researcher distributed a self-structured questionnaire among the respondents. The questionnaire (Addendum 1) consisted of three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, questioned knowledge, skills and experience and contained both closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained both open and closed- ended questions on the assessment process followed by the respondents. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents were documented in the report. Article 4 reports that the researcher utilised three different groups for gathering data and applied different methods for gathering data from the three respective groups. A discussion on the different methods of data gathering will follow:  State prosecutors The researcher utilised semi-structured interviews in order to obtain information from the state prosecutors. Greeff (2011:352) explains that with a semi-structured interview, the researcher will have a set of pre-determined questions on an interview schedule. The interview will be guided rather than dictated by the schedule. The researcher has the flexibility to follow up particular avenues of interest that emerge during the interview (Botma et al., 2010:208; Greeff, 2011:352). The interview schedule is a written questionnaire to guide interviews and is called an interview schedule (Greeff, 2011:352). The researcher compiled this interview schedule herself. The schedule (Addendum 3) comprised two sections, sections A and B. Section A dealt with the biographic details and Section B with the assessment process followed by forensic investigators. The schedule contained open- ended and closed-ended questions. The interview schedule was pre-tested and revisited with a state prosecutor before final use. According to Schurink et al. (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 357 by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report.  Expert forensic investigators in the field of child sexual abuse For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. The questionnaire (Addendum 4) comprised three sections. The first part, section 1, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section 2, dealt with all the phases of the assessment model, and contained closed- and open-ended questions. The last part, section 3, also contained open- and close-ended questions on general aspects of a forensic investigation. These questionnaires were emailed to the different respondents, as they were spread across the entire country. The email contained ground rules and a reminder of when to respond. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink et al. (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report.  Postgraduate students For purposes of this study, a self-structured questionnaire was distributed among the respondents and the researcher collected data by means of this mentioned questionnaire. Questionnaires contain recorded questions and respondents respond directly on the questionnaire, and without the aid of the interviewer. Questionnaires could be handed directly to the respondents, mailed or sent online (Monette et al., 2011:164). In this case, the researcher handed the questionnaires directly to the respondents. The questionnaire (Addendum 5) comprised three sections. The first part, section A, was based on biographic information and contained closed-ended questions. The second part, section B, afforded them the opportunity of evaluating the assessment model, and contained closed- and open- ended questions. The questionnaire was pre-tested and revisited with social workers before final use. According to Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397), data gathering is the process of structuring and assigning meaning to a mass of collected data. Data collected were analysed by hand by the researcher. This means that the responses of the respondents are documented in the report. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 358 2.4 Section B: Articles 2.4.1 Article 1: Interviewing the sexually abused child in the middle childhood The objective of this part of the study was to identify and discuss by means of a literature study, the most important developmental aspects that have an influence on the investigation of child sexual abuse of children. For purposes of this study, the researcher focussed on the child in middle childhood because the majority of the researcher‟s referrals came from children in middle childhood. However, if forensic investigators adhere to developmental aspects of the applicable age group of the victim, this model can be employed with children of all age groups. It is clear from the research that before one can conduct a forensic investigation, the professional must be aware of certain developmental aspects that can influence the outcome of a forensic investigation. Through a literature study, the researcher aimed to answer what important developmental aspects can influence the forensic investigation. Before the researcher could draw any conclusions, it was necessary to look at the question as to why the identified developmental aspects can play a role during a forensic investigation. The researcher identified cognitive, sexual and language development as important developmental factors the forensic investigator must be aware of, as the researcher experienced in practice that these aspects often played an important role during forensic investigations. Fouché (2007:111) agrees with this statement and points out that to determine children‟s ability to provide information about the events they have experienced it is necessary for the investigator to have a basic understanding of the developmental milestones, as well as the general characteristics of the applicable period. In this article the researcher also paid attention to current interviewing protocols. Faller (2007:66) states that professionals that interview children on possible sexual abuse, come from a variety of professional backgrounds with different training in how an interview has to be structured. During this article the researcher also paid attention to the standards set for interviewing protocols. Besides developmental aspects, forensic investigators must also be knowledgeable about interviewing protocols, since the chosen interviewing protocol can also influence the outcome of a forensic investigation. When referring to interviewing protocols, it is thus clear that knowledge about language development is vital during forensic investigations. It also became evident during the literature study that unstructured interviews in the forensic setting are not advised and it is recommended that investigators use a structured or semi-structured format (Orbach, Hershkowitz, Lamb, Sternberg, Esplin & Horowitz, 2000:734; Saywitz, Lyon & Goodman, 2011:340). These structured protocols, Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 359 are designed in such a manner that it includes different phases (Carnes, Nelson-Gardell, Wilson & Orgassa, 2001:231; Faller, 2007:66; Saywitz, et al., 2011:340; Vieth, 2009:197). In sum, it is important for forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about developmental aspects of children. Together with that, forensic investigators must make use of a structured or semi-structured interview protocol that is divided into different phases. 2.4.1.1 Conclusions  The focus in this article was on children between ages seven and twelve years, or the so-called middle childhood phase. When references were made to other age groups, it was to give the reader a more holistic picture of child development and the influence it can have on the forensic investigation process.  It is important for forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about childhood development, as it can have a significant influence on the outcome of a forensic investigation.  The first developmental aspect of children in middle childhood that was discussed was cognitive development. Reference was made to Vygotsky‟s cognitive developmental theory, but Piaget‟s concrete operational stage was discussed in detail. Aspects of importance were conservation, classification or decentration, decline in egocentrism, seriation and transitivity. The most noticeable difference between Piaget‟s pre- operational and concrete operational phase is conservation, a skill children in the concrete operational phase can master. A limitation of children in middle childhood is that they are not able to think abstractly or hypothetically.  A child in middle childhood will be able to give more detailed information regarding the sexual abuse. These children can also consider more than one aspect simultaneously. They are able to consider other people‟s feelings, which the abuser can use to manipulate them more easily.  With the writing of this article it emerged that no consensus exists among researchers regarding normal and abnormal sexual behaviour among children. Acceptable sexual behaviour is mainly determined by the community‟s values and norms. It is normal for children to present sexual behaviour in this phase, but it is usually of an explorative nature and will stop when reprimanded by adults. Abnormal sexual behaviour is sexual behaviour that is inconsistent with norms and values of the community and behaviour that is coercive and aggressive in nature.  Language development of children also is an important aspect during a forensic interview. Age-inappropriate language during a forensic investigation can cause a child to be misunderstood, or the investigator to draw wrong conclusions concerning the Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 360 specific sexual abuse experienced.  The study of language is generally divided into four major topics, namely phonology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics and conversational competence. Investigators tend to use too complicated and developmentally inappropriate language when interviewing sexually abused children. It is also important to pay attention to cultural differences when considering children‟s language.  Researchers recommend that forensic investigators make use of structured or semi- structured interviewing when conducting a forensic investigation. Unstructured interviews are not advisable. Some researchers refer to a forensic protocol rather than to a structure. There is no recognised or standardised forensic protocol for the South African context. 2.4.1.2 Recommendations  Forensic investigators must be educated in childhood development, as this can have a significant influence on the outcome of a forensic investigation.  Forensic investigators must familiarise themselves with children‟s cognitive development, as this will have a significant influence on the type of information a child can provide about sexual abuse allegations.  Although there is no consensus among researchers regarding sexual development of children, it is important for forensic investigators to be knowledgeable about sexual behaviour that is coercive and aggressive in nature, as this is a sign of abnormal sexual behaviour.  Forensic investigators must be aware of age-appropriate language in different developmental phases, as ignorance about this aspect can cause a forensic investigator to interpret information wrongly and to draw wrong conclusions concerning the alleged sexual abuse.  Cultural differences must be considered when conducting forensic investigations.  Forensic investigators must familiarise themselves with phonology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics and converstational competence, as investigators tend to use too complicated language.  Forensic investigators must make use of structured or semi-structured interviews when interviewing children and must avoid conducting unstructured interviews. