i 
 
An assessment of the attitudes of Grade 
12 learners toward entrepreneurship in a 
selected area in the North West province 
 
 
Amon Itumeleng Mothabeng 
22623914 
 
 
 
Mini-dissertation submitted for the degree Masters in Business 
Administration at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West 
University 
 
 
Promoter: Prof SP van Der merwe 
Date: 25 October 2012 
ii 
 
ABSTRACT 
 
The primary objective of this study was to assess the attitude of grade 12 learners 
towards entrepreneurship. This primary objective was achieved through the 
discussion and evaluation of the secondary objectives. The secondary objectives 
included the literature review relative to entrepreneurship, the empirical study and 
making practical recommendations. The study was conducted in a selected area in 
the North-West province, with a specific focus on the region as clustered by the 
Department of Education of the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality. 
 
A comprehensive literature review was conducted. In the literature review 
entrepreneurship was defined based on an entrepreneur‟s point of view and also as a 
process. The literature review also discussed the current state of entrepreneurship in 
South Africa, education and training models including measures to fast track 
entrepreneurship adoption among learners, and various models of entrepreneurial 
development. The assessment of attitude, entrepreneurial intentions of learners and 
opportunity recognition were other subjects covered in the literature review chapter.    
   
After the literature review, the empirical study was conducted by means of a self-
completion questionnaire administered to grade 12 learners. The questionnaire was 
distributed to a total of 299 learners, and the feedback accumulated to 274 
respondents, which represent a good response rate of 92%. Chapter 3 focused on 
the empirical research by discussing the results obtained from the questionnaire. The 
questionnaire was structured in such a way that it firstly deals with the respondents‟ 
demographic information, after which it assesses attitude towards entrepreneurship, 
followed by ways of seizing entrepreneurial opportunities, and establishing the 
entrepreneurial environment in secondary schools including in South Africa. 
Furthermore, relations were determined between demographic variables and the 
constructs used to measure attitude towards entrepreneurship. 
 
Following the detailed analysis of chapter 3, conclusions and recommendations were 
summoned to chapter 4. Overall, the results indicated a view that learners are not 
entirely pruned to entrepreneurship due influential factors such as their parents‟ or 
iii 
 
guardian‟s lack of involvement in business. Furthermore, it also indicated that if 
learners are afforded constructive mentorship, they can be more inclined to 
entrepreneurship. Similarly, if they are financially assisted or motivation is provided 
by the government and private sectors, they can be able to venture into business. 
 
Keywords:  entrepreneurship, attitude, entrepreneurial education, South Africa, 
opportunity. 
 
 
  
iv 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
The author will like to appreciate and thank the following:  
 Firstly, great honour be unto the almighty God for making this a successful 
journey and providing me with another shot at life. 
 To my wife Matshenki, my daughter Kopano, thanks for your support and 
understanding through this sturdy years. 
 To my study promoter, Prof. Stephen Van der Merwe for your 
encouragements, positive critics, availability and auditing my developments. 
  To the Department of Education (Ms Sechele, Dr Molokoe (Area Manager) 
and Ms Nadasen) for granting me an opportunity to conduct my study. 
 To all School Managers particularly Mr Motlhampe and Subject Coordinators 
for your co-operation in this research. 
 To all grade 12 learners who participated in this study. 
 To my parents and in-laws for their continual support. 
 To my brother (Katlego) and sister (Lebogang) for moving my goal post and 
setting new targets. 
 Last but not least, to my group members, community at large and the 
Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality office for providing the necessary information.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
v 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. i 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iv 
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. x 
LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................... xii 
 
CHAPTER 1: NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 3 
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ........................................................................................................ 4 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................. 6 
1.4.1 Primary objective .............................................................................................................. 6 
1.4.2 Secondary objectives ....................................................................................................... 6 
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................... 7 
1.5.1 Field of study ..................................................................................................................... 7 
1.5.2 Geographical demarcation .............................................................................................. 7 
1.5.3 Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality economics .............................................................. 10 
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 11 
1.6.1 Literature review ............................................................................................................. 11 
1.6.2 Empirical study ................................................................................................................ 12 
1.6.2.1 Selection of the measuring instrument ....................................................................... 12 
1.6.2.2 Study population and sampling method ..................................................................... 15 
1.6.2.3 Data collection ............................................................................................................... 16 
1.6.2.4 Data analysis .................................................................................................................. 16 
1.7 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 16 
1.8 LAYOUT OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................... 17 
 
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 20 
2.2 DEFINITIONS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP ........................................................................ 21 
2.2.1 Entrepreneurship as a person ...................................................................................... 21 
2.2.2 Entrepreneurship as a process ..................................................................................... 22 
vi 
 
2.2.3 Dimensions of entrepreneurship .................................................................................. 25 
2.3 STATE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICA ................................................ 26 
2.3.1 Global entrepreneurship monitor rating ....................................................................... 26 
2.3.2 Key challenges faced by South Africa ......................................................................... 27 
2.4 ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AND TRAINING .................................................. 30 
2.4.1 Education and training defined ..................................................................................... 31 
2.4.2 State of entrepreneurship education in South Africa ................................................ 31 
2.4.3 Inculcation of entrepreneurship through education ................................................... 33 
2.4.4 Models of entrepreneurship education ........................................................................ 34 
2.5 ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDE ............................................................................................ 39 
2.5.1 Attitude towards entrepreneurship ............................................................................... 39 
2.5.2 Push and pull factors ...................................................................................................... 40 
2.5.3 Entrepreneurial development ........................................................................................ 41 
2.5.4 Entrepreneurial attitude orientation scale ................................................................... 43 
2.5.5 Entrepreneurial Intensity ................................................................................................ 44 
2.6 ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS ................................................................................... 44 
2.7 OPPORTUNITY RECOGNITION ......................................................................................... 46 
2.7.1 Opportunity defined ........................................................................................................ 46 
2.7.1.1 Cognitive approach ....................................................................................................... 47 
2.7.1.2 Resource recombination .............................................................................................. 49 
2.8 ENTREPRENEURIAL TRAITS ............................................................................................. 53 
2.9 SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 57 
 
CHAPTER 3: EMPIRICAL STUDY 
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 59 
3.2 GATHERING OF DATA ......................................................................................................... 60 
3.2.1 Study population ............................................................................................................. 60 
3.2.2 Questionnaire used in this study .................................................................................. 60 
3.3 DATA PROCESSING ............................................................................................................. 62 
3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 63 
3.4.1 Participating schools ...................................................................................................... 63 
3.4.2 Gender participation ....................................................................................................... 64 
3.4.3 Age classification ............................................................................................................ 64 
3.4.4 Race count ....................................................................................................................... 65 
vii 
 
3.4.5 Parents owning business ............................................................................................... 65 
3.4.6 Parent or guardian education ....................................................................................... 66 
3.4.7 Given pocket money at school...................................................................................... 67 
3.4.8 Job while at school ......................................................................................................... 67 
3.4.9 Studying business subjects ........................................................................................... 68 
3.4.10 Parents‟ monthly income ............................................................................................... 69 
3.5 ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENTREPRENEURSHIP .............................................................. 70 
3.6 ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES .......................................................................... 72 
3.7 ENTREPRENEURSHIP ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE HIGH SCHOOLS .................. 75 
3.8 THE SOUTH AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURIAL ENVIRONMENT ................................... 77 
3.9 RELIABILITY ........................................................................................................................... 79 
3.10 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES AND 
ENTREPRENEURIAL ATTITUDE CONSTRUCTS ...................................................................... 80 
3.10.1 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and gender of respondents ............. 80 
3.10.2 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and age group of respondents ....... 81 
3.10.3 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and race group of respondents ...... 82 
3.10.4 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and parent‟s business involvement of 
respondents ......................................................................................................................................... 83 
3.10.5 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondents given pocket 
money while at school ........................................................................................................................ 84 
3.10.6 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondent with jobs while at 
school         .......................................................................................................................................... 85 
3.10.7 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondents‟ subject choice ... 86 
3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 87 
 
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 89 
4.2 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................... 89 
4.2.1 Demographic information of respondents ................................................................... 90 
4.2.2 Attitude towards entrepreneurship ............................................................................... 92 
4.2.3 Entrepreneurial opportunities ........................................................................................ 93 
4.2.4 Entrepreneurship environment within the schools ..................................................... 93 
4.2.5 South African entrepreneurial environment ................................................................ 94 
4.2.6 Relationship between demographical variables and the constructs tested in the 
questionnaire ....................................................................................................................................... 95 
viii 
 
4.2.6.1 Relationship between gender and constructs measuring attitude ......................... 95 
4.2.6.2 Relationship between age variable and constructs measuring attitude ................ 95 
4.2.6.3 Relationship between race group and construct measuring attitude .................... 96 
4.2.6.4 Relationship between parents‟ involvement in business and construct measuring 
attitude .......................................................................................................................................... 97 
4.2.6.5 Relationship between being given pocket money and construct measuring 
attitude .......................................................................................................................................... 97 
4.2.6.6 Relationship between having a job while at school and construct measuring 
attitude .......................................................................................................................................... 97 
4.2.6.7 Relationship between studying business subject and constructs measuring 
attitude .......................................................................................................................................... 98 
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................... 99 
4.3.1 Education and training ................................................................................................... 99 
4.3.2 Perceptions towards entrepreneurship ...................................................................... 100 
4.3.3 Entrepreneurial opportunities ...................................................................................... 100 
4.3.4 State of entrepreneurship in schools ......................................................................... 101 
4.3.5 The South African entrepreneurial environment ...................................................... 101 
4.4 ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES.................................................................................... 102 
4.4.1 Primary objective .......................................................................................................... 102 
4.4.2 Secondary objectives ................................................................................................... 102 
4.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................... 103 
4.6 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................ 104 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 105 
ANNEXURE A ................................................................................................................................... 114 
ANNEXURE B ................................................................................................................................... 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ix 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
Figure 1.1: Map of the North-West Province, district demarcation...............................8 
Figure 1.2: Map of Kgetlengrivier local municipality.....................................................9 
Figure 1.3: Layout of the study...................................................................................18 
Figure 2.1: South Africa‟s TEA rate over the period between 2002 and 2011...........27 
Figure 2.2: Attendance at an educational institution amongst persons aged 5 to 24 
years (2002–2007).....................................................................................................30 
Figure 2.3: Five stages of entrepreneurship training..................................................35 
Figure 2.4: Hytti model of entrepreneurship education..............................................36 
Figure 2.5: GIBB‟S model..........................................................................................37 
Figure 2.6: Push and pull factors in entrepreneurial activity......................................41 
Figure 2.7: Model for entrepreneurship development................................................42 
Figure 2.8: Attitudes in relation with cognition, affection and conation......................43 
Figure 2.9: Bird‟s Model of Entrepreneurial Intentionality..........................................45 
Figure 2.10: Integrative Models for Assessing Entrepreneurial Intentions................46 
Figure 2.11: Overview of entrepreneurship process..................................................50 
Figure 2.12: Model for innovation and entrepreneurship...........................................50 
Figure 2.13: The Timmons model of the entrepreneurial process.............................51 
Figure 2.14: Characteristics of successful entrepreneurs……………………………..54 
Figure 3.1: Participating schools................................................................................63 
Figure 3.2: Attitude towards entrepreneurship ranked per mean from lowest to 
highest 
...................................................................................................................................71 
Figure 3.3: Rank entrepreneurial opportunities per mean .........................................74 
Figure 3.4: Entrepreneurial environments within secondary schools ranked from 
lowest to highest value...............................................................................................76 
Figure 3.5: Ranked from lowest to highest of the South African entrepreneurial 
environment................................................................................................................78 
 
 
x 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
 
Table 1.1: Population statistics and wards in the Kgetlengrivier municipality……….10 
Table 2.1: Tracking entrepreneurship in South Africa…………………………………24 
Table 2.2: Recommendations for entrepreneurship education in South Africa……..34 
Table 2.3: Learning processes……………………………………………………………38 
Table 2.4: Characteristics of entrepreneurs……………………………………………..55 
Table 3.1: Gender classification………………………………………………………….64 
Table 3.2: Age classification………………………………………………………………64 
Table 3.3: Race group classification of respondents…………………………………...65 
Table 3.4: Parents owning business……………………………………………………...66 
Table 3.5: Parent‟s level of education……………………………………………………66 
Table 3.6: Pocket money while at school………………………………………………..67 
Table 3.7: Job while at school…………………………………………………………….68 
Table 3.8: Studying business subjects…………………………………………………...68 
Table 3.9: Parent‟s monthly income……………………………………………………...69 
Table 3.10: Attitude towards entrepreneurship………………………………………….70 
Table 3.11: Entrepreneurial opportunities……………………………………………….73 
Table 3.12: Entrepreneurship environment within secondary schools……………….75 
Table 3.13: South African entrepreneurial environment………………………………..77 
Table 3.14: Cronbach alpha values………………………………………………………79 
Table 3.15: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and gender…………………………………………………………………………………..81 
xi 
 
Table 3.16: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and age groups……………………………………………………………………………..82 
Table 3.17: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and race classification……………………………………………………………………..83 
Table 3.18: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and parents owning business……………………………………………………………..84 
Table 3.19: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and being given pocket money…………………………………………………………....85 
Table 3.20: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and having a job while at school………………………………………………………….86 
Table 3.21: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship attitude 
and doing business subjects………………………………………………………………87 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
xii 
 
LIST OF ACRONYMS 
 
DGMT DG Murray Trust 
DoE  Department of Education 
DTI   Department of Trade and Industry 
EAO  Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation 
EAOS  Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation Scale 
EQ   Entrepreneurial Quotient 
GDP   Gross Domestic Product 
GEM  Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 
ILO  International Labour Organisation 
NEPAD  New Partnership for Africa‟s Development 
NYDA  National Youth Development Agency 
OCIPE Office of Companies and Intellectual Property Enforcement 
SADEC Southern African Development Communities 
SAIRR South African institute of Race Relations 
SALGA South African Local Government Association 
SARB  South African Reserve Bank Bulletin 
SEDA  Small Enterprise Development Agency 
TEA  Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial Activity 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1 
 
CHAPTER 1 
NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
 
1.1 INTRODUCTION    
 
South Africa faces enormous challenges including poverty and eminent high levels of 
unemployment that are evidently rampant in the country (National Treasury, 
2011:13). Luiz and Mariotti (2011:49) support the thought as outlined on the GEM 
report 2011 that the challenges facing South Africa are immense, particularly with 
regards to the young democratic, highly unequal country and enormous socio-
economic problems. Presumptuous factors that seems to be contributing to the lack 
of employment and poverty are such as the skilled labour shortage, HIV/AIDS 
pandemic, vulnerable economy, political and economic issues such as inflation 
targeting versus growth policy, weaker currency, labour unrest and stringent labour 
laws as outlined on the DG Murray Trust report (Smith, 2011:5) and Van Wyk, 
Boshoff and Kruger (2004:15). 
 
The global labour market has declined due to several measures including the 
economic meltdown experienced during 2008 (www.ilo.org). Hence, the introduction 
of measures to curb the cost of production or manufacturing in companies was 
imperative. This has resulted in cutting costs associated with business processes 
and upgrading to more advanced and efficient technological systems, while 
compromising the labour intensive operations. Hence the reduction experienced 
within the job creation fraternity during 2008. 
 
Therefore, an engagement platform to address the on-going impetus has been 
created by several organisations such as First National Bank (FNB) (Endeavour, 
2012). The platform presented the opportunity to make deliberations and conclude 
on key findings about the state of entrepreneurship in South Africa, in which 
dialogues have been prompted to address the key issues surrounding the 
entrepreneurial development with the mind set of eradicating poverty and creating 
jobs. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) South African reports also reveal 
2 
 
the accomplishments and setbacks of the country particularly with regards to the 
Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) index. All the GEM reports refer to challenges 
facing South Africa including the lack of quality education, government policies, and 
many more (Source: www.gemconsortium.org). 
 
Therefore, a need to dissect the development of entrepreneurship is of critical 
importance. Similarly, perceived ideas about who is supposed to be an entrepreneur 
are still actively suggested by most individuals. Hougaard (2005:27) points out that 
entrepreneurship can be learned and that to a large extent, coincidence determines 
who will start a business of their own. Hougaard continues to outline 
entrepreneurship as a way of thinking, a way of acting, a form of organising, not a 
personal quality reserved for a minority of the population.  
 
The perception one has towards entrepreneurship is highly regarded as a 
concerning factor among learners, particularly because South Africa has been 
experiencing high levels of unemployment among young people (Kelley, Singer and 
Herrington, 2011: 17). The objective of this research is to determine the attitude 
towards entrepreneurship amongst learners limited to the geographic demarcation 
and subsequently present the entrepreneurial environment as influenced by the 
behavioural patterns and the level of interest among society including the parents. 
Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009:6) identified the value system as a fundamental 
element in explaining entrepreneurial behaviour. Furthermore, these authors view 
entrepreneurs as innovators, independent people whose role as business leaders 
conveyed a source of formal authority.  
 
Hence, the study is aimed at assessing the entrepreneurial attitude of grade 12 
learners in the Kgetlengrivier district in the North-West Province. The South African 
youth constitute a number of talented individuals, which are ideal to capture interest 
in the labour force environment. Hence, the objective of this study is to determine all 
the contributing factors towards the lack of self-employment attitude amongst 
learners. The characteristics of entrepreneurs are as diverse in their own rights, 
therefore identifying opportunities and monitoring the environment of 
entrepreneurship in secondary schools and around the province can reveal the 
attitude portrayed towards entrepreneurship. 
3 
 
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 
 
The conventional interest in this study arise from the current situation of 
unemployment, insufficient absorption rate of young people into the South African 
labour market, and the prominent levels of poverty in and around the rural areas.  
The study also focuses on the issues such as the characteristics of entrepreneurs, 
means of opportunity identification and mitigating factors on the economic 
development in South Africa. The study is impeccably decorated to suit grade 12 
secondary school learners.  
 
According to the South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR, 2011) report, “A 
grim picture has been painted for the South African school leavers; with statistics 
showing that one in two young South Africans and two out of three young African 
women are jobless”. The unemployment rate among 15 to 24 year olds is 51%, more 
than twice the national unemployment rate of 25%, as stipulated in the latest South 
African Survey published by the South African Institute of Race Relations. 
 
The honourable President of South Africa Jacob Zuma has reflected back on the 
statistics that relates to unemployment rate in his State of the Nation Address 
(Government Info, 2012). The President admits that high levels of unemployment are 
evident even while jobs grew rapidly between 2003 and 2008, but the unemployment 
rate did not fall less than the government‟s set target of 20%. Therefore, introduction 
of entrepreneurial activities is imperative to curb or control the current unemployment 
situation and poverty.   
 
According to Sikiti (2011:10), the perception of entrepreneurship, being about the 
“idea” was found to be persistent among South African youth. While the idea 
generation seems to be consistent, there are few blocking factors that potentially turn 
down the fulfilment of an idea into reality. The National Treasury discussion paper 
(National Treasury, 2011), elaborate on the interventions made by the National 
Youth Development Agency (NYDA) in and around the schools. The NYDA support 
the young potential entrepreneurs by developing programmes such as business 
4 
 
planning, marketing, and branding that are designed to swerve the young individuals 
to venture into business.  
 
According to Smith (2011:31), the demoralising factor is lack of financial resources 
which have an effect of reducing the number of learners departing secondary 
schools towards furthering their studies with higher education institutions. Therefore, 
learners are mandated to add to the growing number of unemployment in South 
Africa. In the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) global report, according to 
Bosma and Levie (2009:15), attitudes and perceptions are of critical importance in 
opportunity evaluation. The report also remarks that opportunity needs to prevail in 
order for an entrepreneur to profoundly counter the prospective opportunity. If 
options were warranted such as a better opportunity relative to starting a business 
and expected returns on employment are broad forward, the obvious appealing 
choice to youth will be that of employment.  
 
This research seeks to focus on learners who are about to leave school, in order to 
determine their attitudes with regards to pursuing for entrepreneurship as a career, 
rather than pursuing for university or college endeavours. School leavers presumably 
find it difficult to crack into the corporate world without any expertise. Therefore, a 
bunch of school leavers are encouraged to study further in order to utilise their 
knowledge in the employment sector rather than venturing into business. The sole 
option of employment is normally enforced by culture, way of thinking of the 
community, educational background, and life style conditions. 
 
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 
 
South Africa is a poverty stricken country, whereby high levels of unemployment are 
adversely evident. A large number of unemployed people in South Africa are made 
of young people. The latest Adcorp Employment Index report which is extracted and 
is based on the Quarterly Labour Force Survey (Stats SA, 2011) indicates that the 
unemployment rate fell sharply at an annualised rate of 3.1% in May 2011. All 
sectors, all occupations and all employment types recorded declines. The latest 
Quarterly Labour Force Survey (Stats SA, 2011) indicates that between the second 
5 
 
and third quarters of 2011, the unemployment level declined by 96000, which 
resulted in a proportional decline of 0.7 % in the unemployment rate while reaching 
the milestone of 25%. Despite the marginal decline in unemployment in the third 
quarter of 2011, 4.4 million people still remain unemployed and just over 68.2% of 
those people have been unemployed for a period of one year or more. Unfortunately 
60.2% of the job seekers have not passed grade 12. 
 