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 361 2.4.2 Article 2: Viewpoints of forensic investigators on international forensic models and protocols for interviewing sexually abused children. The objective of this article was to compare and evaluate by means of a literature study as well as an empirical investigation, effective international forensic models and protocols and to evaluate it in the South African context. The researcher utilised a self-constructed questionnaire in this phase of the research. Courts are frequently relying on the expertise of forensic investigators to assess allegations of sexual abuse. Such evaluations are complex and require knowledge of techniques used in sexual abuse and sexual offender evaluations. However, few practitioners followed formal models, protocols or guidelines when evaluating cases of sexual abuse (Bow, Quinnell, Zaroff & Assemany, 2002:566). Interviewing children to determine whether or not they had been sexually abused occurs within a context of information gathering (Faller, 2007:43). Saywitz and Comparo (2009:114) also share the opinion that the forensic investigator is a fact finder. Because of lacking evidence in child sexual abuse cases, professionals resort to interviewing family members or other role players in order to determine the probability of sexual abuse. However, the interview with the child still is the most viable and valuable source of information regarding the likelihood of sexual abuse (Faller, 2007:35). Interviews with children do not take place in a vacuum and investigators need to consider the larger context of the child interview. Cordisco-Steele (2012:100) explains that a forensic interview is conducted as part of a larger investigative process, which intends to elicit information that is uniquely the child‟s information and can be used to further law enforcement and child protection investigations. When considering the above literature, it is clear that the forensic investigator cannot rely exclusively on the child‟s account of what had happened. The current practice is conceptualised into four models, namely the interview model, the joint investigation model, the parent-child interaction model and the comprehensive assessment model (Faller, 2003:142; Faller, 2007:35). Once the forensic investigator has chosen a model that is legally defensible in their nature of investigations, they must decide on a protocol to follow. According to the researcher, the interview protocol that is followed by the forensic investigator will form part of the forensic model the forensic investigator employs. During this part of the research it emerged that 61.11% of the respondents make use of the Comprehensive assessment model, which is according to the researcher, the most appropriate model to utilise in the South African context. However, it emerged that an alarming 22.22% of the respondents did not make use of a scientific model during their forensic investigations. It also emerged that 44.44% of the respondents make use of the Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 362 NICHD forensic interviewing protocol to interview the sexually abused child. According to the researcher, this is positive as the NICHD protocol is the most extensively studied child forensic interview protocol (Saywitz, et al., 2011:340). The APSAC guidelines are also utilised by 44.44% of the respondents, but according to the researcher, forensic investigators must take note that these guidelines are not a protocol, but as the name states, only guidelines. The use of formalised protocols is suggested, rather than generalised guidelines, when conducting forensic interviews with children (Walker, 2002:170). It also emerged that 38.88% of the respondents involve sexually abused children in therapy. When doing therapy with the sexually abused child, clinical methods of interviewing are used, which includes techniques such as leading questions, multiple-choice questions, hypothetical questions and play therapy. Therapy assists children with resolving traumatic experiences, but, as far as the courts are concerned, it may encourage confusion between fantasy and reality and thus influence the reliability of the child‟s evidence (Müller, 2001:8). It is clear that forensic social work does by no means entail therapy to the victim of sexual abuse (Smith, 2007:43). During this part of the research, the researcher came to the conclusion that a forensic assessment model in the South African context can assist forensic investigators with forensic investigations. The assessment model will guide forensic investigators from the moment they receive a referral, until they close the case. With training in this forensic assessment model, forensic investigators will conduct legally defensible, scientific and objective assessments which will assist them in obtaining the needed information from the child. This will also assist the forensic investigator in giving expert testimony in court. It was impossible though to give assistance in this regard to forensic investigators without comparing and evaluating how forensic investigators in the South African context utilise forensic models and protocols. 2.4.2.1 Conclusions  From the responses from this article, it emerged that the respondents especially do not have extensive court experience.  From their responses, it seems that the respondents have adequate training and qualifications, especially postgraduate qualifications in the form of a Master‟s degree in Forensic Practice. The respondents also attended a large number of workshops and short courses to assist them in the field of forensic investigations.  The majority of the respondents were female. The researcher is of the opinion that this is a matter of concern, as it is easier for a victim to talk about his sexual abuse encounter to a person of the same sex, especially where the victim is a teenager. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 363  Half of the respondents indicated that they employ the comprehensive assessment model during their investigations of child sexual abuse. According to the researcher, this model is suitable for the South African context. An alarming number of the respondents, however, were not aware of a scientific model and thus did not work according to any such model.  The majority of the respondents perform their investigations as part of a multi- disciplinary team. There are some respondents that work isolated in cases of child sexual abuse. One of the reasons for this is that making use of a multi-disciplinary team is expensive and clients can often not afford the services of a multi-disciplinary team.  It seems that there still is no clarity among the respondents regarding therapy for sexually abused children, as a large number of respondents involved therapy during their investigations of child sexual abuse.  It seems that the respondents do share the value of objectivity and neutrality that is of great importance during forensic investigations, since they all indicated that they do consult with the offender, as well as with other collateral sources.  A great number of the respondents indicated that they use the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol while conducting forensic interviews. The same number of respondents indicated that they employ the APSAC guidelines to conduct forensic interviews. This is problematic to the researcher, as these are guidelines only, and not a protocol. 2.4.2.2 Recommendations  Forensic investigators must avail themselves for court hearings and communicate with state prosecutors, explaining to them their involvement in the case at hand.  It is important for forensic investigators to have adequate postgraduate training in forensic investigations. The researcher is of the opinion that forensic investigators in South Africa must possess a Master‟s degree, as well as relevant experience in order to be qualified forensic investigators. These forensic investigators must also familiarise themselves with the latest trends and research regarding forensic investigations.  More male professionals must be recruited to be trained as forensic investigators, as the majority of forensic investigators are female and both male and female children are victims of sexual abuse.  It seems that some forensic investigators are not adequately trained in the theory of forensic investigations. Forensic investigators in South Africa must be trained in the theory of the comprehensive assessment model as the researcher is of the opinion that Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 364 this model is the most suitable for the South African context and that it promotes neutrality and objectivity.  Forensic investigators in South Africa must be encouraged to work as part of a multidisciplinary team as this also promotes neutrality and objectivity.  Forensic investigators must realise that therapy should not be included in the forensic investigation process and that it can actually harm the case.  Forensic investigators must be educated to use a formal protocol, for instance the NICHD protocol, instead of guidelines when conducting forensic interviews. 2.4.3 Article 3: The process of a forensic assessment model in the South African context. The objective of this part of the study was to identify, by means of a literature study as well as the information gathered from experts in the field of forensic investigations during the previous phase, the content of a South African forensic assessment model for interviewing sexually abused children. After the comparison and evaluation of International forensic models and interviewing protocols, the researcher concluded that there is no forensic assessment model in the South African context and the researcher realised that there is great need for such a model, since currently no such model for the South African context exists. The researcher is also of the opinion that such a forensic assessment model will assist forensic investigators to do legally defensible assessments and such a model will also improve the quality of information obtained from the child. Therefore the researcher developed a forensic assessment model that will assist forensic investigators regardless of their profession. This assessment model can be followed from the moment of receipt of the referral of the cases until the case is closed. By following this model they will obtain quality information from the child in a legally defensible manner. Designing a social programme is a creative problem‐solving process to assist the investigator when dealing with complex social issues. A good programme design should incorporate sound research knowledge and best practices to determine the best f it of elements required for a programme to be effective. Programme design involves translating the programme objectives, with a thorough understanding of the social issue and needs of the target population into new or improved services. The goal of programme design was to establish those services, which would have the best possible chance of achieving the program‟s objectives and create measurable positive change for participants (Maine, 2011:11). Hence the researcher developed a forensic assessment model for forensic investigators in the South African context. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 365 2.4.3.1 Conclusions  The researcher developed a forensic assessment model for sexually abused children, which promotes neutrality and objectivity that will be acceptable in the South African context.  Forensic investigations into child sexual abuse are a relatively new field in the South African context, with limited research in this field.  There are also no recognised guidelines for professionals in this field. The researcher developed this model by means of a thorough literature study and the results obtained from experts in the field of forensic investigations, as reported in Article 2.  It became evident during this study that professionals conducting forensic investigations must possess a postgraduate qualification as well as experience in the field of child development and sexual abuse dynamics.  