Supplement to the South African unemployment situation, the Bojanala-Platinum 
District labour market has also contributed to the relative high levels of 
unemployment. As stipulated in the South African Local Government Association 
report (SALGA, 2011) the Bojanala district labour market is characterised by low 
level of skills. About 15.1% of the population older than 20 years have not received 
any form of schooling and 19.7% have only primary education. These figures imply 
that nearly 35% of the total adult population can be regarded as functionally illiterate. 
Conversely, only 20.1% of the adult population have completed their high school 
education and only 5.5% have obtained some form of tertiary education.   
 
Therefore, initiatives to instigate entrepreneurial interest among young people at an 
earlier age might eliminate the national crises and guide South Africa into a brighter 
and sustainable prosperity in the entrepreneurial arena. Non-profit organisations in 
collaboration with government and private sectors have initiated numerous 
programmes that seeks to encourage and promote entrepreneurship, however much 
had not been achieved to attract grade 12 school leavers. The lack of interest can be 
attributed to variables such as negative attitudes or perceptions towards 
entrepreneurship. Furthermore, lack of awareness featuring entrepreneurship in the 
rural areas also adds to the distinctive list of attributes that are effectively 
demoralising young people. Hence, an assessment of the entrepreneurial 
environment including the entrepreneurship education on how to correct the 
unemployment situation is of vital importance. 
 
The probability of suitable employment for grade 12 learners is unpredictable in the 
labour sector in view of the current unemployment situation. Therefore, South African 
young people need to attract and develop new ways of creating wealth. Venturing 
into entrepreneurship is one way of bringing about change in the nation‟s current 
6 
 
situation. Hence, the study is aimed at assessing the attitudes towards 
entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners with a focus on the Kgetlengrivier Local 
Municipality. The study can therefore make a contribution to the Bojanala district 
through assessing the state of entrepreneurship, the intentions of learners towards 
entrepreneurship, available opportunities, impeding factors towards the progress of 
entrepreneurship and ineffective entrepreneurship education methods. 
 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 
 
The purpose of this study is outlined under a primary objective and secondary 
objectives. 
 
1.4.1 Primary objective 
 
The primary objective of this study is to assess the attitude and behavioural patterns 
or trends towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners in the Kgetlengrivier 
Local Municipality in the North-West Province in South Africa. Furthermore, it is 
compiled to make recommendations of how to accomplish a positive entrepreneurial 
attitude in which participating schools will use this study to gauge their 
entrepreneurial milestones. 
  
1.4.2 Secondary objectives 
 
Secondary objectives were constituted to develop an approach for attainment of the 
primary objective: 
 To conduct a literature review in order to gain an understanding of 
entrepreneurship as a phenomenon and concepts relative to assessing 
entrepreneurial attitudes. 
 To determine the entrepreneurial characteristics that is reflected on learners 
such as their ultimate understanding of entrepreneurship, cultural 
influences, family environment and entrepreneurial prejudice.   
 To study the present government policies that subsequently address the 
entrepreneurial awareness programmes and execution plan in secondary 
7 
 
schools, and thus the implementation of those strategic policies in rural 
areas, while monitoring the state of entrepreneurship in schools and in 
South Africa. 
 To conduct an empirical study that assesses the attitude of learners 
towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners. 
 To make recommendations on how to fill gaps between the current and 
desired state of entrepreneurship in schools.  
 To make practical recommendations concerning the entrepreneurship 
education in the demographic area of the study.  
 
 1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 
 
The scope of this study is limited to both entrepreneurship as a discipline and as per 
geographical demarcation as outlined below. 
 
1.5.1 Field of study 
 
The field of the study falls within the subject discipline of entrepreneurship with 
special focus on the attitude towards entrepreneurship among the selected group of 
learners. 
 
1.5.2 Geographical demarcation 
 
In terms of the geographical demarcation, the study remains focused on the 
Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality which is in the Bojanala-Platinum District in the 
North-West Province. According to the SALGA report (SALGA, 2011), the Bojanala-
Platinum District is situated in the north-eastern corner of the North-West Province. 
The district comprises of five local municipalities such as Kgetlengrivier, Madibeng, 
Moretele, Moses Kotane and Rustenburg. Figure 1.1 depicts the North-West 
Province map and the more formal urban areas are located in the southern part of 
the province. 
 
8 
 
Figure 1.1: Map of the North-West Province, district demarcation 
 
Source: http://mfma.treasury.gov.za  
 
The population of the Bojanala-Platinum District amounts to 1,281,498 people and 
nearly 39% of the population are below 19 years of age. This implies that a 
significant number of young people will be entering the labour market over the next 
few years and will be seeking employment opportunities. 
 
The area of focus within the Bojanala-Platinum District is the Kgetlengrivier Local 
Municipality. The Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality comprises of a few urban villages 
such as Koster, Swartruggens, Millvale, Lindleyspoort and Derby as depicted in 
figure 1.2. 
 
 
 
 
  
9 
 
Figure 1.2: Map of the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality 
 
 
Source: www.demarcation.org.za (Accessed date 20/06/2012) 
 
Table 1.1 presents the Bojanala-Platinum District population, which indicates the 
number of wards accounted for by various local municipalities. The Kgetlengrivier 
Local Municipality is the second largest with respect to the size, contributing 4076.32 
square kilometres, but accounts for the lowest number of people as compared to 
other municipalities in the same district.  
 
 
 
 
  
10 
 
Table1.1: Population statistics and wards in the Kgetlengrivier Municipality  
 
 
 
Source: 2001 Stats SA Census and 2007 Community Survey Report 
 
1.5.3 Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality economics 
 
Major developments regarding entrepreneurship requires monetary injection by the 
Bojanala-Platinum District, as it was outlined during the strategic development plan 
summit hosted in 2004. Furthermore, the devised strategic objectives must be 
upheld for ten years. The proposed economic growth strategy intends to 
aggressively extend interventions by the government by investing on learning 
facilities especially in the rural areas, initiate mentorship programmes to assist 
potential entrepreneurs and the facilitation of learnership programmes within the 
public sector (Bojanala-Platinum growth and development strategy, 2005). 
 
The Mayor of the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality D.W. Moleko highlighted in her 
2010/11 budget speech that assurance has been carved on issues such as 
infrastructure development. The report also reveals that an amount of R200 000 is 
set aside to provide the learners with bursaries to register with higher education 
institutions. Hence, the plan to eradicate poverty must be quickly devised, if such a 
small amount of financial aids is provided to school leavers. The introduction of 
entrepreneurship particularly among young people can redeem the situation and also 
reduce the backlog of low skilled personnel and compensate for unevenly distributed 
funds. 
 
Municipality Size (Km2) Population Households Wards  
Kgetlengrivier 4076.31 36477 10497 5 
Madibeng 3911.48 338261 97279 31 
Moretele 1405.3 177905 43184 24 
Moses Kotane 5351.43 236845 62795 30 
Rustenburg 3587.99 395539 119863 36 
TOTAL 18332.51 1185027 333618 126 
11 
 
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
 
The study prompts to be conducted in two phases, in which the literature review 
relating to attitude and behavioural patterns towards entrepreneurship will be 
presented, followed by an empirical study that assesses the attitudes of learners in 
the selected demographic area. 
 
1.6.1 Literature review 
 
In order to gain the relevant insight relative to attitudes or perceptions among the 
prospect of potential entrepreneurs, an appropriate comprehensive literature review 
is essential, and it should present the characteristics that make an entrepreneur. The 
exposition of entrepreneurship as a phenomenon and relative definitions as 
proposed by writers and scholars will be examined. Furthermore, the focus will also 
be directed to entrepreneurial education, awareness programmes, entrepreneurship 
as an alternative career choice and measures by the government in combating 
poverty. The current state of entrepreneurship in South Africa will be examined in 
order to identify gaps in the system that constitute entrepreneurship in the country. 
Similarly, the literature review will also unpack the environmental factors impeding on 
entrepreneurship success.  
 
Numerous sources were consulted for the literature study with a view on the subject 
matter including, but not limited to the following: 
 Academic journals provided by the Ferdinand Postma Library of the North-
West University. Articles subjective to being peer reviewed and having the 
track record of being academically acceptable.  
 Internet searches to examine the current issues such as unemployment 
rates, levels of poverty, government policies and state of entrepreneurship in 
South Africa and also in the urban schools. These searches included 
websites such as Statistics South Africa, Local Municipalities Demarcation 
Board, Bojanala-Platinum District, the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality and 
the Department of Education. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 
12 
 
South African report 2011 is of critical importance in shaping the study 
towards the problem statement.        
 Published works such as textbooks. 
 Previous studies including dissertations and articles such as “Perceptions 
regarding entrepreneurship in an emerging and culturally diverse economy: 
A South African survey.”  
 
1.6.2 Empirical study 
 
The empirical study requires a valid research design, as it motivates the 
implementation of thorough definitions of the study population, selection of a suitable 
measuring instrument and statistical techniques for data analysis (Welman, Kruger & 
Mitchell, 2010: 52). The study will undertake an exploratory quantitative research 
approach as propelled by the circumstances arising from the problem statement. The 
research method should be descriptive due to the state of entrepreneurship in the 
Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality is unknown and similarly the assessment of 
perception towards entrepreneurship among learners had not been previously 
established. 
 
1.6.2.1 Selection of the measuring instrument 
 
The questionnaire is structured in such a way to consider the level of maturity of 
learners (i.e. the language is not difficult to understand, limited academic “jargons”), 
influential factors in the geographic area towards entrepreneurship and the level of 
education among the learners. Survey questions possess an ability of using self-
completion method, whereby there will be no need for learners to request any form 
of assistance in order to complete the questions.  
 
The measuring instrument used in this study is a standard questionnaire adapted 
from a study called “Entrepreneurship in an emerging and culturally diverse 
economy: A South African survey of perceptions”, developed by Luiz and Mariotti 
(2011). Their study was designed for university students. Similarly, all their assigned 
variables contain crucial elements that can also assess the attitude towards 
13 
 
entrepreneurship among secondary school learners. Also in an attempt to reduce the 
apathy associated with surveys, an accompanying cover letter has been provided, 
which assures the participants of their response being kept confidential. The 
presentations of the questionnaires as administered in the survey are as follows:  
 
 Section A: Personal information  
 
Section A gathered data from respondents regarding their demographic profiles and 
characteristics. Nine questions were posed about topics such as gender, age 
group, race, parents own a business, parents’ level of education, is given 
pocket money while at school, have a job while a school, currently studying 
business subjects such as accounting and business economics, my parents’ 
monthly income.  
 
 Section B: Attitudes towards entrepreneurship 
 
Section B measures the attitudes towards entrepreneurship as a career choice 
among grade 12 learners. This section included 17 questions, i.e. wants to start 
own business, entrepreneurs are almost always inventors, buying a business 
is not entrepreneurship, owning a franchise is not entrepreneurship, 
entrepreneurs will do anything for profit, entrepreneurs are largely responsible 
for new innovations, technologies and products, I can earn more money 
working for someone else, I seriously consider entrepreneurship as a career 
option, schools should encourage students to consider entrepreneurship, I am 
too busy with classes to consider starting my own business, my parents are 
entrepreneurs, it is too risky to start my own business, I am a risk taker, 
entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of money, entrepreneurship is an 
honourable profession, a tertiary education is not necessary to be an 
entrepreneur, I prefer to work for a large company, for better career prospects. 
  
 
 
 
14 
 
 Section C: Entrepreneurial opportunities 
 
Section C measures the capability of the respondents to identify entrepreneurial 
opportunities. This section includes nine questions such as: I have many ideas for 
business ventures, it is too expensive to start own business, there are many 
entrepreneurial opportunities in student’s areas of study, entrepreneurial 
ventures are mainly limited to business ideas, I have a good understanding of 
intellectual property, I understand what is equity finance, I am constantly alert 
to business opportunities, all the good ideas have been taken, need 
connections to start a business. 
 
 Section D: Entrepreneurship environment within the school 
 
Section D probes into the schools‟ entrepreneurship environment. Nine questions 
were asked with regards to entrepreneurship activities in schools and the support 
systems available. The questions included the following: students are encouraged 
to pursue entrepreneurship ventures, high school counsellor mentioned 
entrepreneurship as career option, examples of how science and technology 
are key to business are included in class examples, entrepreneurial or 
business related examples are included in classes, having a mentor will help, a 
small seed grant would encourage entrepreneurship.  
 
 Section E: The South African entrepreneurial environment 
 
Section E assessed the entrepreneurial environment in South Africa. Five questions 
were asked with regard to entrepreneurship activities in South Africa and the 
available support programmes. The questions are: South Africa is an excellent 
country to start a business, my local community supports entrepreneurs, it 
would be very difficult to raise the money needed to start a new business in 
South Africa, I know how to have access to the assistance I would need to 
start a new business, I am aware of programmes the state provides to help 
people start businesses.  
 
15 
 
In section A the respondents will have to indicate the applicable answer by marking 
the desired designated block with a cross. In these sections B, C, D and E a five 
point Likert scale is used to measure responses that range from “strongly disagree” 
with a value of one, to “strongly agree” with a value of five. The summated scale is 
predominantly used in most researches due to its uniqueness of being simple to 
compile and analyse than any other attitude scale such as semantic differential, the 
Guttman scale and the Thurstone scale (Welman et al., 2010: 156). The Summated 
scale gives a reliable measure of the actual position on the field, instead of indicating 
only whether the respondent was favourably inclined on an issue or not. 
        
1.6.2.2 Study population and sampling method 
 
The target population will be narrowed to the 2012 intake of grade 12 learners within 
the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality which is situated in the Bojanala-Platinum 
District. Hence, the sample will be representative of the public secondary schools in 
the selected local municipality. All participating schools in this research are 
administered by the government inclusive are the secondary and combined schools. 
An approximate number of only 299 potential candidates from six schools will 
participate in the survey.  
 
The names of participating secondary and combined schools as clustered by the 
Department of Education (DoE) are outlined below: 
 Koster Combined School. 
 Moedwil Secondary School. 
 Mphe-bana High School. 
 Moefi Secondary School. 
 Reebone Secondary School. 
 Swartruggens Combined School. 
 
The sampling method suitable for this research is the non-probability sampling with 
an approach of convenience sampling technique. In which the sample is accurate, 
easily accessible and does not contain any periodic patterns. According to Welman 
16 
 
et al. (2010:64), the sample has no impediments, it is relatively easy to explain and 
the development costs are extensively low as compared to other sampling methods.   
 
1.6.2.3 Data collection 
 
Questionnaires will be distributed to school managers and subject coordinators, in 
order to facilitate the distribution and collection of survey questionnaires among 
scholars. The researcher will assert the availability of questionnaires in schools is 
realised and clear all the uncertainties with regards to questionnaires. A single day 
will be afforded to two schools depending on the proximity of schools, in which 
distribution and collection will be handled. Completed questionnaires will be handed 
over to the researcher the same day. An accompanying letter that assures the 
participants of the anonymity and confidentiality will be read by school managers and 
subject coordinators in the presence of the researcher.  
 
1.6.2.4 Data analysis 
 
Data collected will be sent to the Statistical Consultation Services at the North-West 
University in Potchefstroom for capturing, coding and analysing. The results are not 
expected to be validated because a standard questionnaire has been used.  
 
Analysed data will be used to recommend on the current entrepreneurial state in the 
selected area, expand on educational matters and entrepreneurial behavioural 
trends as set out by the society. Comprehensive details that determine the attitude 
and perceptions of learners towards entrepreneurship as a career choice will be 
provided. 
 
1.7 LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY 
 
This study seeks to evaluate the attitude towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 
learners in the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality. Educational background, socio-
economic factors, opportunity assessment and promotion of entrepreneurial activities 
are some of the key factors that decide the depth of involvement in entrepreneurship 
17 
 
among learners. Some of the limitations and assumptions of the study are listed 
below: 
 The outcome of this study is limited to the selected geographic area rather 
than the entire Bojanala-Platinum District.  
 The Department of Education is segregated into clusters, with the 
responsibility of integrated local municipalities. The Department of Education 
has classed the circuits into Elands, Madikwe and Pella/Silwerkrans circuits, 
and the sample size will not be representative of the population in relation to 
clusters according to the DoE. 
 Display of apathy notion among the pupils towards surveys, may adversely 
affect the response rate, quantity and quality of the results.        
 Private schools have not contributed to this study, therefore, the results 
cannot be generalised.  
 The study will not consider the number of active learners in school but on the 
grade 12 learners. Therefore, it will not be representative of the school, hence 
it cannot be generalised.  
 The research outcome might be limited by the number of participating 
candidates due to unpredicted reasons such as drop-out rate. 
 Limited accessibility to previous similar studies conducted in the region. 
Therefore, lack of resources will compromise the researcher to use similar 
studies from other countries and South African provinces. 
 Adverse nature of the existing schools is predominantly populated by black 
scholars. Therefore, the outcomes cannot be representative of other racial 
groups. Approximately, 20% is represented by other racial groups. 
 
1.8 LAYOUT OF THE STUDY 
 
The layout of the study is depicted in figure 1.3, which is followed by a brief 
explanation of contents covered in the chapters. 
 
  
18 
 
Figure 1.3: Layout of the study 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Chapter 2: Literature review 
 
Chapter two covers the literature review of entrepreneurship in order to obtain insight 
of different concepts from other researchers on this topic. Various definitions that 
describe the phenomenon known as “entrepreneurship” are provided in the study. 
The literature will cover elementary characteristics and behavioural trends that are 
depicted among entrepreneurial experts. Present drivers that motivate and or de-
motivate scholars to start their own businesses or to consider entrepreneurship as a 
career option. The literature review will examine the factors that reduce the number 
of learners in the secondary schools and models associated to entrepreneurial 
behaviour.  
 
In depth assessment of models and theories that examines attitude and perceptions. 
Review the current state of entrepreneurship in South Africa and the impact of 
entrepreneurial environment on the study including entrepreneurship education and 
training. The literature review entails the challenges faced by South Africa including 
Chapter One  
Definition and 
outline the study 
Chapter 4  
Recommendations 
and conclusions 
Chapter 2 
Literature review 
Chapter 3 
Empirical study 
Data collection 
19 
 
poverty, high levels of unemployment and the quality of education. The interventions 
as constituted by the South African government, private sectors and non-profit 
organisations in order to cap the outrageous challenges.   
 
Chapter 3: Results and discussion of empirical study 
 
Chapter three outlines the empirical study which includes the distribution and 
collection methods of the survey questionnaires. The identification of the study 
population will be examined. The measuring tool utilised in this study will be 
presented. Method of data collection and analysis of data will be thoroughly 
scrutinised. The presentation of results from the analysis of data will be covered in 
this chapter.    
 
Chapter 4: Recommendations and conclusions 
 
Chapter four will present and draw up conclusions that relates to the findings from 
the analysed data. Recommendations will be drawn according to analysis and will be 
presented according to the constructs measuring attitude and also disclose the state 
of entrepreneurship within the selected demographic area. The researcher will make 
remarks on the issues that contribute to lack of entrepreneurial awareness and 
propose interventions to fast track entrepreneurial activities within the Kgetlengrivier 
Local Municipality. This chapter will draw decisive and conclusive recommendations 
on the subject matter.   
 
  
20 
 
CHAPTER 2 
LITERATURE REVIEW ON ENTREPRENEURSHIP 
 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
 
The concept of entrepreneurship since it emerged in the 17th century, in which it 
represented “the person bearing risks of profit or loss in a fixed price contract with 
the government” (Hisrich & Peters, 2002:7). Prior to the 17th century, in the Middle 
Ages the phenomena was subjected to “a middleman who directed resources 
provided by others” (Stokes & Wilson, 2010:31).  Therefore, this chapter will primarily 
focus on the literature associated with entrepreneurship pertaining to the South 
African environment including the entrepreneurial agendas on the global scale. It 
should outline and provide the scope of entrepreneurship from deriving the 
fundamental concept of entrepreneurship through to various elements that indicate 
the perception towards entrepreneurship among individuals. The review is probed to 
investigate on the essential models that governs and constitutes the entrepreneurial 
environment in South Africa and abroad. Similarly, the assessment of 
entrepreneurial opportunities sticking out of South Africa should also be identified by 
the literature study.      
 
In order to dissect the South African prospect pertaining to entrepreneurship much 
emphasis relative to the state of education must be ordered. Entrepreneurship 
education and training had been previously identified as an imposing tool to fast 
track the adoption of entrepreneurship among individuals and organisations 
(Morrison, 1998:84). This propels the researcher to also focus on the models 
associated with entrepreneurship education, the current state of education in South 
Africa and implications informed by entrepreneurial education.  
 
This chapter seeks to cover the attitudes attached to entrepreneurship by the use of 
analytical ability of exemplifying the body of thought relevant to aspects that 
presumably determines the participation in entrepreneurship. Various measuring 
tools are utilised to establish the kind of attitude portrait by individuals such as 
entrepreneurial orientation attitude scale and entrepreneurial orientation models. 
21 
 
Several factors may account for the lack of a positive attitude towards 
entrepreneurship among individuals such as the conduciveness of the South African 
entrepreneurial environment. Hence, the results are evident from the total early-
stage entrepreneurial activities (TEA) rating as compared with other distinguishable 
countries in the same efficiency driven category (GEM Reports).             
      