The court is the client of the forensic investigator and one of the functions of the forensic investigator is to educate the court on sexual abuse matters in order for the court to make a fair decision.  During this study it also became evident that there are no guidelines for forensic investigators in the South African context. Some forensic investigators even conduct forensic investigations without proper training or the necessary expertise. Hence the researcher recommends that all forensic investigators must receive specialised training in order to conduct forensic investigations. It is also important for relevant entities such as the South African Council for Social Service Professions to acknowledge the lack of guidelines in the field of forensic investigations and to establish relevant guidelines for professionals that conduct forensic investigations. These guidelines must also include specifications regarding essential qualifications, experience and expertise. Not only will these guidelines and properly trained professionals protect and guide the professional in terms of their responsibilities, capabilities and limitations, but also ensure effective service delivery to the court, children as victims as well as the offender who all have the right to a forensic investigation by a fully qualified forensic investigator.  The researcher included a pre-forensic phase in the model that will assist forensic investigators in gaining information from the child that can assist the investigator in putting the information regarding the abuse in perspective. This phase differs from international guidelines, as they only focus on forensic assessments of children and not pre-forensic assessments.  During this pre-forensic assessment the investigator focuses on the cognitive developmental level of the child as well as the child‟s emotional and social functioning in the different spheres of the child‟s life. In this way the forensic investigator does not Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 366 assume that something had happened to the child. The pre-forensic assessment also guides the forensic investigator towards the decision of whether or not a forensic assessment is necessary.  During the forensic assessment phase, the researcher used the NICHD forensic interviewing protocol developed by Michael Lamb and his colleagues. The reason for this is that this is one of the most researched protocols. This protocol elicits the needed information from children, is based on science and therefore legally defensible. 2.4.3.2 Recommendations  Forensic investigators must employ an assessment model that is acceptable in the South African context  All forensic investigators must receive specialised, postgraduate training in order to conduct forensic investigations.  Relevant entities such as the South African Council for Social Service Professions must acknowledge the lack of guidelines in the field of forensic investigations and must establish relevant guidelines for professionals that conduct forensic investigations.  The above guidelines must also include specifications regarding essential qualifications, experience and expertise as well as scope of practice for these professionals.  Forensic investigators must perform pre-forensic assessments to gain information from children that can assist the investigator in putting in perspective the information regarding the abuse.  It is important for forensic investigators to establish the cognitive developmental level of children in order to have realistic expectations of the child being assessed.  Forensic investigators must make use of a forensic interviewing protocol such as the NICHD protocol to assess cases of child sexual abuse, as this protocol is one of the most researched protocols and is based on science. Thus it is an evidence-based forensic interviewing protocol. 2.4.4 Article 4: The evaluation of the forensic assessment model in the South African context. The specific objective of this article was to evaluate the forensic assessment model the researcher had developed. This forensic assessment model was developed firstly, after a comparison had been drawn between different international forensic models and protocols and how it can be applicable in the South African context and secondly, based on a literature study done as reported in the previous articles. During this study the researcher did not make use of an experimental design. The researcher did not make use of any pre-tests or post-tests during this research in order to Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 367 evaluate the effectiveness of the forensic assessment model, but used an evaluative approach. The reason for this is that the researcher is of the opinion that it would be unethical to subject children to a forensic assessment model that is not proven to be effective. Thus the researcher decided that the model must first be evaluated by role players in the field before it can be tested on children. The purpose of evaluation can be summarised as follows (Fouché, 2011:452-453):  the gathering of information in order to improve the design,  development, formation and implementation of a programme (formative evaluation),  describing the process of a programme as it is being developed (process evaluation),  assessing the impact, outcome or worth of a programme (summative evaluation). The researcher involved a panel of respondents to evaluate the forensic assessment model. This panel consisted of state prosecutors working regularly with cases of child sexual abuse, expert investigators in cases of child sexual abuse and postgraduate students in forensic practice at the North-West University. The researcher made use of semi-structured interviews with self-structured interview schedules to interview four state prosecutors. For the expert forensic investigators and postgraduate students, the researcher used self - structured questionnaires. Seven forensic experts and 12 postgraduate students were reached. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the state prosecutors in order to determine what their expectations of forensic investigators are and whether their expectations correlate with the forensic assessment model as developed by the researcher. From the responses it seems that the forensic assessment model developed by the researcher does correlate with their expectations of the state prosecutors. The researcher used self-structured questionnaires to afford experts in the field of forensic investigations the opportunity of explaining what they regard as important during forensic investigations and to motivate their answers. The researcher used this information to evaluate whether a correlation exists between their suggestions, the developed forensic assessment model and what literature recommends in this regard. From the responses it emerged that a correlation does indeed exist between these aspects and the developed forensic assessment model. Thirdly, the researcher presented the developed forensic assessment model to 12 postgraduate students. The students attended week-long classes over a period of eight months. Afterwards they were asked to evaluate the forensic assessment model. The responses indicated that the postgraduate students experienced the model as effective and will be confident to employ this model during forensic investigations. This forensic assessment model provided the postgraduate students with the necessary knowledge, skills Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 368 and expertise forensic investigators need to possess in order to conduct forensic assessments. The developed forensic assessment model can also serve as a guideline for forensic investigators, since no such guidelines currently exist in South Africa. The forensic assessment model can also be used to train prospective forensic investigators. 2.4.4.1 Conclusions  It emerged that there is a need for more forensic investigators in South Africa.  The problems state prosecutors experienced with forensic investigators were mainly due to forensic investigators not having received adequate training.  It emerged during this study that state prosecutors occasionally have unrealistic expectations of forensic investigators, mainly because they are not fully aware of the functions of the forensic investigators.  The researcher realised that state prosecutors are not aware of the extent to which they can utilise forensic investigators.  It also emerged that state prosecutors are not aware of scientific models and protocols that can be utilised by forensic investigators.  The researcher also realised that state prosecutors are not properly trained in the dynamics of sexual abuse.  Some state prosecutors also have the need to be trained in aspects of child development.  The researcher concluded that if already trained professionals in the field of forensic investigations into child sexual abuse use the developed forensic assessment model as a guideline, it will serve the needs of state prosecutors.  The researcher also concluded that there is a great need for more professionals to be trained as forensic investigators, especially in all the official languages of South Africa. This will also ensure that quantity will not become a substitute for quality.  It appeared that forensic investigators do need guidelines to assist them, but there are no such guidelines for the South African context.  The researcher trained postgraduate students in the developed forensic assessment model and they perceived the training to be effective to assist them with cases of child sexual abuse. 2.4.4.2 Recommendations  More forensic investigators must be trained, as there is a need for this. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 369  Forensic investigators must ensure that their training is adequate for performing proper forensic investigations.  State prosecutors must be educated on what they can expect from the forensic investigators during forensic investigations.  State prosecutors must also be made aware of all the aspects the forensic investigators can assist them with during court cases.  State prosecutors must be trained in the different scientific models a forensic investigator can employ during forensic investigations.  State prosecutors must also be trained in the dynamics of sexual abuse as well as aspects of child development.  Professionals must be trained in a scientific model that will fulfil the needs of the court.  More forensic investigators that can speak an African language must be trained to conduct forensic investigations.  Formal guidelines must be established in South Africa to guide forensic investigators during forensic investigations.  Forensic investigators must not only be trained in guidelines or models but also receive training in expert testimony during court cases. Report writing for court purposes is also important during the training of forensic investigators in cases of child sexual abuse.  More forensic investigators must be trained in the forensic assessment model in South Africa, as there is a great need for such services. 3. TESTING THE CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT This research was based on the following theoretical argument: Currently no guidelines exist in South Africa for professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. A phased forensic assessment model that gives structure to the assessment process and which is applicable in the South African context will provide forensic investigators with the necessary skills, knowledge and expertise to conduct forensic assessments in cases of child sexual abuse. Based on the findings and conclusions of this research, as discussed above, the central theoretical argument was proven based on these qualitative and quantitative research studies. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 370 4. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings and conclusions/ the following general recommendations are made:  More research is needed in other parts of South Africa to determine whether similar findings will be experienced with the implementation of the forensic assessment model, in the South African context.  More state prosecutors on national level should participate to include a more comprehensive study in order to determine whether the developed assessment model correlates with the expectations of the court. A partnership must be established with legal professionals.  This forensic assessment model can be presented to state prosecutors on national level in order to educate them in sexual abuse matters, important aspects of child development, but most important of all, to educate them in the theory of forensic investigations. This model can also guide them in terms of what they can expect from forensic investigators.  Currently, no guidelines exist in South Africa to guide professionals working with cases of child sexual abuse. The researcher therefore recommends professional bodies, with specific reference to the South African Council for Social Service Professions, to register forensic investigations into child sexual abuse as a specialised field. This will ensure that social workers can register as forensic social workers. Hence inexperienced forensic social workers can receive supervision from their experienced colleagues. An ethical code of conduct must also be established for forensic investigators.  This developed forensic assessment model can also be used to train prospective forensic investigators. The postgraduate students trained in this model were provided with the necessary expertise, knowledge and skills. The researcher realised once again during this study that there is a need for professionals that can conduct forensic investigations, especially in rural areas.  The researcher is of the opinion that this programme must be presented over a period of time, as it is a huge amount of new information the learners are exposed to. This training must also include a practical component, since practical experience in this field is important.  Prospective students must at least possess a BSW degree before attending such training, as the BSW degree is the basis of the knowledge and skills required to attend the training.  It was determined during the research that the forensic assessment model is effective and correlates with how experts in the field are assessing children, as well as with what Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 371 literature recommends. The researcher is of the opinion that the effectiveness of this assessment model can now be tested on children, and is a possibility for future research.  Forensic investigators must familiarise themselves with regard to the latest trends and research in the field of forensic investigations of cases of child sexual abuse.  Members of the public must also be educated with regard to professionals that are equipped to conduct forensic investigations of child sexual abuse. 5. CONTRIBUTIONS OF THIS RESEARCH This research has made contributions towards the social work discipline and especially towards social work that focuses on the investigation of child sexual abuse cases, as there no such model currently exists in the South African context. This research will be submitted for publication to Child Abuse Research in South Arica (CARSA) and Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk. Feedback is still awaited. Prospective forensic investigators will be trained in this model. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 372 6. LIST OF REFERENCES American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). 2012. Practice guidelines: forensic interviewing in cases of suspected child abuse. Oklahoma City, Okla.: APSAC. Berliner, L. 2003. Intervention in sexual abuse. Child abuse research in South Africa, 4(1):12-15. Bow, J.M., Quinnell, F.A., Zaroff, M. & Assemany, A. 2002. Assessment of sexual abuse allegations in child custody cases. Professional psychology: research and practice, 33(6):566-575. Carnes, C.N., Nelson-Gardell, D., Wilson, C. & Orgassa, U.C. 2001. Extended forensic evaluation when sexual abuse is suspected: a multisite field study. Child maltreatment, 6(3):230-242. Castillo, J.J. 2009. Steps of the scientific method. http://www.experiment-resources. com/snowball-sampling.html Date of access: 04 December 2012. Cordisco-Steele, L.C. 2003. Child forensic interview structure, National Children‟s Advocacy Center. APSAC adviso, 15(4):2-5. Cordisco-Steele, L.C. 2012. The forensic interview: a challenging conversation. (In Goodyear-Brown, P. Handbook of child sexual abuse: identification, assessment and treatment. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. p. 99-119.) De Voe, E.R. & Faller, K.C. 2002. Questioning strategies in interviews with children who may have been sexually abused. Child welfare: journal of policy, practice and program, 8(1):5-31. De Vos, A.S. & Strydom, H. 2011. Intervention research. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 473-490.) Delport, C.S.L. & Roestenburg, W.J.H. 2011. Quantitative data-collection methods: questionnaires, checklists, structured observation and structured interview schedules. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 171-205.) Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 373 Faller, K.C. 2003. Understanding and assessing child sexual maltreatment. 2nd ed. London: Sage. Faller, K.C. 2007. Interviewing children about sexual abuse: controversies and best practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Fouché, A. 2007. Facilitating disclosure of child sexual abuse victims in the middle childhood: a forensic interview protocol for social workers. Pretoria: University of Pretoria. (Thesis - PhD.) Fouché, C.B. 2011. Evaluation research. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 449-472.) Fouché, C.B. & De Vos, A. 2011. Formal formulations. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 89-101.) Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L. 2011. In-depth review of literature. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom,H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 133-141.) Hewitt, S. 2012. Developmentally sensitive assessment methods in child sexual abuse cases. (In Goodyear-Brown, P., ed. Handbook of child sexual abuse: identification, assessment and treatment. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. p. 121-142.) Kaliski, S. 2006. Psycholegal assessment in South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Lamb, M.E., Hershkowitz, I., Orbach, Y. & Esplin, P.H. 2009. Tell me what happened: structured investigative interviews of child victims and witnesses. West Sussex: Wiley- Blackwell. Maine, K. 2011. Program design: a literature review of best practices. Calgary, Ab.: United Way of Calgary and Area. Mouton, J. 2001. How to succeed in your masters and doctoral studies: a South African guide and research book. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 374 Müller, K. 2001. Clinical and forensic interviews and the child witness. Child abuse and research in South Africa, 2(2):8-14. Müller, K. 2003. The enigma of the child witness: a need for expert evidence. Child abuse reserach in South Africa, 4(2):2-9. Neuman, W.L. 2000. Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. 4 th ed. Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon. Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M.E., Sternberg, K.J., Esplin, P.W. & Horowitz, D. 2000. Assessing the value of structured protocols for forensic interviews of alleged child abuse victims. Child abuse and neglect, 19(6):733-755. Poole, D.A. & Lamb, M.E. 1998. Investigative interviews of children: a guide for helping professionals. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Richter, L., Dawes, A. & Higson-Smith C. 2007. Sexual abuse of young children in Southern Africa. 3rd ed. Cape Town: HCRS Press. Rothman, J. & Thomas, E.J. 1994. Intervention research: design and development for human services. New York: Haworth Press. Saywitz, K. & Comparo, L. 1998. Interviewing child witnesses: a developmental perspective. Child abuse and neglect, 22(8):1-19. Saywitz, K.J. & Comparo, L.B. 2009. Contemporary child forensic interviewing: evolving consensus and innovation over 25 years. (In Bottoms, B.L., Najdowski, C.J. & Goodman, G.S., eds. Children as victims, witnesses, and offenders: psychological science and the law. New York: Guilford Press. p. 102-127.) Saywitz, K.J., Lyon, T.D. & Goodman, G.S. 2011. Interviewing children. (In Myers, J.E.B. The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment. 3rd ed. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage. p. 337- 360.) Schurink, W., Fouché, C.B. & De Vos, A.S. 2011. Qualitative data analysis and interpretation. (In De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L., eds. Research at grass roots: for the social sciences and human service professions. 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik. p. 397-423.) Section C SECTION C: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Page 375 Smith, S. 2007. Die forensiese maatskaplike werker as deskundige getuie in die hof. Potchefstroom: Noordwes-Universiteit. Potchefstroomkampus. (Verhandeling - MA.) Strydom, H. 1999. Maatskaplikewerk-navorsing (MWK 321/411). Potchefstroom: Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir CHO. (Diktaak D134/99.) Vieth, V.I. 2009. The forensic investigator at trial: guidelines for the admission and scope of expert witness testimony concerning an investigative interview in a case of child abuse. William Mitchell law review, 36(1):186-219. Walker, N.E. 2002. Forensic interviews of children: the component of scientific validity and legal admissibility. Law and contemporary problems, 65(1):149-178. Yegidis, B.L. & Weinbach, R.W. 1996. Research methods for social workers. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon. Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUMS Page 376 SECTION D ADDENDUMS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 377 ADDENDUM 1 QUESTIONNAIRES TO BE COMPLETED BY FORENSIC INVESTIGATORS IN PRACTICE Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 378 DEAR RESPONDENT FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK: QUESTIONNAIRE Sufran Smith is a lecturer at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) and also a Ph.D. student. The researcher is currently busy with a study in forensic social work and would like you to participate in this research project, by completing this questionnaire. A research committee of the mentioned university has reviewed this study and approved the research. Please take note that your participation is voluntarily and all questionnaires are answered anonymously. Your completed questionnaire will also be handled confidentially. You also have the right to withdraw from this study at any moment. You are kindly requested to submit the questionnaire back no later than 1 December 2012. The completed questionnaires can be send via e-mail to Tasleem.Hassim@nwu.ac.za. The questionnaire can be completed in either Afrikaans or English. Thanking you in advance Sufran Smith (Researcher) Prof. CC Wessels (Study leader) Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 379 1. DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS 1. Age in years 21 – 30 1 31 – 40 2 41 – 50 3 51 – 60 4 Above 60 5 2. Gender Male 1 Female 2 3. Years Experience 1 – 5 years 1 6 – 10 years 2 11 – 15 years 3 16 – 20 years 4 21 – 25 years 5 More than 25 years 6 4. In which province do you work? Gauteng 1 Limpopo 2 North West 3 Free State 4 Eastern Cape 5 Western Cape 6 Northern Cape 7 Mpumalanga 8 Kwa-Zulu Natal 9 5. Your mother tongue language Afrikaans 1 English 2 Tswana 3 Zulu 4 Xhosa 5 Ndebele 6 Venda 7 Swati 8 Sesotho 9 Sepedi 10 Tsonga 11 6. Geographical Area Urban 1 Semi-urban 2 Rural 3 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 380 7. Highest qualification Diploma in Social Work 1 3 Year Degree in Social Work 2 4 Year Degree in Social Work 3 Honours in Social Work 4 Masters Degree in Social Work 5 PhD in Social Work 6 8. Workplace Department of Social Development 1 Correctional Service 2 Department of Defence 3 Department of Health 4 NGO 5 Hospital 6 Department of Justice 7 Occupational Social Work 8 Private Practice 9 South African Police Service 10 Psychiatric Hospital 11 Other 12 2. KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND EXPERIENCE 9. Except for your formal qualification as a Social Worker, name all other qualifications in respect of forensic social work that you have obtained. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 10. Name the short courses in forensic social work that you have attended the last five years? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 11. Please summarize the detail of your experience in the field of forensic social work. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 12. Have you ever been subpoenaed to testify in a forensic court case? Yes 1 No 2 13. Name the fields of specialized training that you think a forensic social worker should have, to assist the court in their decision making process. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 381 14. What do you consider as specific knowledge, skills and expertise that a social worker should have when doing forensic social work? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 15. Do you only perform forensic social work? Yes 1 No 2 16. Please give an indication of your other tasks if you answered no in question 15. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 17. On average, how many new cases regarding forensic social work, do you receive each month? 5 and less 1 5-9 2 10-14 3 15-20 4 21 and more 5 18. If you answered “21 and more”, in question 17, please indicate how many cases you receive each month. 1 19. Please indicate your current, active total forensic social work case load. 5 and less 1 5-9 2 10-14 3 15-19 4 20-29 5 30-39 6 40-49 7 50 and more 8 20. Please indicate the total number of children (not assessments) you have performed assessments on. This may include both pre-forensic and forensic assessments. 1 3. ASSESSMENT PROCESS 21. Do you perform your role and function as forensic social worker as part of a multi- disciplinary team? Yes 1 No 2 22. If you answered yes en question 21, please indicate which members form part of the multi-disciplinary team? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 382 23. During your assessment process, do you make use of a pre-forensic assessment? Yes 1 No 2 24. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 23. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 25. Do you think that a pre-forensic interview forms part of the forensic investigative process that needs to be followed by the forensic social worker? Yes 1 No 2 26. Do you make use of a scientific protocol to perform a forensic assessment? Yes 1 No 2 27. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 26. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 28. If you answered yes in question 26, please state of which protocol you make use of, during your forensic assessment. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 29. Please name the different forensic protocols that you are aware of. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 30. Do you make use of a scientific model to perform a forensic assessment? Yes 1 No 2 31. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 30. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 32. If you answered yes in question 30, please state of which model you make use of, during your forensic assessment. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 33. Please name the different forensic models that you are aware of. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 383 34. When you conduct a forensic interview during the forensic assessment, do you make use of the following? Structured interview (interviewer only uses certain words and questions). 1 Semi structured interview (course of interview is determined by both the child and interviewer). 2 Unstructured interview (child determines the course of the interview). 3 35. Does your assessment process (pre-forensic as well as forensic) consist out of different phases? Yes 1 No 2 36. If you answered “yes” in question 35, please name all the phases that form part of your assessment process (pre-forensic as well as forensic). ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 37. During your assessment process with a child, who is suspected to be sexually abused, which of the following aspects do you (not another professional) assess or make use of during your assessment process? You can choose all the relevant aspects you make use of. Social emotional functioning. 1 Psycho-social functioning. 2 Memory to recall past events in a chronological order. 3 Understanding the difference between truth and lie. 4 Understanding moral implications. 5 Language development. 6 Does the child have secrets with anyone? 7 IQ level. 8 Sexual knowledge. 9 Body part terminology. 10 Good and bad touchés. 11 Suggestibility. 12 The child‟s ability to correct you make mistakes. 13 Projective drawings. 14 Time line. 15 Play therapy. 16 Therapy to process the sexual abuse. 17 Anatomical drawings. 18 Dolls house. 19 Puppet play. 21 Touch survey. 21 Puppet play. 22 Anatomical dolls. 23 Other. 24 38. If you chose “other” as an option, please indicate the methods/techniques you make use of. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 384 39. During your assessment process, do you consult with the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse)? Yes 1 No 2 40. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 39. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 41. If you answered yes at question 39, which of the following aspects do you give attention to? Social emotional functioning of the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 1 History of sexual abuse of the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 2 Personality functioning of the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 3 Anti-social trails of the non-offending parent (in cases of intra- familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 4 Social skills the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 5 Observation of victim and the non-offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse) or parents (extra-familial abuse) 6 Overview of the current family composition and others living in the household. 7 Overview of each parent‟s relationship with each other. 8 Overview of parent‟s relationship with the children. 9 Physical caretaking of the children. 10 Family‟s support systems. 11 Extend of TV programmes or the possibility of exposure to pornographic material. 12 Sexual education of the child. 13 Contact of the child with other significant role players. 14 Boundaries in the house with regard to privacy and sexual activities. 15 Other areas of concern. 42. If you chose “other” as an option, please indicate any other areas of concern that you give attention to. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 43. During your assessment process, do you consult with the offending parent (in cases of intra-familial abuse)/offender? Yes 1 No 2 44. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 43. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 385 45. If you answered yes at question 43, which of the following aspects do you give attention to? Social emotional functioning of the offender. 1 History of sexual abuse of the offender. 2 Personality functioning of the offender. 3 Anti-social trails of the offender. 4 Social skills the offender. 5 Observation of victim and the offender. 6 Overview of the current family composition and others living in the household. 7 Overview of each parent‟s relationship with each other. 8 Overview of parent‟s relationship with the children. 9 Physical caretaking of the children. 10 Family‟s support systems. 11 Extend of TV programmes or the possibility of exposure to pornographic material. 12 Sexual education of the child. 13 Contact of the child with other significant role players. 14 Boundaries in the house with regard to privacy and sexual activities. 15 Other areas of concern. 16 46. If you chose “other” as an option, please indicate any other areas of concern that you give attention to. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 47. During your assessment process of child sexual abuse, do you consult with other collateral sources? Yes 1 No 2 48. Please give a reason for your answer in question 47. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 49. During your assessment process of child sexual abuse, which of the following collateral sources do you include in your investigation? Psychological reports of victim. 1 Psychological reports of offender. 2 Psychological reports of non-offending parent (in cases of intra familial abuse) 3 Psychological reports of parents of victim (in cases of extra familial abuse) 4 Medical records of victim. 5 School reports. 6 Interview with teachers. 7 Interviews with domestic workers. 8 Interview with first rapport witness. 9 Interview with neighbors. 10 Interview with religious leaders. 11 Interview with extended family members. 12 Interview with state prosecutor. 13 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 1 Page 386 Interview with defense attorney 14 Other collateral sources. 15 50. If you chose “other” as an option, please indicate any other persons you include as a collateral source. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 51. During you investigation, which approach do you mainly follow? Blind 1 History free 2 Informed process 52. Please give a reason for your answer in question 51. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 2 Page 387 ADDENDUM 2 ETHICAL PERMISSION TO CONDUCT THE STUDY Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 388 ADDENDUM 3 SCHEDULE TO BE COMPLETED BY STATE PROSECUTORS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 389 DEAR RESPONDENT FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK: QUESTIONNAIRE Sufran Smith is a lecturer at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) and also a Ph.D. student. The researcher is currently busy with a study in forensic social work and would like you to participate in this research project, by taking part in a semi-structured interview. A research committee of the mentioned university has reviewed this study and approved the research. Please take note that your participation is voluntarily. Your completed questionnaire will also be handled confidentially. You also have the right to withdraw from this study at any moment. Thanking you in advance Sufran Smith (Researcher) Prof. CC Wessels (Study leader) Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 390 A. DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS 1. Age in years 21 – 30 1 31 – 40 2 41 – 50 3 51 – 60 4 Above 60 5 2. Gender Male 1 Female 2 3. Years of Experience 1 – 5 years 1 6 – 10 years 2 11 – 15 years 3 16 – 20 years 4 21 – 25 years 5 More than 25 years 6 4. Your first language Afrikaans 1 English 2 Tswana 3 Zulu 4 Xhosa 5 Ndebele 6 Venda 7 Swati 8 Sesotho 9 Sepedi 10 Tsonga 11 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE STATE PROSECUTORS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 391 5. Geographical Area Urban 1 Semi-urban 2 Rural 3 6. Highest qualification Diploma 1 3 Year Degree 2 4 Year Degree 3 Honour‟s Degree 4 Master‟s Degree 5 Doctoral Degree 6 7. Please specify your qualifications. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 8. Please indicate the court that you are serving. 9. Which area/s do you serve? Brits 1 Klerksdorp 2 Lichtenburg 3 Mahikeng 4 Mmakau 5 Morokweng 6 Potchefstroom 7 Pudimoe 8 Rustenburg 9 Vryburg 10 Wolmaransstad 11 Zeerust 12 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 392 B. ASSESSMENT PROCESS 12. Have you ever subpoenaed a forensic investigator to testify in a child sexual abuse court case? Yes 1 No 2 13. If you answered “yes” to question 12, please indicate your general experience of forensic investigators‟ court testimony. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 14. In your opinion, name the fields of specialised training that you think a forensic investigator should have, to assist the court in their decision making process. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 15. In your opinion, what do you consider as specific knowledge, skills and expertise that a forensic investigator should have when conducting forensic investigations. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 16. On average, how many new cases regarding child sexual abuse, do you receive each month? 5 or less 1 6-9 2 10-14 3 15-20 4 21 or more 5 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 393 17. If you answered “21 or more”, at question 16, please indicate how many cases you receive each month. 1 18. Do you prefer that forensic investigators perform their role and function as part of a multi-disciplinary team? Yes 1 No 2 19. If you answered “yes” at question 18, please indicate which members must form part of the multi-disciplinary team? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 20. Do you prefer that forensic investigators make use of a scientific forensic interviewing protocol to perform a forensic assessment? Yes 1 No 2 21. If you are aware of any forensic protocols, please name them. Also indicate the one you prefer the forensic investigator to use. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 22. Do you prefer that forensic investigators make use of a scientific forensic model to perform a forensic assessment? Yes 1 No 2 23. If you are aware of any forensic models, please name them. Also indicate the one you prefer the forensic investigator to use. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 394 24. If applicable, please indicate the reasons why you made use of the services of a forensic investigator (You can choose more than one option). 1 To determine if the child can distinguish between truth and lies. 2 To determine if the child will be able to testify in court about the alleged sexual abuse. 3 To get a disclosure from the child about possible sexual abuse. 4 To investigate multiple hypotheses (alternative explanations) about the alleged abuse. 5 To provide expert testimony in court about the dynamics of sexual abuse. 6 To make a recommendation if the child must testify by means of an intermediary in court. 7 To educate the court about the dynamics of sexual abuse. 8 To determine the child‟s sexual knowledge 9 To determine the role that grooming played during the alleged abuse. 10 To determine the identity of the alleged offender. 11 To determine what terms the child uses when identifying body parts. 12 Any other aspects 25. If you chose “Any other aspects” as an option at question 24, please indicate the aspects that the forensic investigator assisted you with. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 26. If applicable, please indicate the reasons why you did not make use of the services of a forensic investigator (You can choose more than one option). 1 I am of the opinion that I can obtain the same information from the child that the forensic investigator can obtain. 2 I am of the opinion that the forensic investigator is not properly trained. 3 There is not a forensic investigator available in my area. 4 There is a forensic investigator available in my area, but language is a barrier. 5 The services of private forensic investigators are too expensive. 6 The forensic investigator is not willing to testify in court. 7 I wait too long for reports from the forensic investigator. 8 The reports I receive from the forensic investigator is not adequate for court purposes. Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 395 9 The reports I receive from the forensic investigator is meaningless. 10 The reports I receive from the forensic investigator is of poor quality and full of contradictions. 11 Any other aspects 27. If you chose “Any other aspects” as an option at question 26, please indicate the aspects that the forensic investigator assisted you with. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 28. Please choose the option you prefer the forensic investigator must follow, when you utilize the services of a forensic investigator. Blind (No information, accept the child‟s name and age are made available to the forensic investigator). 1 History free (Limited information regarding the case is shared with the forensic investigator e.g. the child was raped). 2 Informed process (You inform the forensic investigator about all the aspects of the case at hand). 3 29. Please give a reason for your answer at question 28. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 30. What are your expectations from a forensic investigator? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 31. In your opinion, how can a forensic investigator assist you in making your task as a prosecutor easier? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 3 Page 396 32. Do you think that it is necessary for the forensic investigator to make video recordings of the investigation process? 33. Please give a motivation for your answer in question 32. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 34. Did you receive any specialised training regarding the following matters? Specialised training Yes I did. No I did not. Linguistics of the child 1 Child development 2 Memory and suggestibility 3 Process of Disclosure 4 Yes 1 No 2 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 397 ADDENDUM 4 QUESTIONNAIRE TO BE COMPLETED BY EXPERTS IN THE FIELD OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 398 DEAR RESPONDENT FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK: QUESTIONNAIRE Sufran Smith is a lecturer at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) and also a Ph.D. student. The researcher is currently busy with a study in forensic social work and would like you to participate in this research project, by completing this questionnaire. A research committee of the mentioned university has reviewed this study and approved the research. Please take note that your participation is voluntarily and all questionnaires are answered anonymously. Your completed questionnaire will also be handled confidentially. You also have the right to withdraw from this study at any moment. You are kindly requested to submit the questionnaire back no later than 2 August 2013. The completed questionnaires can be submitted via e-mail to Tasleem Hassim at Tasleem.Hassim@nwu.ac.za. The questionnaire can be completed in either Afrikaans or English. Thanking you in advance Sufran Smith (Researcher) Prof. CC Wessels (Study leader) Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 399 SECTION 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS AGE IN YEARS 21-30 31-40 41-50 50-60 Above 60 GENDER Male Female YEARS’ EXPERIENCE AS FORENSIC INVESTIGATOR 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21-25 years More than 25 years PROVINCE YOU WORK IN Gauteng Limpopo North West Free State Eastern Cape Western Cape Northern Cape Mpumalanga Kwa-Zulu Natal GEOGRAPHICAL AREA Urban Semi-Urban Rural HIGHEST QUALIFICATION Diploma in Social Work 3 Year Degree in Social Work 4 Year Degree in Social Work Honour‟s in Social Work Master‟s Degree in Social Work PhD in Social Work WORKPLACE Department of Social Work Correctional Service Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 400 Department of Justice Occupational Social Work Private Practice South African Police Services Other SECTION 2: IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 1 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 1 : A s p e c ts t o c o n s id e r p ri o r to t h e a s s e s s m e n t  Forensic investigators must possess over a post graduate qualification. I agree I am not sure I do not agree In your opinion, what should the qualifications of a forensic investigator be?  Forensic investigators must work according to a scientific forensic model. I agree I am not sure I do not agree According to your opinion, what forensic model will suit the South African context best?  Forensic investigators must do assessments in the following way Allegation blind Informed assessments History free (obtain limited information before the assessment) Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 401  Do you have any other comments in this regard?  Forensic investigators must obtain consent from parents before they start a forensic investigation I agree I am not sure I do not agree Do you have any other comments in this regard: Forensic investigators must document interviews with children in the following way: Video recordings Audio recordings Written notes Regardless of your choice above, what method do you employ?  Forensic investigators must make use of multiple interviews when they investigate cases of child sexual abuse I agree I am not sure I do not agree Regardless of your choice, please motivate you answer.  It is important that forensic investigators must be I agree I am not sure I do not agree Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 402 knowledgeable about correct questioning strategies, as this can have a influence on the outcome of the interview According to your opinion, what are the most preferred question types during a forensic interview to elicit information from the child? IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 2 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 2 : T h e p re -f o re n s ic a s s e s s m e n t  It is important that investigators must introduce themselves when they meet a child for the first time and explain their role to the child I agree I am not sure I do not agree  Investigators must spend time on rapport building with children I agree I am not sure I do not agree In your opinion, what is the role and purpose of rapport building during an interview with the child?  It is important to determine whether a child can I agree I am not sure I do not agree Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 403 distinguish between truth and lies (truth/lie competency)  It is important to determine children‟s ability to give information in a narrative form (Basic competency test) I agree I am not sure I do not agree  It is important to establish ground rules when the child is interviewed I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please indicate which of the following ground rules do you include during your interview with the child (you can choose more than one option):  Give permission to children to say that they do not know  Explain to the child that the investigator was not present during the abuse  Inform children that they must tell the investigator if they do not understand something  Inform children that it is acceptable if they do not remember, Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 404 or if they do not remember everything  Promise the child that you will not get angry or upset about anything the child will tell them  Inform the child that it is acceptable to use the words that they want to use and are familiar with  Inform child that the interview is only about things that really happened  Inform child that if questions are repeated, it does not mean that the answer was wrong  Inform the child that if the investigator makes a mistake, or say something that is not the truth, the child must correct the interviewer  The child must inform the investigator if he/she wants to go to the bathroom. Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 405  The child can inform the investigator if they are tired, hungry of thirsty  Inform the child that you will be taking notes during the interview Is there any other ground rules that you would like to add that you think are of importance during an interview with the child?  It is important to determine a child‟s cognitive functioning during a forensic investigation I agree I am not sure I do not agree  It is important to obtain base line information from the child I agree I am not sure I do not agree If you do obtain base line information from the child, what information must be obtained from the child during this phase?  It is important to determine the names that the child uses for different body parts I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please give a motivation for your answer Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 406 Please NAME the techniques that you use during forensic investigations Shortly discuss the criteria you use to evaluate whether a technique is suitable to use during forensic investigations Please indicate which of the following statements do you use when closing an interview with the child  Recapitulating the child‟s account using the child‟s words  Asking about other possible events of abuse  Switching to a neutral or positive topic  Explaining to the child what will happen next  Thanking the child for coming to the interview  Giving the child the interviewer‟s contact information  Grand opportunity for the child to ask questions  Are there any other closing statements that you would like to add? IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 3 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 3 : In te rv ie w s w it h re le v a n t ro le p la y e rs  Consulting with collateral sources are important during a forensic investigation I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer If you do consult with collateral sources, please indicate the most important collateral sources according to your opinion Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 407  Working as part of the multi- disciplinary team is important during forensic investigations I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer If you do work with members of the MDT, please indicate the most important members according to your opinion IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 4 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 4 : T h e f o re n s ic in te rv ie w  It is important to work according a scientific forensic interviewing protocol I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer If you work according to a forensic interviewing protocol, please indicate which protocol you employ in practice IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 5 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 5 : in te rv ie w w it h p a re n ts  It is important to interview the offender during a forensic I agree I am not sure I do not agree Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 408 investigation Please motivate your answer If you do consult with the non-offending parent, please indicate the type of information you require from them  It is important to interview the non- offending parent during a forensic investigation I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 6 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 6 : In v e s ti g a ti n g m u lt ip le h y p o th e s is  It is important to investigate multiple hypotheses during forensic investigations I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer If you do investigate multiple hypothesis, please indicate what they may entail IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 7 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 7 : E x p e r t te s ti m o n y  Report writing is an important part I agree I am not sure I do not agree Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 409 of the forensic investigation process Please motivate your answer IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION PHASE 8 ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT P h a s e 8 : E x p e rt t e s ti m o n y  Forensic social workers can expect to testify in court on sexual abuse matters I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer  Have you ever been subpoenaed to testify as expert in court in cases of child sexual abuse? Yes No If you answered yes, please describe your general experience of the court Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 4 Page 410 SECTION 3: IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO CONSIDER DURING A FORENSIC INVESTIGATION General aspects ASPECT OF IMPORTANCE OPINION OF RESPONDENT G e n e ra l a s p e c ts t o c o n s id e r  Forensic investigators must follow a phased approach I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer Please indicate all the phases that you regard as important during a forensic investigation  Forensic investigators must make use of multiple interviews I agree I am not sure I do not agree Please motivate your answer Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 411 ADDENDUM 5 QUESTIONNAIRE TO BE COMPLETED BY POST GRADUATE STUDENTS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 412 DEAR RESPONDENT FORENSIC SOCIAL WORK: QUESTIONNAIRE Sufran Smith is a lecturer at the North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus) and also a Ph.D. student. The researcher is currently busy with a study in forensic social work and would like you to participate in this research project, by completing this questionnaire. A research committee of the mentioned university has reviewed this study and approved the research. Please take note that your participation is voluntarily and all questionnaires are answered anonymously. Your completed questionnaire will also be handled confidentially. You also have the right to withdraw from this study at any moment. Thanking you in advance Sufran Smith (Researcher) Prof. CC Wessels (Study leader) Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 413 SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS 1. Age in years 21 – 30 1 31 – 40 2 41 – 50 3 51 – 60 4 Above 60 5 2. Gender Male 1 Female 2 3. Years of Experience 1 – 5 years 1 6 – 10 years 2 11 – 15 years 3 16 – 20 years 4 21 – 25 years 5 More than 25 years 6 4. Your first language Afrikaans 1 English 2 Tswana 3 Zulu 4 QUESTIONNAIRE POST-GRADUATE STUDENTS Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 414 Xhosa 5 Ndebele 6 Venda 7 Swati 8 Sesotho 9 Sepedi 10 Any other 11 5. Geographical Area Urban 1 Semi-urban 2 Rural 3 6. Highest qualification Diploma 1 3 Year Degree 2 4 Year Degree 3 Honour‟s Degree 4 Master‟s Degree 5 Doctoral Degree 6 7. Please specify your qualifications. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ SECTION B: EVALUATION OF THE ASSESSMENT MODEL 8. Please state you reasons why you decided to enrol for the Master‟s (Forensic Practice) degree ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 415 9. In your opinion, what are the strong points of the investigation process that you have been trained in? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 10. In your opinion, what are the weak points of the investigation process that you have been trained in? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 11. Is there any aspects of the investigation programme that you would do differently? (Please motivate your answer) ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 12. Do you have any recommendations with regard to the investigation process in order to make if more effectively? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 13. Does the assessment model enable you to investigate multiple hypotheses? Yes 1 No 2 14. If you employ this assessment model, will you be confident to go to court with the information obtained during your investigation process? Yes 1 No 2 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 5 Page 416 15. Please evaluate whether value of the following phases by choosing the most relevant option. Aspects to consider prior to the assessment of the sexually abused child were to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Aspects to consider during the pre-forensic assessment of the sexually abused child were to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Interviews with relevant role players were to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 The forensic interview was to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Interviews with parents and other role players were to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 The investigation of multiple hypotheses was to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Report writing was to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Expert testimony was to me. OF MUCH VALUE 1 VALUABLE 2 OF LESS VALUE 3 OF NO VALUE 4 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 6 Page 417 ADDENDUM 6 DECLARATION FROM LANGUAGE EDITOR Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 6 Page 418 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 7 Page 419 ADDENDUM 7 DECLARATION FROM REFERENCE LIST EDITOR Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 7 Page 420 FAKTUUR Me Sufran Smith Verskuldig aan Prof CJH Lessing Gerrit Dekkerstraat 1 POTCHEFSTROOM 2531 Vir die nasien van Bronnelys 21 bladsye @R15.00 = R315.00 Kopieë = R 5.00 Internet = R 15.00 TOTAAL = R 335.00 Bankbesonderhede: CJH Lessing Tjekrekening ABSA-bank 335-138 Rekeningnommer 670 257 711 Casper Lessing 25 Oktober 2013 Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 8 Page 421 ADDENDUM 8 STIPULATIONS FOR CARSA Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 8 Page 422 INSTRUCTION TO AUTHORS CARSA is a national journal that promotes academic and professional discourse amongst professionals involved in child-care work in South Africa. It publishes high quality, peer-evaluated, applied, multidisciplinary articles focusing on the theoretical, empirical and methodological issues related to child abuse in the light of the current political, cultural and intellectual topics in South Africa. Authors of articles submitted for review will remain anonymous. The comments of the reviewers and peer evaluators should be constructive and helpful and designed to aid the authors to produce articles that can be published. The authors may then use these comments to revise their articles. However, the final decision on whether or not to publish an article rests with the editor. There should be an interval of at least two issues between articles published by the same author. Preparing articles for submission The submitted articles should always conform to CARSA's house style. As the journal develops, it is envisaged that it will contain full-length articles, shorter debates, book reviews and software reviews. The following information is provided regarding the length of articles:  full-length articles should not exceed a word count of 8000 (tables excluded)  shorter articles (in the form of shorter debates) should not exceed a word count of 3000 (tables excluded)  book reviews should not exceed a word count of 1000  software reviews should not exceed a word count of 3000 Tables, figures, illustrations and references are excluded from the word count. Book reviews and software reviews will be initiated by the editor and review editors. They will commission individuals to do the reviews. Prospective authors are expected to abide by language guidelines regarding issues of gender and race and disability. Empirical research should adhere to acceptable standards of descriptive and inferential statistics and empirical data should be manipulated statistically using an acceptable statistical program such as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) or