2.2 DEFINITIONS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP 
 
According to Cassis and Minoglou (2005:4), the concept of “entrepreneurship” has 
remained elusive despite the academic attention it has attracted. The fundamental 
meaning of the phenomenon “entrepreneurship” has not yet been contextually 
agreed on by different schools of thought (Kirby, 2003:10). Subsequently, 
entrepreneurship stems from the French word entreprendre meaning “to undertake” 
or “to take” in one‟s own hands (Schaper & Volery, 2004:40). Probable definitions of 
entrepreneurship are practically subdued to follow suit the researcher‟s views, in 
which pre-emptive arguments and views holds no means or so forth, or otherwise 
dictate directive paths in the world of entrepreneurship. 
 
The following section defines the phenomenon “entrepreneurship” on the basis of an 
entrepreneur and the process undertaken through entrepreneurship. 
  
2.2.1 Entrepreneurship as a person 
 
Kumar, Poorninaa, Abraham and Jayashree (2003:7) perceive that the term 
“entrepreneurship” is often used synonymously with the term “entrepreneur”, it 
represents two sides of the same coin, but conceptually they are different. Mariotti 
and Glackinn (2012:3) support Kumar et al. (2003) in which these authors remain 
adamant that entrepreneurship is based on deeds of an entrepreneur such as 
founding the organisation and bringing products into the world. Hence, Van Aardt, 
Van Aardt, Bezuidenhout and Mumba (2010:4) opted to condition entrepreneurship 
in such a way that maintains the original definition from the Oxford English Dictionary 
in which an “entrepreneur” is defined as a person who organises, manages and 
assumes the risk of a business enterprise.  
22 
 
Van Aardt, Hewitt, Bendeman, Bezuidenhout, Van Rensburg, Naidoo, Van Aardt, 
Van der Bank and Visser (2011:4) and Henry, Hill and Leitch (2003:28) adopted the 
notion of defining entrepreneurship on an entrepreneur base, in which these authors 
define entrepreneurs as people who have an ability to see and evaluate business 
opportunities, to gather the necessary resources to take advantage of them, and to 
initiate appropriate actions to ensure success. 
 
Birley and Muzyka (2000:8) add that the term entrepreneurship is a process whereby 
activities are undertaken by entrepreneurs, in which entrepreneurs are painted as 
highly motivated individuals meant to pursue business ventures. Hence, opportunity 
is prominently regarded as opposed to resources as a leverage that suggestively 
promotes the entrepreneurial process. Drucker (2006:25) defines the entrepreneur 
as a person who is able to create a vision from the minimum resources through 
using his own creativity. 
 
2.2.2 Entrepreneurship as a process 
 
In contrary to entrepreneurship being defined on the basis of an entrepreneur, 
Kuratko and Hodgetts (2007:47) regard entrepreneurship as a process of innovation 
and new venture creation through which four major dimensions being individual, 
organisational, environmental and process are aided by collaborative networks in 
government, education and institutions. Nieuwenhuizen, Le Roux, Jacobs and 
Strydom (2001:3) purport on the preceded statement that entrepreneurship is a 
process whereby value creation is intended to manifest through the use of 
resources. Bridge, O‟Neil and Cromie (2003:36) add that entrepreneurship must be 
defined as an attempt to create a new business venture or expand on the current 
business.  
 
Bessant and Tidd (2011:40) encapsulate entrepreneurship as a phenomenon that is 
motivated by innovative thoughts in which the powerful mixture of energy, vision, 
passion, commitment, judgement and risk taking provides the motive power behind 
the innovation process. But Kumar et al. (2003:7) promote entrepreneurship as a 
process of identifying opportunities in the market place, arranging the resources to 
exploit the opportunities for long term gains. It involves creating wealth by bringing 
23 
 
together resources in new ways to start and sustain an enterprise. Van Aardt et al. 
(2010:4) add that the definition explains the act of initiating, controlling, monitoring 
and sustaining an enterprise through the use of a team in order to exploit the 
opportunities. Van Aardt et al. (2010:5) expand on that the long term proposition of 
entrepreneurship should be based on gaining financial stability and to achieve the 
business growth. 
 
Hence, Morrison (1998:28) considered a different approach in unpacking the 
definition of entrepreneurship which appears to revolve around two central tenets, as 
listed below: 
 Entrepreneurship is perceived as an activity central to small business 
activities. 
 Entrepreneurship is perceived as a cluster of behavioural and 
psychological propensities including risk-taking, innovation and the ability 
to make decisions. 
 
In the midst of apparent indefinable definitions of entrepreneurship, Herrington, Kew 
and Kew (2010:11) considerately tabulated the timeline of evolving definitions of 
entrepreneurship as cited by several branded authors are presented in table 2.1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
24 
 
Table 2.1: Tracking entrepreneurship in South Africa 
Author Definition 
Schumpeter 
(1934) 
Entrepreneurship is seen as new combinations, including the doing of 
new things that are already being done in a new way. New combinations 
include: Introduction of new goods, new method of production, opening of 
new markets, new source of supply and new organisations.  
Kirzner (1973) Entrepreneurship is the ability to perceive new opportunities. This 
recognition and seizing of the opportunity will tend to “correct” the market 
and bring it back to equilibrium. 
Drucker (1985) Entrepreneurship is the act of innovation that involves endowing existing 
resources with new wealth capacity. 
Stevenson and 
Roberts (1985) 
Entrepreneurship is the pursuit of an opportunity without concern for 
current resources or capabilities. 
Rumelt (1987) Entrepreneurship is the creation of new business: new business meaning 
that they do not exactly duplicate existing business but have some 
element of novelty. 
Macmillan 
(1988) 
Entrepreneurship is the creation of new enterprise. 
Gartner (1988) Entrepreneurship is the creation of organisations: the process by which 
new organisations come into existence. 
Timmons 
(1997) 
Entrepreneurship is a way of thinking, reasoning and acting that is 
opportunity obsessed, holistic in approach, and leadership balanced. 
Venkataraman 
(1997) 
Entrepreneurship research seeks to understand how opportunities to 
bring into existence future goods and services are discovered, created, 
and exploited, by whom and with what consequences. 
Sharma and 
Chrisman 
(1999) 
Entrepreneurship encompasses acts of organisational creation, renewal, 
or innovation that occur within or outside an existing organisation. 
  
Source: Herrington et al. (2010:11) 
 
The most prevalent subjects reflective on table 2.1 are innovation, self-fulfilment or 
autonomy, opportunity recognition, pursuit of new ventures and promotion of existing 
businesses. Therefore, it is evident that a clear-cut definition of entrepreneurship is 
not composed of a single perception. 
25 
 
Hence, Coulter (2003:4) acknowledges the importance of diverse definitions as 
commended by various authors, but concludes that within the pronouncement of 
defining the phenomenon, there are two critical notions that complement 
entrepreneurship which are innovation and the role played by an entrepreneur within 
the entrepreneurial process. Pretorius and Van Vuuren (2003:514) argue that 
entrepreneurship cannot only be opined to the process of entrepreneurship but also 
to the activities of an entrepreneur as primary factors that contributes to the 
definition. Therefore, to further define entrepreneurship it is imperative to relinquish 
the concept from the basis relative to dimensions of entrepreneurship. 
 
2.2.3 Dimensions of entrepreneurship 
 
Pretorius and Van Vuuren (2003:515) promote the view of entrepreneurial categories 
in order to substantiate on the proposed definitions of entrepreneurship. The 
dimensions of entrepreneurship are categorised in a fashion that depicts the qualities 
predominantly attributed by an entrepreneur such as leadership, low level of risk 
aversion, cultural propensity, and intentions as motivated by life experience. 
 
Birley and Muzyka (2000:9) proposed six critical dimensions of business practices in 
order to relate to the description of entrepreneurship, which are as listed: 
 Commitment to opportunity – it is necessary to move beyond the 
identification of opportunity to its pursuit. 
 Commitment of resources – lack of resources may deter the ultimate goal 
of an entrepreneur, and therefore exchange canvass between resources 
and opportunities should be established. 
 Controls of resources – entrepreneurs are encouraged to learn on how well 
to effectively manipulate and control resources.   
 Reward philosophy – entrepreneurs must be explicitly focused on creation 
and harvesting of value. 
 
In contrast to the preceded dimensions of entrepreneurship, Schaper and Volery 
(2004:5) present dimensions of entrepreneurship as follows:  
26 
 
 An individual – critical key success factor of an entrepreneurial process is 
dependent on the individual‟s propensity to succeed. 
 An Act – entrepreneurs need to execute plans of action rather than only 
being subjected to opportunity identification. 
 An organisation – the author regards creation of organisations as a condition 
for entrepreneurship. 
 Innovation – innovation is a considerable instrument that entirely defines 
and constitutes entrepreneurship as a phenomenon.    
 
According to Mariotti and Glackin (2012:3); Stokes and Wilson (2006:31); Read, 
Sarasvathy, Dew, Wiltbank and Ohlsson (2011:200), the entrepreneur constitute and 
propels the entrepreneurship process. Therefore, an equally important task to be 
undertaken by an entrepreneur is to recognise or identify an opportunity and thereby 
carefully managing the accompanying risk.  
 
Hisrich and Peters (2002:17) perceive entrepreneurship as an effective method for 
bridging the gap between science and the marketplace, creating new enterprises, 
and bringing new products and services to the market. Hence, the state of 
entrepreneurship in South Africa needs to be assessed, in order to clarify and uproot 
hurdles affecting the progress or effectiveness of entrepreneurship programmes.  
 
2.3 STATE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN SOUTH AFRICA  
 
2.3.1 Global entrepreneurship monitor rating 
  
The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) research initiative is administered to 
monitor the entrepreneurial activities relative to business start-ups including 
participation of various role players such as the adult population between the ages of 
18 and 64. The principal objective of the total early entrepreneurial activity (TEA) 
index is to compare the entrepreneurial activities with other commendable competing 
countries (GEM report SA, 2011:16).  According to Simrie, Herrington, Kew and 
Turton (2011:14), South Africa remains one of the poorly performing countries with 
regards to entrepreneurial activities, despite the fact that considerable effort to bring 
27 
 
about attractive entrepreneurial participation with the implementation of intensive and 
stringent government policies and programmes. Figure 2.1 illustrates the TEA rating 
trend of South Africa over the period between 2002 and 2011, the trend indicates a 
convincing volatile rate with slightest increase in 2011, but the pressure is still 
mounting on South Africa with its rating still below the average, as compared to other 
countries (GEM report SA, 2011:4).  
 
Figure 2.1: South Africa’s TEA rate over the period between 2002 and 2011 
 
   
Source: GEM report 2011 
 
2.3.2 Key challenges faced by South Africa  
 
The National Treasury proposed few interventions in order to spur growth and 
economic development in South Africa through encouraging entrepreneurship and 
innovation (National Treasury, 2011). Thus, an encouraging effort but the current 
South African crisis relative to unemployment levels is of a concern with 25% of the 
population being jobless (JP Morgan, 2012). Luiz and Mariotti (2011:49) postulate 
that challenges facing South Africa are immense because it is a relatively young 
democratic, highly in-egalitarian country, with enormous socio-economic problems. 
Jobs are also not created at an expected faster rate and also with school leavers 
having expectations of being employed.      
6.30%
4.30%
5.40%5.20%5.30%
7.80%
5.90%
8.90%
9.10%
0.00%
1.00%
2.00%
3.00%
4.00%
5.00%
6.00%
7.00%
8.00%
9.00%
10.00%
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
TEA rating
TEA rating
28 
 
Conveniently, measures are continually devised to counter the unemployment and 
poverty situation among South Africans. An effort such as the formation of 
entrepreneurial dialogues to highlight and track the state of entrepreneurship in 
South Africa, in which this has had benefits as deliberations and key findings were 
presented on burning issues (Endeavour, 2012). Furthermore, insightful findings 
derived from the conference as listed below facet critical aspects that need urgent 
intervention by the government in collaboration with financial institutions, private 
sectors, and small and medium business (Davis, 2010:3). 
 
Key challenges facing South Africa: 
 A successfully spotting and taking market opportunity is a function of an 
entrepreneur‟s industry knowledge. 
 The challenge of getting funding: familiarity and distinctiveness.  
 An entrepreneur‟s social network plays a huge role in the likely success of 
the enterprise.  
 Sales & Profits is vanity; Cash Flow is reality – the short term nature of 
South Africa‟s investment culture.  
 Real entrepreneurs do not start a business to delight investors.  
 Banks do not have a mandate, or leeway, to make risky investments.  
 Initial business funders must be real partners who share the vision and 
have a long-term appetite to see the business grow.  
 It is harder to find customers than capital; capital flows to commercial 
success. 
 
Recommendations that came forth from the above mentioned conference included 
the involvement of individuals with high net-worth capital to invest in business 
ventures and equally share the risk associated with equity-ownership. Thus 
entrepreneurs should avoid seeking funding through other means but concentrate on 
financial service institutions such as banks, in order to reduce the venture capital 
risk. 
  
South Africa remains serious about combating unemployment levels through 
entrepreneurship, it is evident from few government initiatives such as the 
29 
 
Umsobomvu Youth Fund and the National Youth Policy Framework; the National 
Youth Development Agency, and the Presidency‟s publication of the second 
Generation National Youth Policy 2009-2014 (Van Aardt et al., 2011:8). 
 
According to Herrington et al. (2010:11), South Africa faces many challenges relative 
to the high unemployment rate, whereby contribution of many factors is of reason to 
its existence but the predominant element is lack of education in conjunction with 
skills scarcity and experience. Lack of financial assistance or access to financial aids 
is one of the factors if not the primary element that has worsened the revitalisation 
programs of entrepreneurship especially towards cultivating the culture of 
entrepreneurship among young people (Herrington et al., 2010:15). Therefore, 
demoralising variables such as the lack of finance, poor quality education and skills 
scarcity are at the crux of persistent failure with regards to harnessing 
entrepreneurship in South Africa. 
 
According to Herrington et al. (2010:31), the prospect of education in South Africa is 
highlighted by the contributions made by the government. In which an amount 
equivalent to R189.5 billion was allocated to education during 2011, but not much 
has been achieved with regards to improving the state of education. Relative to this 
prevalent poor performance is the poor quality infrastructure, lack of books and high 
absenteeism of teachers. Hence, it is expected for this poor situation to further 
cascade into the state of entrepreneurship education.   
 
According to the DG Murray Trust report (2011), lack of higher education is driven by 
high drop-out rates. The result from their research shows that the attendance of 
young people at higher educational institutions remains poor and thereof lack of 
continuity among individuals with their studies is also prevalent. This clearly exposes 
some of the educational predicaments facing South Africa if not properly addressed. 
If attendance at an educational institution is in such a dire state as illustrated in figure 
2.2, then an imperative means of fostering and promoting entrepreneurship is 
urgently required before an unforeseeable bleak picture is painted.  
 
 
30 
 
Figure 2.2: Attendance at an educational institution amongst persons aged 5 
to 24 years (2002–2007) 
     
Source: StatsSA (2007) 
 
Figure 2.2 shows a decline in a number of students instituted on grade 12 as 
compared with a cluster of grade 10 and 11 pupils. Furthermore, it indicates a 
marginal number of learners are exposed to tertiary education. Therefore, a call to 
assess the state of entrepreneurship education is prompted by these unsatisfying 
results. 
  
2.4 ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION AND TRAINING 
 
Education systems are important in the development of creativity and idea 
formulation. Creative thinking can be enhanced or constrained by the education 
system and this will affect the way opportunities are viewed (Deakins & Freel, 
2003:58). Bygrave and Zacharakis (2011:22) widely believe that levels of 
educational attainment have implications on entrepreneurial behaviour. 
 
 
31 
 
2.4.1 Education and training defined 
 
Feinstein, Mann and Corsun (2002:739) (Cited by Steenkamp, Van Der Merwe & 
Athayde, 2011:50) stipulate that education and training fundamentally have different 
meanings: “Education is a process whereby knowledge is transferred to students 
primarily in theory-based lecturers, while developing critical thinking skills and the 
ability to ask questions and formulate answers”. Contrast to education is training in 
which it relates to an on-the-job exchange program, capability to effectively 
communicate and have practical methods entailed with decision-making. 
Furthermore, “Education focus on the product rather than the process, and training is 
more concerned with the process”. Hence, within the entrepreneurial fraternity, there 
is a growing concern of entrepreneurship education.  
 
Ogundele, Akingbade and Akinlabi (2012:151) and Isaacs, Visser, Friedrich and 
Brijlal (2007:614) add that entrepreneurship education is the structured formal 
conveyance of entrepreneurship competencies which in turn refers to the concepts, 
skills and mental awareness used by individuals during the process of starting and 
developing their growth oriented ventures. Furthermore, training is “the process of 
systematically acquiring job related knowledge, skill and attitude in order to perform 
with effectiveness and efficiency specific tasks in an organization”.  
 
Furthermore, Ogundele et al. (2012:151) accentuate that the acquisition of 
knowledge and skills during the training phase is not only designed for personal 
achievement but also for commercial enterprises. Education is a utility that 
predisposes an organisation to invest financial and material resources in the 
entrepreneurial environment. Skills required by an entrepreneur can be classified 
into three main components being technical skills, business management and 
personal entrepreneurial skills. 
 
2.4.2 State of entrepreneurship education in South Africa 
  
Entrepreneurship education ranks high on policy agendas in Europe and the United 
States (Graevenitz, Harhoff & Weber, 2010:90). While in South Africa the 
government is trying to solicit the driving forces that promotes entrepreneurship, one 
32 
 
distinctive constraint has been identified as lack of higher education (Smith, 
2011:11).  South Africa has established a few institutions such as the National Youth 
Development Agency (NYDA), Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA), 
Ntsika Enterprise Promotion Agency and the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (UYF) in 
order to nudge individuals towards a direction of entrepreneurial field, particularly 
among the youth (Mahadea, Ramroop & Zewotir, 2011:67). Entrepreneurship 
education is regarded as an enhancing measure that intensifies the value adding 
object among the youth participating in entrepreneurship (Nieuwenhuizen & 
Groenewald, 2008:130). The impact of entrepreneurship education has been 
recognised as one of the crucial factors that assist the youth to understand and 
display a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship (Chen & Lai, 2010:2). 
 
A model for entrepreneurial process and economic growth as proposed by Schaper 
and Volery (2004:12) opine to the inclusion of entrepreneurial coaching and 
education in the learners‟ curriculum, in which these elements are subjected to 
confide within the entrepreneurial framework as the primary elements that brings 
forth entrepreneurial opportunities. Burns (2008:34) points out that an entrepreneur 
is much better if educated.  
 
South Africa has failed when it comes to imposing methods of entrepreneurship 
education and training, including offering the best quality elementary education in the 
schools (Herrington et al., 2010:88). Thus it calls for an urgent revolution towards 
entrepreneurship education with a convincing aptitude. According to Herrington et al. 
(2010), the current primary restraining force towards the development of 
entrepreneurship in the country is education and training. The South African experts 
consider lack of entrepreneurship education as a number one factor leading the pack 
with 69% as compared to an average of 28% as proposed by the GEM report 
experts. The GEM experts regard government policies as the major hurdle towards 
economic and entrepreneurial development (Herrington et al., 2010). 
 
 
 
 
33 
 
2.4.3 Inculcation of entrepreneurship through education 
 
According to Gibson, Harris, Mick and Burkhalter (2011:12), “the effective 
educational programs require the use of multiple learning tools and strategies, often 
through collaborative efforts”. Efforts including experimental training activities and 
participation by higher education institutions to allow students to obtain their 
entrepreneurial potential through skill transfer programs need to be devised. 
According to Othman and Ishak (2009:431), the positive attitude can be moulded 
through the education system. Furthermore, a change in the education system is 
much needed in order to widen the scope of career choices among learners.  
 
Entrepreneurship education and teaching programs are influencing student‟s 
entrepreneurial intentions and behaviours (Fayolle & Gailly, 2004:4). According to 
North (2002:24), the primary objective of the various formal and informal 
programmes in entrepreneurship education is to cultivate entrepreneurial creativity 
and to develop the entrepreneurial skills. Encouraging students to become active in 
their learning endurance accompanied by hands on experiences will enable them to 
learn for competency building (Izquierdo & Buelens, 2008:7). 
 
Nieuwenhuizen and Groenewald (2008:129) argue that entrepreneurial education 
and training can be derived from two perspectives. Firstly, it explains the business 
planning, functions and management skills. Secondly, the influence as carried over 
from parents and educators are bound to foster the entrepreneurial skills and traits. 
Furthermore, Nieuwenhuizen and Groenewald (2008:130) concur with Ogundele et 
al. (2012) that the main focus of entrepreneurial education and training is 
concentrated on business skills training, technical skills training and entrepreneurial 
skills training. 
 
Table 2.2 presents recommendations by various South African authors which details 
the critical traits needed in order to advance with entrepreneurship education. The 
prevalent element among these recommendations is teaching methods 
encapsulated by the process to be followed during the entrepreneurship education. 
 
  
34 
 
Table 2.2: Recommendations for entrepreneurship education in South Africa 
Scholar Recommendations 
Nieuwenhuizen  
and  
Groenewald 
(2008) 
Teach learners self-concept (exposure to role models and mentors), 
creativity  and innovation (how to compose ideas and approaches), risk 
orientation (how to evaluate risk) and good human relations (how to 
persuade people) 
Isaacs et al. 
(2007) 
Include enterprise education in schools and tertiary institutions. Teachers 
and academics must create and nurture interest in enterprise education. 
Organised business must be involved as role models and for financial 
support. Networking between all stakeholders is vital. International 
affiliation with „like-minded‟ organisations should be sought to establish 
contact on a global basis and promote the transfer of knowledge and 
feasible methodology.  
Co and Mitchell 
(2006) 
Curriculum development should be an on-going process with cooperation 
between government, higher education and secondary schools. Present 
teaching methods must be re-assessed to ensure they are effective. 
Partnerships with local communities and small business owners are 
crucial for support and mentorships. Academics must continuously update 
themselves on the latest developments and trends in entrepreneurship 
education. 
Horn (2006) Teachers must continuously acquire relevant knowledge of new 
developments in their disciplines and learners should be prepared for the 
realities of the South African environment (part-time employment, 
flexibility and life-long learning). Teachers must have the ability to assist 
learners in developing entrepreneurial and critical thinking. Subjects need 
to be made more attractive and imitable through a positive attitude and 
enthusiasm on the part of teachers. 
 
Source: Steenekamp (2009:84) 
 
2.4.4 Models of entrepreneurship education 
 
Isaacs et al. (2007:615) and Ogunele et al. (2012:152) concur on a model that stage 
entrepreneurship education development as depicted in figure 2.3.  
 
35 
 
Figure 2.3: Five stages of entrepreneurship training 
       
Source: Ogundele et al. (2012) (Adapted from Isaacs et al. (2007)) 
 
Basically, the model has five critical stages in which the first stage is focused on 
promoting an acquirement of essentials relevant to skills, and importantly 
understands the economics and free enterprise dimensions. The stage two is 
designed to cater for discovery of entrepreneurial competencies. Subsequently, cater 
for the creative mode applicable to learning entrepreneurial competencies and 
applying the specific training. Post acquirement of the necessary skills is subjected 
to start-ups and growth of the business. 
 
Isaacs et al. (2007:623) add that the Hytti model promotes the fundamental 
understanding of entrepreneurship through learning processes as shown in figure 
2.4, and it follows the basic principles expected from an entrepreneur. The model 
36 
 
integrates elements that are deemed essential in entrepreneurial education and 
training.   
 
Figure 2.4: Hytti model of entrepreneurship education 
 
 
         
 
 
Source: Isaacs et al. (2007) (Adapted from Hytti, 2002) 
 
According to Obisanya, Akinbami and Fayomi (2010:91), the conceptual Hytti model 
embodies some elements of a model employed and developed at Obafemi Awolowo 
University (OAU), known as Model of Entrepreneurship Education in OAU. The 
University introduced studies of entrepreneurial education aimed at assisting 
graduates to be job creators rather than being job seekers. Hence, the modules 
focused on teaching methods and contents are based on three essential concepts:  
 Enterprising behaviour/ attitude  
 The entrepreneurial process  
 The student‟s self-knowledge of their own competences in relation to carrying 
out entrepreneurial processes. 
  
All modules were designed with the aim of assisting students to develop a positive 
perception towards starting and owning a business. Further, to induct students into 
an established environment in order to acquire the basic knowledge and skills in 
entrepreneurship (Obisanya et al., 2010:91). Tam (2009: 652) agrees that the 
teaching methods should not just transfer knowledge, but develop the building-up of 
skills and attitude in favour of entrepreneurship. Tam also expands on GIBB‟S model 
and describes the two different styles of teaching and learning, the didactic approach 
and the enterprising style. The didactic approach emphasises lecturing and 
Learn to understand 
entrepreneurship 
What do entrepreneurs do? 
What is entrepreneurship? 
Why are entrepreneurs 
needed? How many 
entrepreneurs do we have? 
  
Learn to become more 
entrepreneurial 
I need to take 
responsibility of my 
learning, career and 
life.  How do I take 
responsibility? 
  
Learn to become an 
entrepreneur 
Can I become an 
entrepreneur?  How to 
become an 
entrepreneur? How to 
manage the business? 
  
37 
 
examination whereas the enterprising approach emphasises constructivist learning. 
GIBB‟s model has been summarised in figure 2.5. 
 
Figure 2.5: GIBB’S model 
 
Source: Tam (2009), adapted from Gibb (1993) 
 
Henry, Hill and Leitch (2003:99) support the preceding model by further on 
illustrating the main differences between classroom and real world entrepreneurial 
learning as outlined in table 2.3. In view of the differences as illustrated in table 2.3, 
the appropriate measures need to be devised in order to fill up the entrepreneurial 
educational gaps. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
38 
 
Table 2.3: Learning processes  
University/ Business School- 
Classroom 
Entrepreneurial- Real World 
Critical judgement after analysis of large 
amount of information  
„Gut feel‟ decision with limited information 
Understanding and recalling the 
information itself 
Understanding the values of those who 
transmit and filter information 
Assuming goals away Recognising the widely varied goals of others 
Seeking verification of the truth by study of 
information 
Making decisions on the basis of judgement of 
trust and competence of people 
Understanding basic principles of society 
in the metaphysical sense 
Seeking to apply and adjust in practice to basic 
principles of society 
Seeking the correct answer with time to do 
it 
Developing the most appropriate solution under 
pressure 
Learning in the classroom Learning while and through doing 
Gleaning information from experts and 
authoritative sources 
Gleaning information personally from any and 
everywhere and weighing it up 
Evaluation through written assessments Evaluation by judgement of people and events 
through direct feedback 
Success in learning measured by 
knowledge-based examination passed 
Success in learning by solving problems and 
learning from failure 
 
Source: Henry et al. (2003)  
 
The effect of entrepreneurial education is eminent when considering the 
determination process of attitude, social norms, perceived behavioural control and 
self-efficacy among individuals when gauging the entrepreneurial intentions.  
 
The study shows that entrepreneurship education and training has a critical role to 
play in cultivating entrepreneurship, and harnessing the entrepreneurial environment. 
To a certain extent, it can also determine the long-life success of the venture and 
39 
 
stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit among individuals. People are more inclined to 
become entrepreneurs if correct entrepreneurial information is gained through 
education and training. Therefore, it requires the government to support efficient or 
potential initiatives. The government agencies such as SEDA, the National Youth 
Development Agency and the Development Corporation should organise practical 
training for students involved in entrepreneurship education or for those interested in 
being involved with entrepreneurial practice (Olufunso, 2010:93). 
 
2.5 ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDE  
 
The following section is informed by different tools that assess the attitude towards 
entrepreneurship and factors that engages one to be entrepreneurially active. The 
development of a tool used to measure the entrepreneurial attitude enables the 
quantification of the entrepreneurial attitude among students. Some of the 
researchers such as Tam (2009:653), Luiz and Mariotti (2011:65); Musengi-Ajulu 
(2010:5) and Olufunso (2010:91), embarked on clarifying the usage of different 
measuring tools.  
 
2.5.1 Attitude towards entrepreneurship 
 
According to Gibson et al. (2011:13), entrepreneurial attitude “is a complex mental 
state involving beliefs, feelings, values, and dispositions to act in a certain ways”. For 
example, the extent to which people think there are good opportunities for starting a 
business, or the degree to which they attach high status to entrepreneurs, might be 
termed entrepreneurial attitudes (GEM global report, 2009). Tamizharasi and 
Panchanatham (2010: 215) add that attitude refers “to an object, be it a specific 
person, place, thing, event, activity, mental concept, cognitive orientation, life style or 
even combinations of the various categories”. 
  
 
 
 
40 
 
Chen and Lai (2010:2) surfaced four statements that describe the view of attitude 
towards entrepreneurship, i.e.: 
 Attitude is a viewpoint or a mental dimension as perceived by an individual 
about the situation or the effect of environment. “Attitude encompasses 
general knowledge and comprises the cognitive, emotions and actions”. 
 The attitude must be dominant with an acquirable focus on a specific target 
which comprises of a viable proposition or significant thought. 
 “Attitude is analogous to inclination”- preferably, people are more inclined to 
react positively to a situation as it was initially endorsed onto them. 
 Environmental factors such as cultural traditions, level of achievement in 
educational prosperity and family backgrounds, are prompted towards the 
development of attitude. 
 
2.5.2 Push and pull factors 
 
The motivation of an individual to be involved in entrepreneurship can be attributed 
between push factors and pull factors. The push factors “incorporate frustrations that 
are obscurely relating to socio-economic factors, cultural propensity and inherited 
circumstances”. Pull factors are promoted by the intuitive psychological dimension 
and financial opportunity which can be interpreted as being „greedy‟ (Shariff & Saud, 
2009: 130). Pull factors are considerably associated with opportunity based 
conditions and push factors are pressured by necessity conditions, as depicted in 
figure 2.6.  
 
According to Kautonen (2008:6), positive factors that „pull‟ people into business 
ownership are such as independence, increased earning and opportunities for 
carrying out their own ideas. „Push‟ factors, on the other hand, comprise negative 
impulses such as redundancy, a lack of alternative career opportunities and 
dissatisfaction with the current job. According to Startiene and Remeikiene 
(2009:61), “the conclusion is made that the „push‟ (unemployment encourages to 
start a business) and „pull‟ (business reduces unemployment) effects exist both in 
practice and theory, and their operation is based on economic and cultural factors”. 
 
41 
 
Figure 2.6: Push and pull factors in entrepreneurial activity 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Source: Nieman, Hough and Nieuwenhuizen (2003: 31) 
 
2.5.3 Entrepreneurial development 
 
Among the models that assess attitude of individuals is entrepreneurial orientation, in 
which this model measures and is a prerequisite test for entering the entrepreneurial 
arena. Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009:11) established a model used to estimate 
the survival and growth of organisations, and to also develop critical economic 
prosperity of the society. These authors refer to the following proposed model on 
figure 2.7, which depicts the elements needed for entrepreneurial development. In 
order to identify external variables that affect entrepreneurship in any country, the 
model seeks to provide such impetus that evaluates the influence of the business 
environment. 
 
 
 
DRIVE TO BECOME 
ENTREPRENEURIAL 
(OPPORTUNITY BASED) 
NO OTHER ALTERNATIVES 
(NECESSITY BASED) 
PULL FACTORS 
 Independence 
 Achievement 
 Recognition 
 Personal development 
 Personal wealth 
PUSH FACTORS 
 Unemployment 
 Job insecurity 
 Disagreement with 
management 
 No ‘fit’ in the org. 
 No alternatives 
Dissatisfaction in 
traditional jobs 
ENTREPRENEURSHIP 
42 
 
Figure 2.7: Model for entrepreneurship development 
 
 
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009:11) 
 
According to Nieman and Nieuwenhuizen (2009:11), entrepreneurial orientation is 
fostered by a unique blend of factors, such as culture, family, and role models, level 
of education, work experience and personal orientation. 
 
 
Supportive 
Environment 
Financing Laws 
Training 
          Entry of entrepreneurs 
Acquired Abilities Inherent abilities 
             Products/ Services 
        Results entrepreneurship 
 Economic growth 
occurs 
 Income increase 
 Living Standards 
improve 
 Investment 
opportunities arise 
 Tax base is enlarged by a 
greater number of new firms 
 Technological development 
occurs 
 Job opportunities arise 
Cooperative 
environment 
Institutions that are 
actively involved in, and 
assist with new firms  
Entrepreneurial 
education Value system 
Culture Work experience 
43 
 
2.5.4 Entrepreneurial attitude orientation scale 
 
Attitude towards entrepreneurship can be determined and monitored by a few 
measuring tools in which one of those models seeks to complement the orientation 
towards entrepreneurial advancement (Van Wyk et al., 2004:16). Figure 2.8 depicts 
the model that measures four entrepreneurial attitudes namely: “achievement in 
creating business activities, economic innovation in response to business incentives, 
display of personal control and influence over business incentives, and perceived 
competence in business affairs” (Van Wyk et al., 2004:16).   
 
Figure 2.8: Attitudes in relation with cognition, affection and conation 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Van Wyk et al. (2004:16) 
 
Shariff and Saud (2009:131) refer to an adapted theory of Robinson, Stimpson, 
Huefner and Hunt (1991) that summarised components relating to entrepreneurial 
attitude as follows: “Cognitive component consists of the beliefs and thoughts about 
an attitude object”, the affection component consists of positive and negative feelings 
towards the object, and the conative or behavioural component consists of 
behavioural intentions and predisposition to behave in a certain way towards the 
object. 
Cognition 
Beliefs 
 Affection 
   Pos/ Neg  
 
   
          EAOS 
 
Conative behaviour  
Achievement 
Self-Esteem 
Personal control 
Economic 
innovation 
   
  
A
TT
IT
U
D
ES
 
44 
 
2.5.5 Entrepreneurial Intensity 
 
According to Morrison (1998:69) and Barringer and Bluedorn (1999:422), a 
combination of parental and family support in addition to the right circumstance such 
as life experiences, education, and encouraging environment, can drive young 
people to generate an intuition towards entrepreneurship and that impetus is 
considered as an entrepreneurial intensity. Furthermore, it is characterised by a 
single-minded focus to start a business and working towards its survival and growth, 
often at the expense of other admirable and essential goals.  
 
2.6 ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS  
 
According to Guerrero, Rialp and Urbano (2008:37), the evolution of entrepreneurial 
intentions has since emerged in the early eighties. In the eighties and nineties, the 
six main models developed in this entrepreneurial field were: The Entrepreneurial 
Event Model (Shapero, 1982), The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), 
Entrepreneurial Attitude Orientation (Robinson et al. 1991), Intentional Basic Model 
(Krueger & Carsrud, 1993), Entrepreneurial Potential Model (Krueger & Brazeal, 
1994) and Davidsson Model (Davidsson,1995). 
  
Several models have effectively been dominating the ranks in showcasing the 
entrepreneurial intentions, in which speculative thoughts by Musengi-Ajulu (2008:3) 
are as follows: 
 The perception to an extent of which it is desirable to become an 
entrepreneur. 
 Entrepreneurial intention is influenced by perceptions of feasibility, which 
focus on one‟s ability to adopt entrepreneurial behaviour, given the prevailing 
conditions. 
 Factors that influence entrepreneurship development are considered to be 
political-legal, economic conditions, infrastructure development, social and 
cultural norms. 
 
45 
 
Coulter (2003:21) derives on the issues of entrepreneurial intentions by detailing the 
two models that highlights factors contributing to entrepreneurial intentions. The 
bird‟s model encompasses the rationality associated with thinking and intuitive 
mindset as depicted in figure 2.9. 
 
Figure 2.9: Bird’s Model of Entrepreneurial Intentionality 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Coulter (2004:31) 
 
The “ACE model of intention to start a business” is another model as proposed by 
Coulter that predicts the intention to start a business in which the perceptions are 
based on personality traits, national identity, positivity portrayed by an entrepreneur, 
origins and level of cultural tenacity and the effectiveness of entrepreneurship 
process. 
 
The model adapted from Ajzen (2002) preface the theory of planned behaviour in 
which the link between entrepreneurial education and entrepreneurial intentions is 
processed through antecedents that indirectly links the elements. All of indirect links 
are renounced in figure 2.10, which outlines the interaction of factors contributing 
towards entrepreneurial intentions including the external factors which no one has 
control over such as economic, political and social (Muofhe & Du Toit, 2011:6). 
 
 
  
Opportunities in 
the social, 
political, 
economic 
context 
Personal history, 
Background, 
Personality, 
Abilities 
Rational Analytic 
Thinking- Goal- 
directed 
behaviour 
Intuitive Thinking 
Vision 
Intentionali
ty 
Action
s 
46 
 
Figure 2.10: Integrative Models for Assessing Entrepreneurial Intentions  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Muofhe and Du Toit (Adapted from Ajzen (1991))   
 
The integrative model as shown in figure 2.11 illustrates the expected outcome of 
entrepreneurship intentions which is governed through entrepreneurial education 
with the internal and external factors such as attitude, social norms, role models and 
behavioural control and which finally emancipate the entrepreneurial intentions of 
individuals. 
 
2.7 OPPORTUNITY RECOGNITION 
 
2.7.1 Opportunity defined 
 
According to Kumar et al. (2003:24), opportunity is defined as an attractive and 
excellent project idea which the entrepreneur searches for and accepts such an idea 
on the basis for investment decision. Van Aardt et al. (2011:48) define a viable 
business opportunity as a perceived means of generating economic value that has 
not been previously explored. Bessant and Tidd (2011:165) agree that opportunity is 
Entrepreneurshi
p Education 
Attitude 
Entrepreneurshi
p 
Social norms 
Role Models 
Perceived 
behavioural 
control self -
efficiency 
Entrepreneurshi
p intentions 
External factors 
*economy 
47 
 
the basic area of need or challenge on which the problem-solver‟s efforts will be 
focused, remaining broad enough to allow many perspectives to emerge as one 
looks more clearly at the situation. Hisrich and Peters (2002:652) confirm the 
opportunity identification as the process by which an entrepreneur comes up with the 
opportunity for a new venture. According to Kumar et al. (2003:22), an entrepreneur 
is supposed to be an opportunity seeker. For the potential entrepreneur underlies the 
scope to identify, explore, and then selecting an attractive business opportunity.  
 
The entrepreneur is market driven, continuously seeking that idea on which the 
window of opportunity is opening and which offers the prospects of a worthwhile 
return on an effort and resources (Morrison, 1998:13). Timmons and Spinelli 
(2009:150) established that opportunities are created using ideas and 
entrepreneurial creativity. An idea remains an imperative aspect in contributing to 
opportunity recognition (Bygrave & Zacharakis, 2011:57). According to Van Aardt et 
al. (2011:48), an entrepreneur will have to use a cognitive approach and develop 
objectives (the ability to let go of their personal biases, likes and dislikes) in order to 
recognise and deal with risks in their pursuit of the most viable opportunity. 
Therefore, an opportunity based-entrepreneurship (one that seeks out new 
opportunities in a more proactive way) is characterised or pivotal in this section 
rather than a necessity-based entrepreneurship (has little choice but to start their 
own business) (Stokes & Wilson, 2010:38). Stokes, Wilson and Mador (2010:38) 
propose two distinctive features for the process of opportunity recognition which are 
as outlined: 
 Cognitive and rational decision-making and judgement 
 Resource recombination 
 
2.7.1.1 Cognitive approach 
 
The cognitive approach deals with the entrepreneur‟s preferred way of gathering, 
processing, and evaluating information (Van Aardt et al., 2011:48). Cognitive 
elements include but is not limited to risk perception, biases of overconfidence, 
planning fallacy (strong tendencies to underestimate deadlines), the use of limited 
number of informational inputs, and the illusion of control directly influence risk 
48 
 
perception and the decision to start a business. According to Hisrich and Peters 
(2002:44), commitment to opportunity is an added element in cognitive style, in 
which entrepreneurial domain (the ways entrepreneurs make decisions) explicitly 
outlines the thought relative to opportunity identification. 
 
Stokes et al. (2010:48) introduced cognitive behaviour theory in order to 
conceptualise entrepreneurship, in which entrepreneurship can be explained by 
looking at the impact of personality, environment, experience, acquired attitudes and 
learning. All these factors combined contribute to the competitive behaviours 
required by the entrepreneur to stir the market environment. 
 
Stokes et al. (2010:36) adopted the cognitive approach for entrepreneurship from 
Baron and Shane (2008), herewith the cognitive elements underlying the concept of 
entrepreneurship: 
 The more experience people have in a given field, the probability of 
identifying the opportunities also becomes high, thereof.  
 Create cognitive frameworks that help to interpret new information as 
compared to the existing information. 
 “An example is prototype – idealised representations of the most typical 
member of a category – which is important for idea generation and 
creativity”. 
 Rely on simple rules known as heuristics for making complex decisions in a 
rapid and relatively effortless manner. 
 Various heuristics (such as optimistic bias, planning fallacy, confirmation 
bias) ultimately confers to making wrong decisions. 
 
Cognitive skills refers to the “intellectual ability and dynamics of a person including to 
think creatively (lateral thinking), to solve problems creatively, to recognise 
opportunities, to think abstractly and to apply knowledge” (De Beer, Zeelie, 
Groenewald, Watson, Rossouw & Jacobs, 2008:166). Cognitive styles contribute to 
opportunity recognition process, in which individuals are more inclined to make 
reasonable entrepreneurial decisions. 
 
49 
 
2.7.1.2 Resource recombination  
 
Stokes et al. (2010:38) review Schumpeter‟s theory that refers to the entrepreneur as 
a person that assembles together a new combination of resources. The task of the 
entrepreneur is to assemble a bundle of resources and to capture synergies so that 
revenues generated (returns from sale of outputs and net of costs of inputs) exceeds 
expenditures paid on the resources utilised; this is the task of producing positive 
entrepreneurial profits (Mathews, 2002:35). The entrepreneur creates new resource 
combinations, which then allow for the generation of new activities, requiring the 
construction of new routines by personnel hired for the purpose (Mathews, 2006:4). 
Bygrave and Zacharakis (2011:61) acknowledge that the smart entrepreneur find 
ways of controlling critical resources without owning them.  According to Mathews 
(2007:14), the entrepreneur is the economic agent who lacks resources (but knows 
where to find them), who becomes aware of profit opportunities, and acts to realise 
these opportunities through resource mobilisation and activation. 
 