SAS. The inferences regarding qualitative analysis should also be accompanied by an explanation of the techniques used or Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 8 Page 423 should utilise statistical packages such as SQR.NUD.IST which are recognised for this type of analysis. Copyright policy and author's rights Once an article has been accepted for publication, the author automatically agrees to the following conditions. All work published in CARSA is subject to copyright and may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any manner or in any medium without the written consent of the editor, unless no charge is made for the copy containing the work, and provided the author's name and place of first publication appears in the work. Authors assign copyright to CARSA. Non-exclusive rights for contributions to debates and comments to articles are requested so that these may also appear in CARSA. The moral right of the author to his or her work remains with the author. Where applicable, contributors should indicate sources of funding. It is the duty of the author to clear copyright on empirical, visual or oral data. Simultaneous submission to other electronic or printed journals is not allowed. Notes for contributors Articles that appear in CARSA are subject to the usual academic process of anonymous peer reviewing. The articles that are written by the editorial staff will be refereed by independent referees. Electronic submission of articles by E-mail should be done in one of the following: (A) MS Windows, Word (B) WordPerfect (C) Plain ASCII File format. Figures, maps, and photographs should be submitted on disk in any standard format. Authors should submit their work to SAPSAC. Authors who are unable to submit their work electronically should despatch three copies to the postal address. Before submission, articles should have been corrected for errors, edited and should be accurate. It is the responsibility of the author that articles should be language and technically edited, before submission. Style Main headings should be typed in upper case and begin at the left margin. No indentation is allowed. Dates should be written as follows: 9 January, 2000. Bold, italics and underscore should Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 8 Page 424 be formatted as such in the original document. The recommended style for reference purposes is the abbreviated Harvard technique, for example, "Child abuse is rising (Author 1999:10)" OR "According to Author (1999:10), child abuse is rising". In the case of legal articles, footnotes will be allowed. To work toward uniformity in the alphabetical bibliography at the end of an article, the following examples of format are given: Books: Kuehnle, K. 1996. Assessing allegations of child sexual abuse. Sarasota: Professional Resource Press. Articles: Collings, SJ & Payne, MF. 1991. Attribution of causal and moral responsibility to victims of father- daughter incest: an exploratory examination of five factors. Child Abuse and Neglect (15)4:513- 521. Where applicable, contributors should indicate sources of funding. It is the duty of the author to clear copyright on empirical, visual or written data. Simultaneous submission to other electronic or printed journals is not allowed. Non-sexist language Gender specific nouns and pronouns should not be used to refer to people of both sexes. The guidelines on sexist, racist and other discriminatory language should be observed. The following is intended to assist contributors to refrain from sexist language by suggesting non-sexist alternatives. Sexist: Each respondent was asked whether he wanted to participate. The child should have enough time to familiarise himself with the test. Non-sexist: Respondents were asked whether they wished to participate. Enough time should be allowed for the child to become familiar with the test. Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 9 Page 425 ADDENDUM 9 STIPULATIONS FOR SOCIALWORK/MAATSKAPLIKE WERK Section D SECTION D: ADDENDUM 9 Page 426 SOCIAL WORK. A PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE SOCIAL WORKER! MAA TSKAPLIKE WERK. 'n V AKTYDSKRIF VIR DIE MAATSKAPLIKE WERKER EDITORIAL POLICY/REDAKSIONELE BELEID The Journal publishes articles, book reviews and commentary on articles already published from any field of social work. Contributions may be written in English or Afrikaans. All articles should include an abstract in English of not more than 100 words. All contributions will - be critically reviewed by at least two referees on whose advice contributions will be accepted or rejected by the editorial committee. All refereeing is strictly confidential. Manuscripts may be returned to the authors if extensive revision is required or if the style or presentation does not conform to the Journal practice. Articles of fewer than 2,000 words or more than 10,000 words are normally not considered for publication. Two copies of the manuscript as well as a diskette with the text, preferably in MS Windows should be submitted. Manuscripts should be typed in 12 point Times Roman double-spaced on one side of A4 paper only. If possible the manuscript should be sent electronically to hsu@sun.ac.za. Use the Harvard system for references. Short references in the text: When word-for-word quotations, facts or arguments from other sources are cited, the surname(s) of the author(s), year of publication and page number(s) must appear in parenthesis in the text, e.g. "." Berger, 1967: 12). More details about sources referred to in the text should appear the end of the manuscript under the caption "References". The sources must be arranged alphabetically according to the surnames of the authors. Note the use of capitals and punctuation marks in the following examples. Die Tydskrif publiseer artikels, boekbesprekings en kommentaar op reeds gepubliseerde artikels uit enige gebied van die maatskaplike werk. Bydraes mag in Afrikaans of Engels geskryf word. Alle artikels moet vergesel wees van 'n Engelse opsomming van nie meer as 100 woorde nie. Alle-bydraes moet krities deur ten minste twee keurders beoordeel word. Beoordeling is streng vertroulik. Manuskrjpte sal na outeurs teruggestuur word indien ingrypende hersiening vereis word, of indien die styl nie ooreenstem met die tydskrif se standaard nie. Artikels van minder as 2,000 woorde of meer as 10,000 woorde sal normaalweg nie oorweeg word vir publikasie. 'n Disket met die teks, verkieslik in MS Windows, moet twee kopiee van die manuskrip vergesel. Manuskripte moet in 12 pt "Times Roman" dubbelspasiering slegs op een kant van 'n A4 bladsy getik word. Indien enigsins moontlik moet die manuskrip ook per e-pos versend word aan hsu(5)sun.ac.za. Verwvsinqs moet volgens die Harvard-stelsel geskied. Verwysings in die teks: Wanneer woordelikse sitate, feite of argumente uit ander bronne gesiteer word, moet die van(ne) van die outeur(s), jaar van publikasie, en bladsynommers tussen hakies in die teks verskyn, bv. "." (Berger, 1967:12). Meer besonderhede omtrent bronne moet alfabeties volgens die vanne van die outeurs aan die einde van die manuskrip onder die opskrif "Bibliografie" verskyn. Let op die gebruik van hoofletters en leestekens by die volgende voorbeelde Section E SECTION D: ADDENDUM 9 Page 427 TWO AUTHORS/TWEE OUTEURS: SHEAFOR, B.W. & JENKINS, L.E. 1982. Quality field instruction in social work. Program development and Maintenance. New York: Longman. COLLECTION/BUN DEL ARTIKELS: MIDDLEMAN, R.R. & RHODES, G.B. (eds) 1985. Competent supervision, making imaginative judgements. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ARTICLE IN COLLECTION/ARTIKEL IN BUNDEL: DURKHEIM, E. 1977. On education and society. In: KARARABEL, J. & KALSEY, A.H. (eds) Power and ideology in education. New York: Oxford University Press. JOURNAL ARTICLE/ARTIKEL IN TYDSKRIF: BERN STEIN, A. 1991. Social work in addition, a new South Africa: Can social workers meet the challenge? Social Work/Maatskaplike werk, 27 (3/4):222-231. THESISITESIS: EHLERS, D.M.M. 1987. Die gebruik van statistiese tegnieke vir die ontleding van gegewens in maatskaplikewerk-navorsing. Pretoria: Universiteit van Pretoria. (M tesis). MINISTRY FOR WELFARE AND POPULATION DEVELOPMENT 1995. Draft White Paper for Social Welfare. Government Gazette, Vol. 368. No. 16943 (2 February). Pretoria: Government Printer. NEWSPAPER REPORT/KOERANTBERIG: MBEKl, T. 1998. Fiddling while the AIDS Crisis gets out of control. Sunday Times, 8 March, 18. INTERNET REFERENCESNERWYSINGS: MCKIERNAN, G. 1998. Beyond Bookmarks: schemes for organizing the Web. Available. http://public.iastate.edulCYBER-STACKS/CTW.htm. [Accessed: 18/06/1998]. Section E SECTION E: CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES Page 428 Adler, E.S. & Clark, R. 2008. How it‟s done: an invitation to social research. London: Thomson Wadsworth. Aldridge, M. & Wood, J. 1998. Interviewing children: a guide for child care and forensic practitioners. New York: Willey. Allagia, R. 2004. Many ways of telling: expanding conceptualizations of child sexual abuse disclosure. Child abuse and neglect, 28(11):1213-1227. American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). 2012. Practice guidelines: forensic interviewing in cases of suspected child abuse. Oklahoma City, Okla.: APSAC. American Psychological Association. 2013. Speciality guidelines for forensic psychology. Washington, D.C.: APA. Anderson, J., Ellefson, J., Lashley, J., Lukas, A., Miller, S.O., Russel, A., Stauffer, J. & Weigman, J. 2010. The Cornerhouse Forensic Interview Protocol: RATAC. Thomas M. Cooley Journal of Practical and Clinical Law, 12(3):193-331. Babbie, E. 2014. The basics of social research. 6th ed. Canada: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Babbie, E. & Mouton, J. 2001. The practice of social research. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Bailey, C.A. 2007. A guide to qualitative field research, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Barker, R.L. 2003. The social work dictionary. 5th ed. Washington, D.C.: NASW Press. SECTION E CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES Section E SECTION E: CONSOLIDATED LIST OF REFERENCES Page 429 Barker, R.L. & Branson, D.M. 2000. Forensic social work: legal aspects of professional practise. New York: Haworth Press. Barker, R. L. & Branson, D. M. 2003. Forensic social work: Legal aspects of professional practice 2nd ed. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Berger, K.S. 2003. The Developing person through childhood and adolescence. 6th ed. New York: Worth Publishers. Bergman, M.M. 2008. Advances in mixed methods research. London: SAGE. Berliner, L. 2003. Intervention in sexual abuse. Child abuse research in South Africa, 4(1):12-15. Berliner, L. 2011. Child sexual abuse: Definitions, prevalence, and consequences. (In Myers, J.E.B., ed. The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment. 3rd ed. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage. p. 215-232.) Botha, K. 2010. Riglyne vir toepaslike verwysing van kinderkliënte vir forensiese assessering in „n Suid-Afrikaanse welsynsorganisasie. Potchefstroom: Noordwes- Universiteit. Potchefstroomkampus. (Verhandeling - MA.) Botma, Y., Greeff, M., Mulaudzi, F.M. & Wright, S.C.D. 2010. Research in health sciences. Cape Town: Pearson Education South Africa. Bottoms, B.L., Quas, J.A. & Davis, S.L. 2007. The influence of the interviewer-provided social support on children‟s suggestibility, memory, and disclosures. (In Pipe, M., Lamb, M.E., Orbach, Y. & Cederborg, A., eds. Child sexual abuse: disclosure, delay and denial. New York: Routledge. p. 135-157.) Bow, J.M., Quinnell, F.A., Zaroff, M. & Assemany, A. 2002. Assessment of sexual abuse allegations in child custody cases. Professional psychology: research and practice, 33(6):566-575. Brown, J.D. & Cantor, J. 2000. 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