2.7.2 Entrepreneurial process 
 
The entrepreneurial process is the process of starting a new venture, but embodies 
distinct phases such as identification and evaluation of an opportunity, development 
of the business plan, determination of the required resources, and management of 
the resulting enterprise (Hisrich & Peters, 2002:39). Within this process the 
identification and evaluation of an opportunity is of vital concern to the researcher. 
Opportunity identification requires an entrepreneur to be alert to aspects of the 
entrepreneurial process such as creation and length of opportunity, real and 
perceived value of opportunity, the risks and returns of opportunity, opportunity 
versus personal skills and goals, and competitive situation (Hisrich & Peters, 
2002:40). 
 
Stokes and Wilson (2006:31) suggested that an opportunity identification and 
realising value has to be transformed through resources, mandated by a decision-
making process and innovative culture as depicted in figure 2.11. Hence, the 
opportunity recognition is reviewed. 
  
50 
 
Figure 2.11: Overview of entrepreneurship process 
      
 
     
           
 
Source: Stokes and Wilson (2006:31)    
 
Bessant and Tidd (2011:171) propose that within the opportunity recognition 
process, abilities must be displayed by an individual such as the rare combination of 
skills, experience, aptitude, insight and circumstances. Tolerance of uncertainty and 
ambiguity constitutes risk taking. It depends on how risk averse one is, to challenge 
the high risk-taking climate in which one can have bold new initiatives that can 
results in unknown outcomes. 
 
Value creation process has few elements that contribute towards the advancement 
of entrepreneurship, in which Bessant and Tidd (2011:25) structured the process in 
the following manner as depicted on figure 2.12. 
 
Figure 2.12:  Model for innovation and entrepreneurship 
 
 
 
  
     
 
Source: Bessant and Tidd (2011:299) 
 
Create 
value 
  
GOALS 
AND 
CONTEXT 
                
Recognise 
opportunity 
                  
Find Resources 
                  
Develop 
Venture 
Learning 
Opportunity 
identification 
Realizing value 
Resources 
Decision-Making 
Innovation 
Emergence 
51 
 
The value chain process shown above, critically dispose elements that highlights 
crucial participation of opportunity recognition measures and resources utilisation in 
order to create value. 
 
Timmons and Spinelli (2009:110) support the notion of opportunity identification as 
outlined by Bessant and Tidd (2011), but maintain a strong reflection on Timmons‟ 
model of entrepreneurial process, in which opportunity, resources and the team are 
variables that constitutes the entrepreneurial environment.  
 
Figure 2.13: The Timmons model of the entrepreneurial process 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Source: Timmons and Spinelli (2009:110) 
COMMUNICATION 
OPPORTUNITY RESOURCES 
TEAM 
FOUNDER 
SUSTAINABILITY FOR ENVIRONMENT, COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY 
BUSINESS PLAN 
FITS AND GAPS 
AMBIGUITY 
CREATIVITY 
UNCERTAINTY 
EXOGENOUS FORCES 
LEADERSHIP 
CAPITAL MARKET CONTEXT 
52 
 
 
Timmons‟ model of the entrepreneurial process is shown in figure 2.13. This 
represents all dynamic forces that cultivates and sustain the entrepreneurial 
environment. Timmons‟ model is based on the ability of a team to create the 
sustainable and conducive environment in which the team will exercise its creativity 
and leadership skills to generate an opportunity. This model remarks on a good fit 
between opportunity and resources which constitute communication and a business 
plan as complements of the business model or value proposition of the organisation. 
   
2.7.4 Sources of opportunities 
 
According to Timmons and Spinelli (2009:150), “in a free enterprise environment, 
continuous changing circumstances, vulnerability, chaos, inconsistencies, lags or 
leads, knowledge and information gaps, and a variety of other vacuums in the 
market spawn opportunities”. According to Kumar et al. (2003:24), two major 
characteristics of a business opportunity such as the good and wide market scope 
(gap between present or likely demand and supply), and the attractive, acceptable 
and reliable return on investment constitute entrepreneurship. 
 
Schaper and Volery (2004:31) identified three different categories of opportunities, in 
which individuals can seize the moment and the prevailing opportunity: 
 Inefficiencies within existing markets due to either information asymmetries or 
limitations in technology to satisfy certain known but unfulfilled market 
demands. 
 The emergence of significant changes in social, political, demographic and 
economic forces. 
 Inventions and discoveries that produce new knowledge. 
 
 
 
 
 
53 
 
2.8 ENTREPRENEURIAL TRAITS   
 
Preferably, an entrepreneur should be qualified in traits such as the ability to create 
an enterprise, organising function, innovation, risk bearing capacity, managerial and 
leadership functions and closing up gaps to promote entrepreneurship (Kumar et al., 
2003). 
 
According to Barringer and Ireland (2006:7), there are four main characteristics that 
are conceptually depicted by successful entrepreneurs. The following qualities need 
to be possessed by entrepreneurs as perceived by Barringer and Ireland: 
 Passion for the business – a degree to which one presumes or believes on 
the success of the business, particularly expose the positive intentions of 
the entrepreneur. 
 Product/ customer focus – the offering of these two elements has a 
potential of building or destroying the business, therefore it is equally 
important to cater for this elements as an entrepreneur. 
 Tenacity despite failure – the failure rate of new business ventures is 
alarming, due to the natural effect of pursuing for opportunities „no matter 
what attitude‟ is portrayed by entrepreneurs. 
 Execution intelligence – the ability to fashion a solid business idea into a 
viable business is the key characteristic of successful entrepreneurs.  
 
Mariotti and Glackin (2012:4) regard an entrepreneur as a person that should be 
able to derive and identify opportunities as opposed to other competitive potential 
candidates. Therefore, entrepreneurs should have qualities that will enable them to 
explicitly relate to opportunity recognition that is supposedly connected to 
psychological approval. Coulter (2003:19) probes into characteristics of the 
entrepreneur from a different angle in which the focus is on the demographic profile 
that pertains to the entrepreneurs. Coulter examines the effect of demographic 
characteristics but that does not entirely lock the idea on presumptions of being 
effectively applicable to all situations. Some of the significant demographic traits as 
affirmed by Coulter are family birth, gender, work experience, entrepreneurial 
education, entrepreneurial family, marital status, age, education level of parents and 
54 
 
socio-economic status. Coulter expand on the subject by distinguishing 
entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs, and extrapolate that entrepreneurs are more 
inclined to possess qualities that entails proactive personality, and exhibit the 
intentional profile of entrepreneurs. 
 
Schaper and Volery (2004:35) present the subject in a manner that is of a 
behaviourist in which figure 2.14 concur with the elements as perpetuated by other 
researchers. 
 
Figure 2.14: Characteristics of successful entrepreneurs 
   
Self-confidence Tolerance of ambiguity 
Risk-taking propensity Responsiveness to suggestions 
Flexibility Dynamic leadership qualities 
Independence of mind Initiative 
Energy and diligence Resourcefulness 
Hard-work ethic Good communication skills 
Creativity Perseverance 
The need for achievement Profit-orientation 
Internal locus of control Perception with foresight 
 
Source: Schaper and Volery (2004:35) 
 
Although focal characteristics as specified by most authors in table 2.4 are 
encroached on factors such as the need for achievement, internal locus of control 
and risk-taking propensity but in essence the elements do not underlie the critical 
views of others. Timmons and Spinelli (2009:44) had assembled and trended views 
as prescribed by various authors, in which table 2.4 outlines the timeline 
commonality or pattern that pertains to infatuated traits: 
 
 
 
 
55 
 
Table 2.4: Characteristics of entrepreneurs 
Date Authors Characteristics 
1848 Mill Risk bearing 
1917 Weber Source of formal authority 
1934 Schumpeter Innovation, initiative 
1954 Sutton Desire for responsibility 
1959 Hartman Source of formal authority 
1961 McClelland Risk taking; need for achievement 
1963 Davids Ambition; desire for independence, responsibility, self- 
confidence 
1964 Pickle Drive/ mental; human relations; communication ability; technical 
knowledge 
1971 Palmer Risk measurement 
1971 Hornaday and 
Aboud 
Need for achievement; autonomy; aggression; power; 
recognition; innovative/ independent 
1973 Winter Need for power 
1974 Borland Internal locus of power 
1982 Casson Risk; innovation; power; authority 
1985 Gartner Change and ambiguity 
1987 Begley and Boyd Risk taking; tolerance of ambiguity 
1988 Caird Drive 
1998 Roper Power and authority 
2000 Thomas and 
Mueller 
Risk; power; internal locus of control; innovation 
2001 Lee and Tsang Internal locus of control 
 
Source: Timmons and Spinelli (2009:44)         
56 
 
According to Rozell, Meyer, Scroggins and Guo (2011:65), the distinguishing 
elements that characterises the entrepreneur are as outlined below, in which the 
results were retrieved from their research.  
 Passionate and hardworking – several participants indicated their inclination 
towards being passionate entrepreneurs.  
 Exploratory and adventurous/visionary – creativity relate to the potential 
characteristics of an entrepreneur. 
 Willingness to learn – being able to constantly learn new methods and 
refresh on the existing procedures, while cultivating the entrepreneurial 
capability. 
 Knowledge and competent – prerequisite to being an entrepreneur is 
identified as being competent and knowledgeable in the given field of 
expertise. 
 Exercise good judgement – successful entrepreneurs can make a qualifying 
decision, and stick with it. 
 Communication and networking – trait that is desperately needed by an 
entrepreneur is establishing a competitive database of relevant business 
compatriots. 
 Determined and resolute – readiness to fight and not being afraid of 
hardships. 
 Strong moral character – the high moral character should be positively 
identified in the entrepreneur. 
 Focus is on the collective – the competitive advantage can be gained by 
successfully integrating concepts as identified by an entrepreneur. 
 Identifies with country culture – „many of the respondents noted that they 
value their culture deeply and experienced a source of nationalisation‟. 
 
The covered content as presented by Rozell et al. (2011:65) has had an international 
aspect as the research was conducted in China. Nonetheless, some of the aspects 
have been vaguely covered by Schaper and Volery (2004) such as communication, 
but the basic theory is considerably of the same thought. 
 
 
57 
 
2.9 SUMMARY 
 
Entrepreneurship as a phenomenon is obscurely defined, in essence no school of 
thought has proclaimed to appropriately define the metaphor of entrepreneurship. 
Nonetheless, few definitions have been posted in which various directive definitions 
have a common view. To a large extent the phenomenon has been understood as 
an opportunity driven matter, which is subjected to resource utilisation. Furthermore 
entrepreneurship has risk taking propensity and allocated to introduce innovation as 
a component important for entrepreneurial development. An attempt by various 
authors to cover definitions relating to entrepreneurship as a phenomenon has been 
outlined. 
 
In order to understand the intentions of individuals towards entrepreneurship, some 
of the traits have been presented. This chapter also focused on perceptions based 
on the reviews of researchers which expressed different characteristics, those prone 
by individuals into becoming entrepreneurs or being interested in entrepreneurship. 
Attitude towards entrepreneurship have been identified as a prominent feature in 
some of the prescribed models by researchers. Clear objectives of entrepreneurial 
education set apart the persuasive intentions but it rather points out the influential act 
associated with education. 
 
Globally, South Africa is lacking in job creation, and that has pushed individuals in 
venturing into business. But not much awareness has materialised, due to counter 
accessibility of finance, in-efficient institutions in educating youth, diverse culture 
varies the adaptation process, and many more. Lack of awareness is evident from 
an uninspiring lack of total-early entrepreneurial activity ranks. This chapter has 
faceted some of the skills that need to be possessed by entrepreneurs such as 
technical skills, business management and personal entrepreneurial skills. 
 
Certain higher education institutions have embarked on promoting entrepreneurial 
education in which informative programmes address the issue of lack of 
entrepreneurial education. Entrepreneurial modules covered by OAU in promoting 
entrepreneurship are relevant to models defined such as Hytti model of 
58 
 
entrepreneurial education. Coulter (2004) introduced two models called the Bird‟s 
and ACE model which seeks to identify elements that indicate the entrepreneurial 
intentions amongst individuals and businesses. 
 
Finally, Timmons and Spinelli (2009) extrapolated on Timmons‟ model that expands 
on the correlation between variables responsible to create and sustain 
entrepreneurship. Opportunity recognition is a dominant force in developing 
entrepreneurship, subsequently, possession and utilisation of resources to assist 
with advancing the entrepreneurial process. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
59 
 
CHAPTER 3 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF THE EMPIRICAL 
STUDY 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter outlines the sequential steps followed in order to gain and analyse the 
empirical data of this study. Similarly, the presentation of the survey results is 
accompanied with the statistical measurements. Subsequently, the evaluation of the 
entrepreneurial attitude among grade 12 learners with the use of a measuring 
instrument is adapted from Luiz and Mariotti (2011). 
 
In January 2012, a request to conduct a research within the Kgetlengrivier Local 
Municipality was proposed to the Department of Education, in which an authorisation 
letter was granted mid-March 2012 (see ANNEXURE B). While the researcher was 
awaiting the approval from the Department of Education, a personal visit to school 
managers was established intended to gauge the level of interest on the study. All 
managers approved the researchers‟ idea of assessing learner‟s perceptions 
towards entrepreneurship and a go-ahead was granted by all participating schools. 
The study was conducted in July 2012, in which a simple but effective distribution 
and collection process was followed, which was supported and handled by subject 
coordinators and the researcher. 
 
All of the six schools consisting of 299 grade 12 learners in the region as clustered 
by the Department of Education participated in this study. Of the 299 learners, 274 
respondents were counted back. Furthermore, this chapter will discuss all the 
relevant results as captured, coded and analysed by the Statistical Consultation 
Services. 
 
 
 
 
60 
 
3.2 GATHERING OF DATA 
 
An option to voluntarily participate in the survey was the preferred mode of 
operation. The process which was followed in order to gather the survey information 
will be discussed in this section. 
 
3.2.1 Study population 
 
The target population of this study was among grade 12 learners in the 
Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality of the North-West Province, with a distinctive 
approach of zooming into the Elands circuit as clustered by the Department of 
Education (DoE). The Elands circuit consists of six schools, which are geographically 
demarcated within the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality and the schools have 299 
grade 12 learners. Of the 299 actively involved learners, a response equivalent to 
274 was achieved, which represents a 92% response rate. The success of the 
response rate was based on the influence the teachers and school managers have 
on their learners. The teachers assisted with the distribution and collection, while the 
researcher was monitoring and controlling the survey situation and assisting where 
deemed necessary. 
        
3.2.2 Questionnaire used in this study 
 
The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from Luiz and Mariotti (2011) from 
a study known as Entrepreneurship in an emerging and culturally diverse economy: 
a South African survey of perceptions. The questionnaire was initially intended for 
university students but the contents were also relevant for use in determining the 
attitude of individuals towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners. The 
questionnaire is designed with few highlighted aspects on the cover page that 
outlines the confidentiality clause, the example of how to mark or indicate the 
appropriate answer, and a note from the researcher to acknowledge the participation 
of learners in this study. Refer to ANNEXURE A for further details on the 
questionnaire including the thank you note to all respondents.  
The questionnaire consists of five sections, namely: 
61 
 
Section 1 - Personal Information 
This part of the questionnaire focuses on the demographics of the respondents; its 
objective is to cluster all relevant information pertaining to gender, race, age, and 
parents‟ or guardian‟s background relative to education, parents‟ monthly income 
and their business relations or intentions. This part consists of nine statements with 
different scales of measurement such as yes or no and male or female options. 
Furthermore, it will serve to draw correlations between demographic information and 
results as per constructs, with intentions to evaluate the attitude of respondents 
towards entrepreneurship.  
 
Section 2 - Attitude towards entrepreneurship 
For the purpose of assessing attitude towards entrepreneurship among participants, 
17 statements had to be constructed in line with the proposed objectives as 
mentioned on chapter 1. The statements within this part contains a number of 
positive and several negative elements, positive synergies include a statement such 
as I want to start my own business, and as for a negative statement being I can 
earn more money working for someone else. Positive and negative statements 
are considered from an entrepreneur‟s perspective. The questionnaire was based on 
a five-point Likert scale instrument, with an option to select between the ranges of 
strongly agree and strongly disagree.   
 
Section 3 - Entrepreneurial opportunities 
The source of entrepreneurial opportunities can be presumptuously devised from 
different aspects of the world. This part of the questionnaire evaluates the ideas 
relative to opportunity recognition within the entrepreneurial arena. This 
questionnaire has nine statements which has a mixture of positive and negative 
variables.  Positive statements such as I have many ideas for business ventures 
and negative statements being All the good ideas have been taken are typical 
items outlined for this section.  
 
 
 
 
 
62 
 
Section 4 - Entrepreneurship environment within the secondary school 
This part of the questionnaire consists of nine statements constructed on a five-point 
Likert scale instrument, in order to evaluate the entrepreneurial environment within 
the secondary schools. Few factors can be considered instrumental in fostering 
entrepreneurship in schools. Hence, this construct seeks to evaluate the 
environment within the secondary schools with an objective to assess the drivers 
responsible for an appealing entrepreneurial environment.   
 
Section 5 - The South African entrepreneurial environment 
In this section, five items were identified to measure the South African 
entrepreneurial environment with the use of a five-point Likert scale instrument. This 
statements looks at South Africa as an entrepreneurial country including the role 
played by the local communities and programmes provided by the government in 
order to assist with business start-ups. 
 
3.3 DATA PROCESSING 
 
Data capturing, coding and statistical analysis was conducted by the Statistical 
Consultation Services (SCS) of the North-West University (Potchefstroom-Campus) 
using Statistica (Statsoft, 2008) and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS, 
2008). The results from the SCS were presented in a tabular form and the 
researcher constructed tables, bar graphs and pie charts in order to graphically 
present the results. 
 
In view of the results the mean will be employed as a measure of central tendency 
and the standard deviation to indicate dispersion of data around the central point. 
Thus the correlation between constructs and demographic information will be 
presented. Hence, the calculation of the t-test and Anova will highlight the correlation 
or independent test results between constructs and demographic variables as 
deemed critically important and similarly to conduct a reliability test that ensures the 
respondents‟ understanding towards the posed constructs.  
 
63 
 
3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
This section discusses the results according to demographic information provided by 
the questionnaire. 
 
3.4.1 Participating schools 
 
The following result zooms into the biographical profile of respondents including the 
demographic elements which entails the number of participating schools in the study. 
Figure 3.1 illustrates the percentage of grade 12 learners per school that participated 
in this research. The result shows that the majority (42%) of the sample population 
are from Mphe-bana High School, followed by 19% contributed by Reebone High 
School. The remaining schools such as Moedwil Combined School, Koster 
Combined School, Moefi Secondary School and Swartruggens Combined School, 
constituted a percentage equivalent to 12%, 10%, 10% and 7% respectively. 
 
Figure 3.1: Participating schools 
 
 
The result above was manually captured, not as part of the main questionnaire, but 
questionnaires were shelved according to a school‟s participation. 
Mphe - bana  
High School,  
42% 
Swartruggens  
Combined  
school, 7% 
Moefi  
Secondary  
school, 10% 
Koster  
Combined  
School, 10% 
Reebone High  
School, 19% 
Moedwil  
Combined  
School, 12% 
Participating Members per school 
64 
 
3.4.2 Gender participation 
 
The objective of this statement was to indicate the number of respondents based on 
their gender composition. The composition of the respondents is classified according 
to gender as depicted in table 3.1. 
 
Table 3.1: Gender classification 
Gender classification Frequency Percentage 
Male 121 44.2% 
Female 153 55.8% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Of the 274 respondents, 121 (44.2%) are male while 153 (55.8%) are females. 
 
3.4.3 Age classification 
 
The purpose of this question was to determine the age group distribution of learners 
that were actively involved in grade 12 schooling during the year 2012. Age could 
have an influence on the choice one makes to become involved in entrepreneurship.  
 
Table 3.2: Age classification 
Age Distribution Frequency Percentage 
16-17 yrs 14 5.1% 
18-19 yrs 196 71.5% 
20-22 yrs 60 21.9% 
23 yrs and above 3 1.1% 
Missing data 1 0.4% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Table 3.2 indicates the age distribution with a reasonable majority (71.5%) of 
respondents falling between the age group of 18 and 19 years. Of the 274 
respondents, only 14 (5.1%) were aged 17 years old while 60 (21.9%) were between 
the ages of 20 and 22 years old, and respondents above the age of 23 years old 
65 
 
were a marginal 3 (1.1%). Typically, no learners under the age of 16 years old were 
recorded.  
 
3.4.4 Race count 
 
Respondents were requested to indicate their racial group according to the South 
African racial group classification. The objective of this statement was to acquire the 
race classification in order to determine the extent to which race is subjected to 
influence entrepreneurship. The results are summarised in table 3.3. 
 
Table 3.3: Race group classification of respondents 
 
Race classification Frequency Percentage 
African 226 82.5% 
White 43 15.7% 
Asian/ Indian 0 0% 
Coloured 5 1.8% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Most of the respondents (82.5%) were African, followed by White respondents which 
constituted a 15.7%, and subsequently a marginal composition of 1.8% by Coloureds 
and with no Asians or Indians represented.  
 
3.4.5 Parents owning business 
 
It is imperative to assess the background of learners, particularly parental influence 
on becoming an entrepreneur. Therefore, a question with a measuring variable to 
evaluate the parental involvement in business is crucial. Table 3.4 indicates the 
survey results. 
 
 
 
 
 
66 
 
Table 3.4: Parents owning business 
 
Parents own a business Frequency Percentage 
Yes 33 12% 
No 237 86.5% 
Missing data 4 1.5% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Of the 274 respondents, 237 (86.5%) indicated that their parents own no business, 
and 33 (12%) clearly indicated that their parents are somehow involved in business, 
or have their own businesses. Only four respondents did not answer the question 
relative to their parents‟ involvement in business.  
  
3.4.6 Parent or guardian education 
 
The purpose of this question was to determine the level of parents‟ or guardian‟s 
education, with the selectable options ranging from tertiary education to no 
schooling. Table 3.5 presents the summarised result according to parents‟ level of 
education. 
 
Table 3.5: Parents’ level of education   
Parents education level Frequency Percentage 
Tertiary education 36 13.1% 
Completed grade 12 91 33.2% 
High school 60 21.9% 
Primary school 61 22.3% 
No schooling 23 8.4% 
Missing data 3 1.1% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Table 3.5 shows that of the 274 participated students, a large number (91) of 
parents‟ or guardians have completed grade 12.  The remainder of the total number 
is accounted for, by parents with the following: primary school (61), high school (60) 
67 
 
tertiary education (36) and no schooling (23). Only 3 respondents did not indicate 
their parents‟ or guardian‟s level of education. 
  
3.4.7 Given pocket money at school 
 
The purpose of this question was to supplement to the background data mining 
information with regards to being given pocket money while at school. Table 3.6 
indicated the number of respondents with and without monetary injection while at 
school. 
 
Table 3.6: Pocket money while at school   
I was given pocket money while at 
school 
Frequency Percentage 
Yes 140 51.1% 
No 131 47.8% 
Missing Data 3 1.1% 
Total 274 100% 
 
An evident equal distribution had been achieved in this regard, with a marginal 
difference of 1.1% between the two groups (yes and no respondents). Most of the 
respondents (51.1%) indicated being offered pocket money while at school, and an 
impetus of 47.8% indicated no pocket money while at school. Of the 274 
respondents, only 3 did not answer the question that evaluates the offering of pocket 
money while attending school. 
   
3.4.8 Job while at school 
 
The purpose of this question was to establish the participation of learners in a work 
environment while at school. The effect of having a job while at school can be 
regarded as a positive or either a negative driver towards influencing 
entrepreneurship. Table 3.7 indicates the frequency of respondents proportional to 
percentages in this study. 
 
68 
 
Table 3.7: Job while at school  
I have a job while at School Frequency Percentage 
Yes 25 9.1% 
No 243 88.7% 
Missing data 6 2.2% 
Total 274 100% 
 
Table 3.7 indicates that the majority (88.7%) of respondents have no jobs while at 
school, and 9.1% indicated as individuals having a job while at school. Only 6 of the 
274 respondents did not indicate their desired option. 
  
3.4.9 Studying business subjects 
 
Business subjects can be regarded as a possible gear to leverage individuals 
towards participating in entrepreneurship. Therefore, an appropriate measure to 
indicate the variable associated with business subjects was posed and results were 
presented in table 3.8. 
 
Table 3.8: Studying business subjects  
I am currently studying business subjects Frequency Percentage 
Yes 114 41.6% 
No 154 56.2% 
Missing data 6 2.2% 
Total 274 100% 
 
The majority of respondents (56.2%) who participated in this study indicated not 
studying any business subjects, as opposed to 41.6% of the respondents that are 
currently busy with business subjects. Six respondents (2.2%) did not answer the 
question.    
 
 
69 
 
3.4.10 Parents’ monthly income 
 
The purpose of this question was to determine their parents‟ monthly income in order 
to test the level of poverty, and therefore substantiate on the reasons behind lack of 
or interest in entrepreneurship. Table 3.9 presents the monthly income of a 
respondent‟s parent, in which the scale takes into account the five options as 
commonly adapted on the South African salary scales. 
 
Table 3.9: Parents’ monthly income  
Parents monthly income Frequency Percentage 
Below R2000 117 42.7% 
R2000 to R5000 44 16.1% 
R5001 to R10 000 26 9.5% 
R10 001 to R20 000 22 8% 
Above R20 000 15 5.5% 
Missing data 50 18.2 
Total 274 100% 
 
Most of the respondents (42.7%) indicated that their parents‟ monthly income is 
below R2000. While the second largest number of respondents (16.15%) indicated 
that their parents‟ monthly income is between R2000 and R5000. Furthermore, a 
9.5% of students indicated that their parents‟ monthly income is in the region 
between R5001 and R10 000. Similarly, the trend have remained declining with 8% 
respondents declaring that their parents‟ monthly income is between R10 001 and 
R20 000. Marginal students (5.5%) indicated that their parents‟ income is more than 
R20 000. A large number (18.2%) of respondents did not answer the question.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
70 
 
3.5 ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENTREPRENEURSHIP  
 
The statements from B1 to B17 (see ANNEXURE A) have been adapted to 
determine the perception portrayed towards entrepreneurship by grade 12 learners. 
The primary objective of these statements was to determine the attitude towards 
entrepreneurship with a detailed summary containing all relevant variables from the 
questionnaire as presented in table 3.10. Respondents had to assess their 
entrepreneurial attitude by indicating on the five-point Likert scale questionnaire. In 
respect of each statement, respondents had to indicate their degree of agreement 
(5) or disagreement (1). The statements had a mixture of positive and negative 
elements if regarded from the point of view of an entrepreneur. Thus a higher 
number (5) represent a true condition for an entrepreneur and subsequently the 
lower number (1) indicates a weak function of the statement.  
 
Table 3.10: Attitude towards entrepreneurship 
                           STATEMENTS N Mean 
Std. 
Deviation 
I want to start my own business 272 3.706 1.114 
Entrepreneurs are almost inventors 259 3.660 0.889 
Buying a business is not entrepreneurship 264 2.701 1.254 
Owning a franchise is not entrepreneurship 257 2.588 1.183 
Entrepreneurs will do anything for profit 272 4.114 0.952 
Entrepreneurs are largely responsible for new 
innovations, technologies and products 
 
269 
 
3.877 
 
1.038 
I can earn more money working for someone else 273 2.623 1.312 
I seriously consider entrepreneurship as a career 
option 
 
269 
 
3.547 
 
1.157 
High schools should encourage students to consider 
entrepreneurship 
 
270 
 
3.915 
 
1.019 
I am too busy with classes to consider starting my own 
business 
 
269 
 
3.145 
 
1.280 
My parents are entrepreneurs 263 2.091 1.238 
It is too risky to start my own business 269 2.807 1.240 
I am a risk taker 265 3.600 1.314 
Entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of money 272 4.077 0.862 
Entrepreneurship is an honourable profession 269 3.643 0.985 
A tertiary education is not necessary to be an 
entrepreneur 
 
268 
 
2.683 
 
1.278 
I prefer to work for a large company, for better career 
prospects 
 
273 
 
4.322 
 
0.890 
Average 274 3.359 1.118 
 
71 
 
The average mean of all the statements indicated in table 3.10 reveals a mean(x¯ ) of 
3.3587 out of the five-point Likert scale, indicating that the positive attitude towards 
entrepreneurship is moderately experienced among respondents. The mean scores 
of this part two of the questionnaire are graphically illustrated in a bar chart in figure 
3.2. With specific comparison on the mean value across the statements ranked from 
the lowest to highest mean score.   
 
Figure 3.2: Attitude towards entrepreneurship ranked per mean from lowest to 
highest 
 
 
Ten of the 17 statements, I want to start my own business (x¯ =3.706), 
Entrepreneurs are almost inventors (x¯ = 3.660), Entrepreneurs will do anything 
for profit (x¯ =4.114), Entrepreneurs are largely responsible for new innovations, 
technologies and products (x¯ =3.877), I seriously consider entrepreneurship as 
a career option (x¯ = 3.547), High schools should encourage students to 
consider entrepreneurship (x¯ = 3.915), I am risk taker (x¯ =3.600), 
Entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of money (x¯ =4.077), 
Entrepreneurship is an honourable profession (x¯ =3.643) and I prefer to work 
4.322
4.114
4.077
3.915
3.877
3.706
3.660
3.643
3.600
3.547
3.145
2.807
2.701
2.683
2.623
2.588
2.091
0 1 2 3 4 5
I prefer to work for a large company, for better …
Entrepreneurs will do anything for profit
Entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of …
High Schools should encourage students to …
Entrepreneurs are largely responsible for new …
I want to start my own business
Entrepreneurs are almost invenstors
Entrepreneurship is an honourable profession
I am a risk taker
I seriously consider entrepreneurship as career …
I am too busy with classes to consider starting …
It is too risky to start own business
Buying a business is not entrepreneurship
A tertiary education is not necessary to be an …
I can earn more money working for someone else
Owning a franchise is not entrepreneurship
My parents are entrepreneurs
72 
 
for a large company, for better career prospects (x¯ =4.322) evaluated had a 
mean above the average mean (x¯ =3.359), and that indicates respondents‟ 
inclination towards entrepreneurship.  
 
The other seven statements such as Buying a business is not entrepreneurship 
(x¯ =2.702), Owning a franchise is not entrepreneurship (x¯ =2.588), I can earn 
more money working for someone else (x¯ =2.623), I am too busy with classes 
to consider starting my own business (x¯ =3.145), My parents are entrepreneurs 
(x¯ = 2.091), It is too risky to start own business(x¯ =2.807), and A tertiary 
education is not necessary to be an entrepreneur (x¯ =2.683) resulted with a 
mean below the average (x¯ =3.359). 
 
The highest mean have been achieved from the construct relative to respondents 
preferring to work for a large company for a better career prospect as opposed to 
starting their own business. This shows a contradicting thought among learners, 
nonetheless, it also reveals an independent opinion among learners.     
 
3.6 ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES 
 
This part of the questionnaire was designed to determine how respondents view and 
identify entrepreneurial opportunities within their area of study and environment. 
Table 3.11 presents mean scores and standard deviation relative to the statements 
(C1 to C9, see ANNEXURE A) in no particular order. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
73 
 
Table 3.11: Entrepreneurial opportunities 
           Statements N Mean   
Std. 
deviation 
I have many ideas for business ventures 271 3.472 1.128 
It is too expensive to start my own business 267 3.521 1.227 
There are many entrepreneurial opportunities 
in my specific area of study 
 
270 
 
3.111 
 
1.217 
Entrepreneurial ventures are mainly limited to 
business ideas 
 
274 
 
3.091 
 
1.043 
I have a good understanding of intellectual 
property 
 
270 
 
3.344 
 
1.030 
I understand what is equity finance 270 3.304 1.184 
I am constantly alert to business opportunities 
 
271 
 
3.233 
 
1.155 
All the good ideas have been taken 273 2.645 1.340 
I need connections to start a business 274 3.785 1.279 
Average 274 3.278 1.178 
 
The average mean of 3.2784 derived from table 3.11 indicates a fair amount of 
respondents declaring that opportunity identification is an acceptable construct in 
determining the entrepreneurial attitude. The results of the survey are graphically 
depicted in figure 3.3 in order to compare the mean scores across the statements 
ranked from the lowest to highest mean score.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
74 
 
Figure 3.3: Rank entrepreneurial opportunities per mean 
 
 
Five of the nine Statements being I understand what is equity finance (x¯ =3.303), I 
have a good understanding of intellectual property (x¯ =3.344), I have many 
ideas for business ventures (x¯ =3.472), It is too expensive to start my own 
business (x¯ =3.521) and I need connections to start a business (x¯ =3.785) 
obtained high scores indicating a relative strong agreement with the respective 
statements as compared to the average mean of 3.279. 
 
Of the remaining four Statements, All the good ideas have been taken (x¯ = 2.645) 
have the lowest mean with a relative disagreement towards the statement. The rest 
of Statements, There are many entrepreneurial opportunities in my specific area 
of study (x¯ = 3.111), I am constantly alert to business opportunities (x¯ =3.233) 
obtained mean scores below the average mean. But still remains marginally higher 
than the three of the five point Likert scale measure.  
 
3.785
3.521
3.472
3.344
3.304
3.233
3.111
3.091
2.645
0 1 2 3 4
I need connections to start a business
It is too expensive to start own business
I have many ideas for business ventures
I have a good understanding of intellectual 
property
I understand what is equity finance
I am constantly alert to business opportunities
There are many entrepreneurial opportunities in 
my specific area of study
Entrepreneurial ventures are mainly limited to 
business ideas
All the good ideas have been taken
75 
 
3.7 ENTREPRENEURSHIP ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE HIGH 
SCHOOLS 
 
Methods of indulging the secondary school learners within the entrepreneurial 
environment can be attractive tools used to fast track entrepreneurship awareness 
programmes. The purpose of this section was to determine the entrepreneurial 
activities, programmes, mentoring issues, and various factors that assess the 
entrepreneurial environment within secondary schools, particularly among grade 12 
learners.  
Table 3.12: Entrepreneurship environment within the secondary schools 
      Statements N Mean Std. Dev 
Students are encouraged to pursue 
entrepreneurship ventures 
 
273 
 
3.337 
 
1.171 
My high school councillor mentioned 
entrepreneurship as a career option 
 
272 
 
3.206 
 
1.304 
Examples of how science and technology 
are key to business are included in class 
examples 
 
272 
 
3.518 
 
1.187 
Entrepreneurial or business related 
examples are included in classes 
 
271 
 
3.557 
 
1.188 
Having a mentor will help 264 4.095 0.980 
A small seed grant or (start-up fund) would 
encourage entrepreneurship 
 
268 
 
3.858 
 
1.036 
More business sector interaction would 
encourage entrepreneurship 
 
271 
 
3.816 
 
0.925 
Private sector support for student 
entrepreneurs would result in more schools 
based business start-ups 
 
271 
 
3.668 
 
0.993 
A programme exempting student loan 
repayments, for student entrepreneurs would 
encourage more students to pursue a 
business venture  
 
 
269 
 
 
 
3.922 
 
 
0.980 
Average 274 3.664 1.085 
 
Table 3.12 presents the results of the survey, particularly highlighting the mean 
scores and standard deviations of the respective statements (D1 to D9, see 
ANNEXURE A) in no particular order.   
76 
 
Most of the respondents indicated a strong approval with the average mean score of 
3.664 and also with an acceptable standard deviation of 1.085. This average mean 
score indicates a reasonable agreement among respondents against the 
environmental conduciveness of the secondary schools towards entrepreneurship. 
Figure 3.4 depicts the mean scores of statements ranked from the lowest to the 
highest mean score.   
 
Figure 3.4: Entrepreneurial environments within secondary schools ranked 
from lowest to highest value 
 
 
Of the nine Statements in this section, five of the statements being Private sector 
support for student entrepreneurs would result in more schools based 
business start-ups (x¯ =3.668), More business sector interaction would 
encourage entrepreneurship (x¯ =3.816), A small seed grant or (start-up fund) 
would encourage entrepreneurship (x¯ =3.858), A programme exempting student 
loan repayments, for student entrepreneurs would encourage more students to 
pursue a business venture (x¯ =3.922) and Having a mentor will help (x¯ =4.095) 
4.095
3.922
3.858
3.816
3.668
3.557
3.518
3.337
3.206
0 1 2 3 4 5
Having a mentor will help
A programme exempting student loan repayments, 
encourage business venture 
A small seed grant or (start-up fund) would 
encourage entrepreneurship
More business sector interaction would encourage 
entrepreneurship
Private sector support for student entrepreneurs 
would results schools based business start-ups
Entrepreneurial or business related examples are 
included in classes
Examples of how science and technology are key to 
business are included in class examples
Students are encouraged to pursue 
entrepreneurship ventures
My high school councillor mentioned 
entrepreneurship as career option
77 
 
obtained a  mean value more than the average mean., with the statement Having a 
mentor will help, outweighing other statements with a mean score of 4.095. 
 
The rest of the statements scored more than three of the five-point Likert scale and 
marginally low relative to the average mean score (x¯ =3.664). The results were as 
follows of the mean values: Students are encouraged to pursue 
entrepreneurship ventures (x¯ =3.337), My high school councillor mentioned 
entrepreneurship as a career option (x¯ =3.206), Examples of how science and 
technology are key to business are included in class examples (x¯ =3.518) and 
Entrepreneurial or business related examples are included in classes (x¯ 
=3.557). 
 
3.8 THE SOUTH AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURIAL ENVIRONMENT 
 
This part of the questionnaire is designed to evaluate the South African 
entrepreneurial environment with specific reference to its conduciveness, support 
system from the society and the effect of government regulations on 
entrepreneurship programmes.  
 
Table 3.13: The South African entrepreneurial environment 
Statements N Mean Std. dev 
South Africa is an excellent country to 
start a business 
272 4.107 1.045 
My local community supports 
entrepreneurs 
271 3.373 1.189 
It would be very difficult to raise the 
money needed to start a new business in 
South Africa 
270 3.000 1.270 
I know how to have access to the 
assistance I would need to start a new 
business 
272 3.382 1.169 
I am aware of programmes the 
government provides to help people start 
businesses 
273 3.517 1.312 
Average 274 3.476 1.197 
 
78 
 
Table 3.13 presents the mean scores and standard deviations of the statements 
which provide an indication of how inclined respondents are towards the South 
African entrepreneurial environment. 
 
The average mean (x¯ =3.4756) from the total respondents (274) have indicated their 
agreement with the current South African entrepreneurial environment. 
 
In order to dissect the South African entrepreneurial environment, the mean score 
have been calculated and ranked from the lowest to highest mean score as depicted 
in figure 3.5.  
 
Figure 3.5: Ranked from lowest to highest of the South African entrepreneurial 
environment 
 
 
Five statements were constructed to evaluate the entrepreneurial environment with 
the use of a measuring five-point Likert-scale tool, the selective options ranging 
between strongly agree (5) and strongly disagree (1) were provided. The highest 
mean of 4.107 was obtained among respondents which consider South Africa as an 
excellent country to start a business. Subsequently, a statement, I am aware of the 
programmes the government provides to help people start businesses 
obtained a mean score of 3.517 that is marginally above the average mean. 
Statement being It would be very difficult to raise the money needed to start a 
new business in South Africa (x¯ =3.000) has a function of equivalent to neutral as 
4.107
3.517
3.382
3.373
3.000
0 1 2 3 4 5
South Africa is an excellent country to start a 
business
I am aware of programmes the Government 
provides to help people start businesses
I know how to have access to the assistance I would 
need to start a new business
My local community supports entrepreneurs
It would be very difficult to raise the money needed 
to start a new business in South Africa
79 
 
seen from its mean score. The remaining statements are below the average mean 
but more than three of the five-point Likert-scale instrument, the statements are as 
follows: My local community supports entrepreneurs (x¯ =3.373) and I know how 
to have access to the assistance I would need to start a new business (x¯ 
=3.382)  
 
3.9 RELIABILITY 
 
The internal consistency of the questionnaire was determined by the calculation of 
Cronbach alpha. The establishment of Cronbach alpha was developed by Lee 
Cronbach in 1951 in order to check the internal consistency, and it is expressed with 
the number between 0 and 1. Internal consistency describes the extent to which all 
items or statements in the test measures the same construct (Tavakol, 2011:53). 
Thus table 3.14 presents the Cronbach alphas, calculated for this study. 
 
Table 3.14: Cronbach alpha values 
Constructs Cronbach alpha 
Attitude towards entrepreneurship 0.558 
Entrepreneurial opportunities 0.606 
Entrepreneurship environment within the secondary schools 0.615 
The South African entrepreneurship environment 0.466 
       
Table 3.14 indicates that out of the four calculated Cronbach alpha coefficients, three 
coefficients are reasonably accepted, in which the cut-off point value has been 
reduced to 0.5 as concurred and approved by SCS. Therefore, results should be 
discussed or interpreted with caution as the normal cut-off point is above 0.7. Field 
(2005:668) concurred with SCS that it is not necessary to ignore the constructs less 
than 0.7 particularly when attitude is measured except if ability is assessed then 0.7 
cut-off points should be considered. The construct, The South African 
entrepreneurship environment is relatively low (0.466) as compared with other 
constructs but it is satisfactorily behind the target with a marginal difference. Hence, 
items or statements used to test this construct should be further investigated in order 
to improve its internal consistency. 
80 
 
 
3.10 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES AND 
ENTREPRENEURIAL ATTITUDE CONSTRUCTS 
 
In order to test for practical significance, the independent (two-sample) t-test had to 
be performed. The constructs are measured on preference of significance level in 
which the benchmark ratings are confined within d~0.2 which represents a small or 
no practical significant effect, d~0.5 indicates a medium effect with visible practical 
difference, and d ~ 0.8 reveals a large effect practically significant difference (Ellis & 
Steyn, 2003:51). Demographic variables used in this questionnaire (see ANNEXURE 
A) were correlated with the selected constructs in order to evaluate the statistical 
significance. However, the p-value will also be utilised to determine the statistical 
significance difference and has a desirable benchmark value of less than 0.05 to 
have any statistical significance. 
 
3.10.1 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and gender of 
respondents 
 
Table 3.15 presents the relationship between the seven constructs measuring the 
entrepreneurial attitude and the demographic variable gender, with the mean (x¯ ) 
standard deviation (s), t-test (p) and effect size (d). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
81 
 
Table 3.15: Relationship between the construct measuring entrepreneurial 
attitude and gender 
 
         GENDER     
   
 
Male 
  
Female 
 
Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  121 3.564 0.461 153 3.596 0.468 0.572 0.07 
Opportunities 121 3.300 0.618 153 3.220 0.689 0.351 0.11 
Schools 
environment 120 
 
3.600 
 
0.517 153 3.708 0.562 0.100 0.19 
Excellent country 120 4.033 1.012 152 4.165 1.070 0.302 0.12 
Community 
support 119 
 
3.244 
 
1.081 152 3.474 1.260 0.107 0.18 
Access 
assistance 120 
 
3.433 
 
1.158 152 3.342 1.180 0.523 0.08 
Government 
programmes 120 
 
3.400 
 
1.318 153 3.608 1.304 0.195 0.16 
 
The demographic variable gender (male or female) classification did not have a 
statistical (p-value < 0.05) significant on the selected constructs measuring 
entrepreneurial attitude. 
 
Furthermore, the results indicate that the demographic variable gender classification 
have no practical significant effect on the mentioned tabulated constructs. The d-
value varies between a low of 0.07 and a high of 0.19. 
 
3.10.2 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and age group of 
respondents 
 
Table 3.16 presents the relationship between the seven constructs measuring the 
entrepreneurial attitude and the age group distribution, with the mean (x¯ ), standard 
deviation(s), t-test (p-value) and effect sizes (d-value). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
82 
 
Table 3.16: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and age groups 
 
    AGE GROUP     
   
 
16-19 
  
20 and above Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  210 3.527 0.449 63 3.780 0.446 0.000 0.56 
Opportunities 210 3.202 0.681 63 3.449 0.543 0.003 0.36 
Schools 
environment 209 
 
3.653 
 
0.563 63 3.693 0.480 0.582 0.07 
Excellent country 208 4.072 1.068 63 4.238 0.962 0.245 0.16 
Community support 207 
 
3.329 
 
1.198 63 3.524 1.162 0.249 0.16 
Access assistance 209 3.373 1.166 63 3.419 1.195 0.789 0.04 
Government 
programmes 209 
 
3.431 
 
1.329 63 3.794 1.233 0.047 0.27 
 
The variable age group distribution has a statistical significance on the perceptions 
regarding Attitude (p=0.000), Opportunities (p=0.003) and Government 
programmes (p=0.047). While other constructs rated higher than the threshold 
(0.05) value, hence no statistical significance on other five constructs measuring 
entrepreneurial attitude. 
 
The results furthermore indicated that the demographical variable age group 
classification have a small to medium effect on the constructs. The construct 
attitude towards entrepreneurship (d-value= 0.56) is the only variable constituting 
a medium effect distortion in the sample. The other constructs were ranged from a d-
value of 0.04 to 0.36. 
 
3.10.3 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and race group of 
respondents 
 
Table 3.17 presents a race group as clustered between black and white, in which a 
relationship between the seven constructs and the race group is determined, with the 
use of a mean score (x¯ ), standard deviation (s), t-test (p-value) and the effect size 
(d-value). 
 
83 
 
Table 3.17: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and race group 
 
    RACE GROUP     
   
 
African 
  
White 
 
Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  226 3.588 0.4685 43 3.548 0.460 0.597 0.09 
Opportunities 226 3.286 0.671 43 3.085 0.586 0.048 0.30 
Schools 
environment 225 
 
3.640 
 
0.558 43 3.764 0.423 0.101 0.22 
Excellent country 224 4.277 0.958 43 3.209 1.059 0.000 1.01 
Community support 223 
 
3.431 
 
1.194 43 3.070 1.100 0.057 0.30 
Access assistance 224 3.366 1.194 43 3.488 1.055 0.498 0.10 
Government 
programmes 225 
 
3.698 
 
1.245 43 2.651 1.270 0.000 0.82 
  
The perceptions regarding Opportunities (p=0.048), Excellent country (p=0.000), 
Community support (p=0.057) and Government programmes (p=0.000) were 
revealed to be influenced to a statistically significant extent by race group.  
 
In all instances the effect size has no effect on the sample, apart from the variables 
South Africa is an excellent country to start your own business (d- value= 1.01) 
and Government programmes (d-value= 0.82) which have a practical significant 
difference on the sample, due to the large effect experienced on the sample. 
 
3.10.4 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and parent’s business 
involvement of respondents 
 
Table 3.18 indicates the relationship between the demographic variable parents own 
business and seven constructs which evaluates the entrepreneurial attitude, 
including the mean (x¯ ), standard deviation (s), t-test (p-value) and effect size (d-
value).  
  
 
 
 
84 
 
Table 3.18: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and parents owning business 
 
    
PARENTS' OWN 
BUSINESS   
    
 
Yes 
  
No 
 
Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  33 3.658 0.429 237 3.569 0.470 0.276 0.19 
Opportunities 33 3.040 0.685 237 3.284 0.646 0.061 0.36 
Schools 
environment 33 
 
3.653 
 
0.450 236 3.663 0.559 0.909 0.02 
Excellent country 33 3.424 1.251 235 4.204 0.983 0.001 0.62 
Community support 33 
 
3.030 
 
1.186 234 3.432 1.185 0.076 0.34 
Access assistance 33 3.576 1.091 235 3.353 1.187 0.284 0.19 
Government 
programmes 33 
 
2.818 
 
1.310 236 3.610 1.285 0.002 0.60 
 
Table 3.18 indicates a statistical significant difference (p<0.05) in the mean values 
regarding the demographic variable Parents owning business relative to the 
constructs Excellent country (p=0.001), Opportunities (p=0.061) and Government 
programmes (p=0.002). 
 
The results furthermore indicate that the demographic variable (parents owning 
business) have a small to medium effect on the constructs measuring 
entrepreneurial attitude and the state of entrepreneurship in South Africa. The d-
value varies between a low (0.02) to a high (0.62). The constructs, Opportunities 
(d-value= 0.36), South Africa an excellent country to start your own business 
(d-value= 0.62), and Community support (d-value= 0.34) have a medium effect. 
 
3.10.5 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondents given 
pocket money while at school 
 
Table 3.19 presents the statistical and practical significance of the influence of being 
given pocket money while at school on perception of assessing attitude towards 
entrepreneurship.   
 
85 
 
Table 3.19: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and being given pocket money 
 
    
GIVEN POCKET 
MONEY   
    
 
Yes 
  
No 
 
Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  140 3.569 0.448 131 3.593 0.486 0.657 0.05 
Opportunities 140 3.268 0.610 131 3.238 0.711 0.716 0.04 
Schools 
environment 140 
3.660 0.529 
130 3.656 0.565 0.957 0.01 
Excellent country 140 4.121 1.083 129 4.109 1.010 0.920 0.01 
Community support 138 
 
2.906 
 
1.366 129 3.085 1.153 0.823 0.13 
Access assistance 140 3.085 1.156 129 3.349 1.197 0.685 0.05 
Government 
programmes 140 
 
3.621 
 
1.272 130 3.408 1.357 0.184 0.16 
 
Table 3.19 indicates that a selected demographic variable did not have a statistical 
(p-value <0.05) significant on the seven constructs measuring attitude towards 
entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners. 
 
The results furthermore indicate d-values that rated between the ranges of 0.01 to 
0.16. Hence, the sample can be confirmed that it is not distorted, in all no practical 
significant effect on the results has been experienced. 
 
3.10.6 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondent with 
jobs while at school 
 
Table 3.20 presents the statistical and practical significance of the influence of 
having a job while at school on the attitude one has towards entrepreneurship.   
   
 
 
 
86 
 
Table 3.20: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and having a job while at school 
 
    
JOB WHILE AT 
SCHOOL   
    
 
Yes 
  
No 
 
Comparison 
    
 
    
 
      
Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  25 3.593 0.457 243 3.589 0.466 0.963 0.01 
Opportunities 25 3.443 0.602 243 3.242 0.669 0.127 0.30 
Schools 
environment 25 
3.671 0.345 
242 3.660 0.565 0.888 0.02 
Excellent country 25 3.880 1.013 241 4.133 1.052 0.252 0.24 
Community support 25 
 
3.600 
 
0.764 240 3.354 0.079 0.246 0.20 
Access assistance 25 4.040 0.840 241 3.307 1.182 0.000 0.62 
Government 
programmes 25 
 
3.640 
 
1.411 242 3.512 1.296 0.668 0.09 
 
Table 3.20 indicates that the selected demographic variable had no statistical 
significance on the constructs measuring attitude, except the construct Access 
assistance (p=0.000) which was shown to be influenced by having a job while at 
school in a statistical significant way.   
 
Furthermore, the results indicate that the sample size had three variables with no 
practical significance effect being Attitude (d-value=0.01), Environment (d-value= 
0.02) and Government programmes (d-value=0.09). The results also indicates a 
small effect experienced on the sample, on the three constructs being 
Opportunities (d-value=0.3), Excellent country (d-value=0.24) and Support (d-
value= 0.2) are influenced by having a job while at school. An outlier d-value was 
registered with a medium effect distortion on the variable Government assistance 
(0.62). 
 
3.10.7 Relationship between entrepreneurial constructs and respondents’ 
subject choice 
 
Table 3.21 presents the relationship between the demographic variable being 
involved with business subjects and the seven constructs used to assess the 
87 
 
entrepreneurial attitude and the conduciveness of the South African environment 
towards entrepreneurship.  
 
Table 3.21: Relationship between the constructs measuring entrepreneurship 
attitude and studying business subjects 
 
    
STUDYING BUSINESS 
SUBJECTS 
    
 
Yes 
  
No 
 
Comparison 
  
        Construct n x¯  S n x¯  s p D 
Attitude  114 3.722 0.476 154 3.495 0.427 0.000 0.48 
Opportunities 114 3.442 0.564 154 3.133 0.699 0.000 0.44 
Schools 
environment 114 
 
3.837 
 
0.441 153 3.534 0.582 0.000 0.52 
Excellent country 113 4.035 1.035 153 4.163 1.060 0.325 0.12 
Community support 114 
 
3.500 
 
1.154 151 3.298 1.204 0.167 0.17 
Access assistance 113 3.735 0.955 153 3.137 0.101 0.000 0.48 
Government 
programmes 114 
 
3.623 
 
1.244 153 3.451 1.347 0.282 0.13 
 
From table 3.21, it can be deduced that the perceptions regarding Attitude 
(p=0.000), Opportunities (p=0.000), School environment (p=0.000) and Access 
to assistance (p=0.000) were shown to be influenced to a statistically significant 
extent by studying business subjects.   
 
Furthermore, the result indicates that three constructs being Excellent country (d-
value=0.12), Community support (d-value 0.17) and Government programmes 
(d-value 0.13) have no practical significant effect on the sample. The other factors 
indicated a small to medium effect towards studying business subjects. 
 
3.11 SUMMARY   
 
The empirical study consists of a questionnaire adapted from Luiz and Mariotti (see 
ANNEXURE A), which attempts to assess the attitude towards entrepreneurship 
among grade 12 learners in the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality of the North-West 
Province, based on the seven constructs that measures the perceptions and 
conduciveness of the entrepreneurial environment in schools and South Africa. 
 
88 
 
Six schools participated in the study and they originate from a single circuit (Elands) 
as clustered by the DoE. The sample size was composed by a study population 
equivalent to 299 potential candidates, but resulted in a response count of 274. 
Furthermore, the resulting data was captured, coded, and analysed by SCS. 
 
The results of this study were presented in a tabular format with the inclusion of 
variables such as the demographic information relative to the respondents; including 
the calculations of mean scores, standard deviation and standard mean errors. The 
demographic information of the respondents were analysed in terms of gender (male 
121 or female 153), race (African 226, Coloured 5 and White 43), age group (16-19 
or 20 and above), parents own business (yes 33 or no 237), studying business 
subjects (yes 114 or no 154), having a job while studying (yes 25 or no 243) and 
being offered pocket money while at school (yes 140 or no 131). 
 
This chapter also ranked mean scores of variables relative to measuring the attitude 
towards entrepreneurship. Prior to presenting the results, a reliability test had to be 
calculated in which the Cronbach alpha indicated the internal consistency of the 
constructs. Only one construct was rated below the threshold, hence it was 
discarded as a construct but its variables were considered when determining the 
relationship between demographic information and constructs. 
 
This chapter has revealed few interlinks between demographic information and the 
seven constructs. In which some of the demographic data are not effectively 
affecting the attitude of learners towards entrepreneurship. Therefore, the following 
chapter will outline the relevancy, conclude on the findings, make recommendations 
on the necessary interventions, and finally, expand on distinguishable effects the 
research has on the community. 
 
 
 
 
 
89 
 
CHAPTER 4 
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 
 
This chapter aims to make conclusions on the specific subjects covered by the 
empirical study chapter. Firstly, it will promptly conclude on the demographic data 
gained from the study. Secondly, it includes a detailed discussion on constructed 
variables that measures different constructs such as the attitude towards 
entrepreneurship and the South African entrepreneurial environment. Furthermore, it 
will conclude on various relations between demographic information and the 
constructs used to measure attitude including the South African entrepreneurial 
environment. 
 
Finally, this chapter will make practical recommendations and holistically revisit and 
assess the achievement of the secondary objectives in conjunction with the primary 
objective. The chapter will conclude with suggestions for future research topics.    
 
4.2 CONCLUSIONS 
 
The conclusions will be structured in a way to highlight the data obtained from the 
results of the survey, in which conclusions will follow a structured sequential flow 
format such as the one in chapter 3. It will point out variables inclusive in the study 
such as demographic information, thereafter the attitudes towards entrepreneurship, 
followed by the opportunity recognition. Subsequently it will make conclusions on the 
entrepreneurship environment within the secondary schools and also the South 
African environment relative to entrepreneurship. Similarly, it will make reasonable 
conclusions on the statistical significance of the relationship between demographic 
variables and constructs measuring attitude. 
 
 
90 
 
4.2.1 Demographic information of respondents 
 
The demographic information of respondents included the following variables which 
were used for analysis: gender classification, age group distribution, race group 
classification, parental status with regards to owning a business, parents‟ level of 
education, parents‟ monthly income, students‟ accessibility to pocket money while at 
school, having a job while at school, and learners studying business subjects. 
 
The following general conclusions can be drawn: 
 Six schools participated in this survey, with most of the respondents 
accounted for by Mphe-bana High School (42%), followed by Reebone High 
School (19%), and other schools constituted a percentage of students less 
than 12%. It is imperative to acknowledge that Mphe-bana High School is 
overpopulated with regards to grade 12 learners. Therefore, the government 
must build high schools in order to relieve the pressure on the teachers with 
regards to offering individual attention to learners.  
 The participation of respondents was mainly populated by females (55.8%), 
followed by males (44.2%). Therefore, it can be concluded that almost an 
equal distribution was achieved; if further surveys are prompted then it could 
result in an equal distribution. The results of this study were not dependent on 
any specific gender.  
 Age group distribution indicates that most of the respondents (71.5%) are 
between the age group of 18 and 19 years old. This is mainly due to the 
nature of the sampled population, which is only catering for grade 12 learners 
rather than the participation of all school members. Furthermore, the results 
also indicate that 21.9% of respondents are between the age group of 20 and 
22 years, this can be due to a high failure rate, therefore a further 
assessment on the cut-off point should be investigated, to establish the 
reasons why old students are still allowed to participate in normal schools 
rather than attending adult based education schools. 
 Race was classified according to the South African race classification, in 
which most of the respondents (82.5%) were made up of African learners, 
followed by Whites (15.7%). This result is due to the nature of the selected 
91 
 
area of study where the majority of schools are in the rural areas and also a 
typical number of learners are from nearby farms. 
 Most of the respondents (86.5%) indicated that their parents‟ involvement in 
business is subtle. Therefore, not much can be expected in terms of parents‟ 
involvement in fostering entrepreneurship behaviour in their children. 
 Most of the respondents (33.2%) indicated that their parents have completed 
grade 12, followed by an equal distribution of those that completed high 
school (21.9%) and primary school (22.3%). Only 13.1% indicated that their 
parents have a tertiary education and subsequently, 8.4% have no schooling. 
Therefore, this could be lethal if education is considered an important element 
in influencing learners towards entrepreneurship as only 13.1% of parents 
have higher education qualifications.     
 The majority of respondents (88.7%) were not linked with having a job while 
at school and with 9.1% indicating they have a job while at school. It is 
encouraging to see that a large number of learners are not working, therefore, 
it is expected that they can focus on their schooling.  
  Most of the respondents (56.2%) indicated that they are not studying any 
business subjects and 41.6% are studying business subjects. 
 The question that requested respondents to indicate their parents‟ monthly 
income resulted with the majority of respondents (42.7%) indicating an 
income less than R2000, followed by parents earning between R2000 and 
R5000 at 16.1%, and only 5.5% is accounted for by parents earning more 
than R20000. Therefore, results shows that the selected area of study is hard 
stricken by poverty based on the level of monthly income. Furthermore, 
results have shown that 18.2% of respondents did not indicate their parents‟ 
income, in which this can be presumptuously associated with the sensitivity of 
the subject matter.  
 
 
 
 
 
92 
 
4.2.2 Attitude towards entrepreneurship 
 
This section will conclude on the perception of grade 12 learners towards 
entrepreneurship, by discussing statements measuring this construct. The construct 
included 17 statements that relatively measured the attitude or perceptions towards 
entrepreneurship. The majority of respondents prefer to work for a large company 
in order to be guaranteed financial security. The preceding statement is highly 
regarded as opposed to the statement I want to start my own business. 
Nonetheless, this reveals that most of the respondents are concerned with their 
future security more than starting a business. In contrary, respondents also agreed 
that they have interest of venturing into business, which is considered to be a 
positive attitude. While the following variables, entrepreneurs will do anything for 
profit and entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of money rated the 
mean values of 4.114 and 4.077 respectively. This results show that more students 
thinks entrepreneurship is all about making money and profit, they are not aware of 
the responsibilities and risks associated with business. 
 
Most of the respondents agreed with the statement that high school should 
encourage students to consider entrepreneurship as a possible career pursuit. 
This means it is vital to promote entrepreneurship programmes among learners; it is 
evident from the results that entrepreneurial awareness is lacking within the high 
schools. The majority of respondents agreed with the statements which stipulate that 
entrepreneurs are largely responsible for new innovations, technologies and 
products, entrepreneurs are almost inventors, and that entrepreneurship is an 
honourable profession. Furthermore, respondents regard themselves as risk 
takers, while they are considering entrepreneurship as a career. Respondents 
indicated that they are too busy with their studies to consider starting a business.  
 
Most of the respondents had a neutral expression with regards to the following 
statements: it is too risky to start my own business, buying business is not 
entrepreneurship, a tertiary education is not necessary to be an entrepreneur, I 
can earn more money working for someone else; and owning a franchise is not 
entrepreneurship. Based on these results, it can be concluded that learners cannot 
clearly define the basis of entrepreneurship. Hence, learners should be taught the 
93 
 
risks involved in starting a business, similarly the spin-off effects of buying a 
business.  
 
4.2.3 Entrepreneurial opportunities 
 
From figure 3.3, it can be deduced that high mean values derived from the following 
statements: I need connections to start a business, it is too expensive to start 
my own business, I have many ideas for business ventures, I have a good 
understanding of intellectual property, and I am constantly alert to business 
opportunities are prominently regarded in opportunity identification. Therefore, 
these results indicate that learners are scared to face challenges of starting a 
business because they mostly consider high start-up capital involved in business as 
a demoralising factor for venturing into business. Although the students are 
opportunistic in nature and have a good understanding of business terminologies 
such as intellectual property, and also possess too many ideas for starting a 
business nonetheless they still remain pessimistic to execute or put into practice 
their business ideas.      
 
Furthermore, most of the respondents expressed a neutral position with regards to 
the following statements: there are many entrepreneurial opportunities in my specific 
area of study and entrepreneurial ventures are mainly limited to business ideas. It 
can be concluded that learners are not considerate of opportunities in their area of 
study, therefore measures to promote opportunity recognition is imperative. While 
the majority of respondents disagreed with the statement all good ideas have been 
taken. This indicates that learners are still positive towards identifying good ideas in 
order to spot the entrepreneurial opportunities. 
 
4.2.4 Entrepreneurship environment within the schools 
 
An evident high mean values are achieved on the following statements: having a 
mentor will help, a programme exempting students loan repayments for 
students entrepreneurs would encourage more students to pursue a business 
venture, a small seed grant or start-up fund would encourage entrepreneurship, 
more business sector interaction would encourage entrepreneurship, private 
94 
 
sector support for student entrepreneurs would result in more schools based 
business start-ups. These results indicated that a large number of learners are 
ready to participate in entrepreneurship but obviously they recommend the 
implementation of the exempting entrepreneurial programmes to foster 
entrepreneurial attitude, and having a good role model to set the platform in order to 
uniquely introduce them to entrepreneurship. 
 
Most of the respondents evaluated the following statements below the average mean 
value (3.664): entrepreneurial or business related examples are included in 
classes, example of how science and technology are key to business are 
included in class examples, students are encouraged to pursue 
entrepreneurship ventures, and my high school councillor mentioned 
entrepreneurship as a career option. But these statements had a neutral 
expression on the five-point Likert scale. Therefore, it can be concluded that most of 
the respondents partly concur with the introduction of business examples in classes, 
and believe that science and technology are key factors towards seizing an 
entrepreneurial opportunity. It can be derived from the results that students are 
encouraged to pursue entrepreneurship as a career and high school councillors are 
trying to provide guidance with regards to choosing entrepreneurship as a career. 
But this situation needs to be improved through entrepreneurship awareness and 
educational programmes. Hence, education and training can be regarded as an 
imposing tool to foster entrepreneurial awareness among students.  
 
4.2.5 South African entrepreneurial environment 
 
As indicated by the high mean value (4.107), the respondents agreed with the 
statement that South Africa is an excellent country to start a business. It was 
followed by most of the respondents agreeing to the fact that they are aware of 
programmes the government provides to help people start businesses. Hence, 
sustainability and continuation of the awareness with regards to government 
programmes should be motivated in order to improve on the current status quo. 
 
The following statements had a neutral expression in terms of the support system 
towards potential entrepreneurial candidates: I know how to have access to the 
95 
 
assistance I would need to start a new business, my local community supports 
entrepreneurs and it would be very difficult to raise the money needed to start 
a new business in South Africa. Therefore, it can be concluded that much 
improvement in this regard is urgently required.  Similarly, it is also evident in chapter 
2 when entrepreneurial dialogues had been established to deal with some of the 
issues (lack of financial assistance and poor support structures) facing South Africa 
today with regards to entrepreneurship. 
 
4.2.6 Relationship between demographical variables and the constructs 
tested in the questionnaire 
 
The conclusions based on the results of the analysis regarding the relationship 
between the demographic variables such as gender, race, and age group will be 
discussed in this section: 
 
4.2.6.1 Relationship between gender and constructs measuring attitude 
 
Based on the results of the analysis regarding the relationship between gender and 
entrepreneurial attitude construct, it has been concluded that gender does not 
influence respondents‟ perception towards entrepreneurship in the Kgetlengrivier 
Local Municipality. Furthermore, results did not indicate a statistical significant 
difference (p< 0.05) in the mean values between the perceptions of male and 
females with regards to the constructs measuring attitude. 
 
Although female respondents rated five of the seven constructs slightly more positive 
than their counterpart, the differences were not practically significant for all of the 
constructs without any practical significant effect being determined. 
 
4.2.6.2 Relationship between age variable and constructs measuring attitude 
 
Age group classification was into two groups, with merging respondents between the 
age of 16 to 19 years and the ones from 20 years and above. Overall, the age group 
of 20 years old and above have a more positive attitude towards entrepreneurship 
than the learners between 16 and 19 years old. In fact, they are also able to identify 
96 
 
new opportunities and are highly aware of the government programmes that assist 
entrepreneurs. Therefore, this indicates that maturity also has a role to play with 
regards to instigating a positive mind set towards entrepreneurship. Although the 
results had four variables which were above the threshold value (p=0.05), the 
practical significance difference was not obtained.  
 
Furthermore, the study indicated two of the seven constructs expressed a small 
(d~0.36) and medium effect (d~0.56) on the sample size. Therefore, a small 
distortion has been realised in this sample. Nonetheless, the differences were not 
practically significant regarding the remaining constructs with a small effect being 
determined. 
 
4.2.6.3 Relationship between race group and construct measuring attitude 
 
The race classification was clustered into African and White, due to lack of 
representatives from other ethnic groups. The results indicated a statistical 
significance difference in the mean values between the perceptions of African and 
White respondents. With African learners being strongly agreeing with the 
constructs; opportunities, community support, government programmes and 
regarding South Africa as an excellent country to venture into business. 
Various factors may be of reason for this observation, but a logical one could be the 
state of politics or legacy of apartheid in the country as the focus is adjusted to a 
specific racial group.    
 
Only one construct (government programmes) evaluated a large effect on the 
sample, however, the rest of the constructs had no visible effect on the sample size. 
It can be concluded that African respondents are more positive towards government 
programmes rather than White counterparts. Therefore, an imperative measure 
needs to be devised in order to attract white respondents towards entrepreneurial 
government activities. 
 
 
97 
 
4.2.6.4 Relationship between parents‟ involvement in business and construct 
measuring attitude 
 
Based on the results of the analysis regarding the relationship between parents 
owning a business and the seven constructs measuring attitude, overall it has been 
deduced that parents‟ background with regards to owning a business does not have 
a statically significance influence on the respondents‟ perception towards 
entrepreneurship. Although the three constructs (excellent country, opportunities 
and government programmes) indicated that respondents with parent‟s not owning 
business have a more positive aptitude. The reason for this observation might be 
due to the apathy associated with parents‟ already owning businesses and will try to 
foster entrepreneurship into their children.      
 
Furthermore, results indicated that there is a visible effect on the sample specifically 
on two constructs (excellent country and government programmes). This can be 
attributed to the cascaded positive synergies from parents owning business to their 
children about the South African environment. 
 
4.2.6.5 Relationship between being given pocket money and construct measuring 
attitude 
 
Overall, it can therefore be generalised that being given pocket money while at 
school has no practical significance influence on the attitude one has towards 
entrepreneurship. 
 
No practical visible effect was noted on all constructs used to measure attitude 
towards entrepreneurship.   
 
4.2.6.6 Relationship between having a job while at school and construct measuring 
attitude 
 
The results indicated three constructs (access to assistance) with statistical 
significant difference in the mean values between having a job while at school. 
Therefore, based on these results, it can be concluded that having a job is partly 
98 
 
influencing the awareness one has towards accessing the financial assistance. This 
could be attributed to the exposure individuals receives when employed. Other 
constructs evaluated a p-value larger than 0.05, hence no statistical significant 
difference could be deduced. 
 
A visible effect on the sample was effectively deduced from the construct that 
measures provisional access to assistance particularly with regards to financial aids. 
The differences were not practically significant on six out of the seven constructs 
evaluating attitude towards entrepreneurship. 
 
4.2.6.7 Relationship between studying business subject and constructs measuring 
attitude 
 
Based on the results of the analysis regarding the relationship between learners’ 
studying business subjects and constructs measuring attitude towards 
entrepreneurship, it has been concluded that learners with business subjects are 
more positive and aware of entrepreneurial opportunities, are prone to engage in 
entrepreneurial activities, and they are more informed with regards to accessing 
assistance. Furthermore, the results indicated that business subject learners can be 
able to seize an opportunity and perceives the school environment conducive for 
entrepreneurship. 
 
Four of the constructs being attitude, opportunities, school environment and 
access to assistance evaluated a visible medium effect on the sample size. 
Therefore, it can be concluded that the majority of constructs revealed that learners 
studying business subjects are more inclined to choosing entrepreneurship as a 
career. This could be as a result of the subject matters covered during teaching of 
business subjects. 
 
  
99 
 
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
It is deduced from the above mentioned conclusions that entrepreneurial perceptions 
are fortified and driven by various factors. Therefore, it is imperative to foster 
entrepreneurship among learners, a closer look into initiatives by the government to 
grow entrepreneurship awareness in schools and advancing with the programmes 
needs to be promoted. Herewith, some of the topics covered in chapter 2, which 
needs to be purported and sustained to grow the entrepreneurial behaviour of 
learners are highlighted. 
 
4.3.1 Education and training 
 
It is derived from the literature study that education and training are important for 
individuals in order to understand entrepreneurship and all its successes or failures 
surrounding the entrepreneurship environment. The Department of Education 
together with all stakeholders should introduce a subject relative to entrepreneurship; 
this could gear learners towards entrepreneurship and also focus them to the right 
direction. Most of entrepreneurial programmes are promoted within the higher 
education institutions; therefore a fundamental program based on changing attitudes 
towards entrepreneurship should be established. 
 
The literature further concentrated on different models that can be utilised to change 
the learners‟ attitude. It is recommended that the basics of identifying career options, 
understating the economics and free enterprise, and gaining the prerequisite basic 
skills by learners can enhance their understanding of entrepreneurship. The 
literature review intensified on the merits of education and training as essentials to 
business planning, functions and management skills, and secondly the influence as 
carried over by parents and educators to learners in view of promoting 
entrepreneurship. Overall, it is however recommended that schools should be more 
involved in entrepreneurial affairs.      
 
 
 
100 
 
4.3.2 Perceptions towards entrepreneurship 
 
According to Chen and Lai (2010:2), attitude is a viewpoint or a mental dimension as 
perceived by an individual about the situation, hence various contributing factors can 
be attributed to influencing attitudes. The literature review recommends that 
entrepreneurial development measures should be regarded in order to advance 
within the entrepreneurial arena. Furthermore, the literature suggests that 
behavioural elements such as cognition, affection and conative behaviour are 
important in determining the attitude one has towards entrepreneurship. Therefore, it 
is recommended that learners should be introduced to the entrepreneurial 
environment with the effective use of these behavioural tools. Furthermore, they 
should develop entrepreneurial characteristics such as the ones discussed in 
chapter 2, which means the collaboration of entrepreneurship education is vital in 
this regard.  
 
Overall, the perceptions of learners towards entrepreneurship are moderately low 
due to hurdles facing learners such as the demoralising entrepreneurial government 
programmes, financial aid accessibility and initial start-up capital funds. Hence, the 
South African government should provide more awareness programmes through the 
use of latest technologies such as the World Wide Web, social sites and word of 
mouth advertisement. A positive perspective can be achieved if learners are 
provided with a platform to engage on the matters of entrepreneurship while at 
school. Contingency plan: schools should impose debates on the subject matter, 
create awareness through subject coordinators specifically life orientation teachers 
and create hype around the subject among learners. Long term plan: introduction of 
entrepreneurship curriculum.    
   
4.3.3 Entrepreneurial opportunities 
 
Opportunity is at the pivotal point of entrepreneurship, obviously in conjunction with 
the team and resources (Timmons and Spinnelli, 2009:11). Bessant and Tidd (2011: 
71) extrapolate that a combination of skills, experience, aptitude, insight and 
circumstances should be portrayed by one in order to seize opportunities. Therefore, 
it is recommended that learners should become more aware of the processes 
101 
 
involved in accessing an opportunity. Furthermore, they should be taught of the risks 
involved in business, similarly the returns associated with a successful business. 
  
4.3.4 State of entrepreneurship in schools 
 
Grade 12 learners in this study are considered more risk averse towards starting a 
business; they feel more comfortable with working for a large company rather than 
owning a business. Hence, it would be appropriate for government and the society to 
invest in awareness programmes that will advance on the pronounced setback. Most 
of the respondents prefer a mentor in order to guide them towards entrepreneurship, 
and further on regard an initial start-up fund for a business as equally important for 
one to undertake entrepreneurship as a career.  
 
Therefore, subject coordinators should be used by schools for guiding students, 
particularly life science teachers, towards entrepreneurship. It is also important that 
schools invite some of the successful entrepreneurs in their community to motivate 
learners. It is evident from the survey that students are often not encouraged to 
pursue entrepreneurship as a career. Therefore, the Department of Education needs 
to re-design the curriculum offered at schools in order to include entrepreneurship as 
a compulsory subject or be able to discuss entrepreneurship at least once in a week.   
         
4.3.5 The South African entrepreneurial environment 
 
South Africa has failed in creating an environment conducive for business start-up as 
it is reflected on the current state of entrepreneurship; it is evident on the TEA rating. 
It has marginally advanced to 8.9% in 2011, but it still lags behind other countries 
which are in the same efficiency driven category. Therefore, interventions by the 
government, small and medium business houses, private sectors, and successful 
entrepreneurs should be brought forward to assist by investing in the initial start-ups 
of business ventures and share the business risk associated to start-ups. Refer to 
chapter 2 for the literature with recommendations of how to advance in the 
entrepreneurial environment within South Africa. 
      
  
102 
 
4.4 ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES 
 
The measurement of the success of this study is based upon the achievement of 
primary and secondary objectives, hence a revisit on this specific section. 
 
4.4.1 Primary objective 
 
The primary objective of this study was to determine and assess the attitudes and 
behavioural patterns or trends towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 secondary 
school learners in the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality of the North-West Province, 
in South Africa. The empirical study was conducted on the selected area of research, 
analysis, conclusions and recommendations were compiled in chapter 3 and 4. 
    
4.4.2 Secondary objectives 
 
Secondary objectives were developed with an approach of fulfilling the primary 
objective: 
 To conduct a literature review in order to gain an understanding of the 
phenomenon “entrepreneurship”. 
 To determine the entrepreneurial characteristics that is reflected on learners 
such as their ultimate understanding of entrepreneurship, cultural concerns, 
family environment and entrepreneurial prejudice.   
 To study the present government policies that subsequently addresses the 
entrepreneurial awareness programmes and execution plan in secondary 
schools, and thus the implementation of those strategic policies in rural 
areas, while monitoring the state of entrepreneurship in schools and in 
South Africa. 
 To conduct an empirical study that assesses the attitude of learners 
towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners. 
 To develop guidelines and recommendations on filling gaps between the 
current and desired state of entrepreneurship in schools.  
 Furthermore, to make practical recommendations concerning the 
entrepreneurship education in the demographic area of the study.  
 
103 
 
Chapter 2 covered the first to the third objective, in which a detailed account of 
defining the phenomenon have been achieved. Subsequently, the characteristics of 
entrepreneurs have been discussed. Similarly, the government programmes together 
with the current state of entrepreneurship in South Africa have been dissected, which 
also covered the findings and deliberations made from entrepreneurial dialogues 
commissioned in South Africa. 
 
The fourth objective was achieved and covered in chapter 3, in which the population 
consisted of the Kgetlengrivier Local Municipality grade 12 learners. Refer to chapter 
3 for a detailed analysis of this objective. 
 
The fifth and sixth objectives were achieved in chapter 4, whereby conclusions and 
recommendations were made towards the current state of entrepreneurship in 
schools and in South Africa. Subsequently, recommendations concerning the 
opportunity identification and the portrayed attitude towards entrepreneurship were 
also discussed. 
 
Overall, it can be confirmed that all the objectives have been achieved, based on the 
achievement of the secondary objectives and recommendations put forward in this 
chapter. 
 
4.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 
 
The scope of this study was limited to the selected geographic area and actively 
participating learners in grade 12 during the year 2012. Therefore, it is 
recommended that the study be expanded to all schools including all the learners 
within the Province.  It should also be kept in mind that no study such as this one has 
ever been conducted in the selected area, therefore much still needs to be done.  
 
Based on the findings of this study, the following suggestions are put forward for 
consideration pertaining to related future research topics on determining attitudes 
towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners:  
 Financing and support structures in rural areas. 
104 
 
 Entrepreneurial curriculum designed to foster entrepreneurship. 
 The effect of government programs in entrepreneurship. 
 An assessment of attitudes towards entrepreneurship amongst high school 
learners. 
 An assessment of perceptions towards the current state of entrepreneurship 
in the Province. 
 Application process in identifying opportunities within the South African 
entrepreneurial environment. 
 Further assessment on the reliability of the statements used to assess the 
South African environment construct used in this study. 
 
4.6 SUMMARY  
 
The main objective of this chapter was focused on concluding on the results 
obtained in chapter 3. Furthermore, to make practical recommendations on the 
assessment of attitudes towards entrepreneurship among grade 12 learners. This 
chapter discussed the demographic information such as age, gender, and parents‟ 
involvement in business, race, and many more. 
 
After reflecting on the demographic information, conclusions were drawn on the 
constructs that measures the attitudes towards entrepreneurship including the 
opportunity identification and the South African environment in schools elements. 
This was followed by concluding on the relations between demographic information 
and the constructs measuring attitude together with determining the conduciveness 
of the South African environment towards entrepreneurship. 
 
Practical recommendations were made on how to engage and to promote 
entrepreneurial behaviour among students and the community. Recommendations 
included education and training programs that can be used to enhance or develop 
entrepreneurship in schools. Subsequently, the researcher revisited the primary 
objective, with a remarkable concern on the secondary objectives because they 
inform the achievement of the primary objective, which was achieved. Furthermore, 
the chapter suggested a few topics that can be considered for future research.  
105 
 
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114 
 
ANNEXURE A 
 
ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENTREPRENEURSHIP AMONG GRADE 12 LEARNERS 
PLEASE NOTE: 
THIS QUESTIONNAIRE MUST ONLY BE COMPLETED BY GRADE 12 PUPILS 
 
All information will be treated as STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL and will only be used for academic 
purposes. 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION: 
1. Please answer the questions as objectively and honestly as possible. 
2. Place a cross (X) in the space provided at each question which reflects your answer the most 
accurately. Use the following key: 1= Strongly disagree; 2= Disagree; 3= Neutral; 4= Agree; 5= 
Strongly agree 
EXAMPLE 
St
ro
n
gl
y 
d
is
ag
re
e 
D
is
ag
re
e 
N
e
u
tr
al
 
A
gr
e
e 
St
ro
n
gl
y 
ag
re
e
 
B1 I always generate fresh business ideas 1 2 3 4X 5 
 
It is essential to indicate your choice clearly with a pen 
3. Please answer all the questions, as this will provide more information to the researcher so that 
an accurate analysis and interpretation of data can be made. 
4. The results of the study will be made available to the respondents should a need arise. 
Your cooperation is highly appreciated and we believe filling this questionnaire will be such a 
wonderful experience. 
RESEARCHER: 
Mr Amon Itumeleng Mothabeng 
Cell: 072 143 03 73 
Email: motbenga@capegate.co.za 
115 
 
SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION 
 
This section of the questionnaire refers to your background or biographical information; it lists the 
characteristics of the respondents in the survey with regards to gender, race, level of study, parent 
characteristics, and personal money experience.  Once again, we assure you that your response will 
be anonymous. Your cooperation is appreciated. 
 
A1 What is your gender Male Female 
1 2 
 
A2 In which age group do you 
fall? 
Below 16 16–17 18 – 19 20- 22 23 Above 
1 2 3 4 5 
 
A3 What is your race African White Asian Coloured  
1 2 3 4 
 
A4 Parents/ Guardians own a business Yes  No  
1 2 
 
A5 My parents/ Guardians  
education 
Tertiary 
Education 
Completed 
grade 12 
High school Primary 
school 
No 
schooling 
1 2 3 4 5 
 
A6 I’m given pocket money at school Yes No 
1 2 
A7 I have a job while at School 1 2 
A8 I am currently studying business subjects   1 2 
 
A9 Parents monthly 
 Income 
Below R2000 R2000 to 
R5000 
R5001 to R10 
000 
R10 001 to  
R20 000 
Above 
R20 000  
1 2 3 4 5 
 
 
 
116 
 
 
St
ro
n
gl
y 
d
is
ag
re
e
 
D
is
a
gr
e
e
 
N
e
u
tr
al
 
A
gr
e
e
 
St
ro
n
gl
y 
ag
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e
 
SECTION B: ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENTREPRENEURSHIP 
B1 I want to start my own business 1 2 3 4 5 
B2 Entrepreneurs are almost inventors 1 2 3 4 5 
B3 Buying a business is not entrepreneurship 1 2 3 4 5 
B4 Owning a franchise is not entrepreneurship 1 2 3 4 5 
B5 Entrepreneurs will do anything for profit 1 2 3 4 5 
B6 Entrepreneurs are largely responsible for new innovations, 
technologies and products 
1 2 3 4 5 
B7 I can earn more money working for someone else 1 2 3 4 5 
B8 I seriously consider entrepreneurship as career option 1 2 3 4 5 
B9 High Schools should encourage students to consider 
entrepreneurship 
1 2 3 4 5 
B10 I am too busy with classes to consider starting my own 
business 
1 2 3 4 5 
B11 My parents are entrepreneurs 1 2 3 4 5 
B12 It is too risky to start my own business 1 2 3 4 5 
B13 I am a risk taker 1 2 3 4 5 
B14 Entrepreneurship is a good way to make lots of money 1 2 3 4 5 
B15 Entrepreneurship is an honourable profession 1 2 3 4 5 
B16 A tertiary education is not necessary to be an entrepreneur 1 2 3 4 5 
B17 I prefer to work for a large company, for better career 
prospects 
1 2 3 4 5 
SECTION C: ENTREPRENEURIAL OPPORTUNITIES 
C1 I have many ideas for business ventures 1 2 3 4 5 
C2 It is too expensive to start my own business 1 2 3 4 5 
C3 There are many entrepreneurial opportunities in my specific 
area of study 
1 2 3 4 5 
C4 Entrepreneurial ventures are mainly limited to business 
ideas 
1 2 3 4 5 
C5 I have a good understanding of intellectual property 1 2 3 4 5 
C6 I understand what is equity finance 1 2 3 4 5 
C7 I am constantly alert to business opportunities 1 2 3 4 5 
C8 All the good ideas have been taken 1 2 3 4 5 
C9 I need connections to start a business 1 2 3 4 5 
  
117 
 
SECTION D: ENTREPRENEURSHIP ENVIRONMENT WITHIN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
D1 Students are encouraged to pursue entrepreneurship 
ventures 
1 2 3 4 5 
D2 My high school councillor mentioned entrepreneurship as 
career option 
1 2 3 4 5 
D3 Examples of how science and technology are key to 
business are included in class examples 
1 2 3 4 5 
D4 Entrepreneurial or business related examples are included 
in classes 
1 2 3 4 5 
D5 Having a mentor will help 1 2 3 4 5 
D6 A small seed grant or (start-up fund) would encourage 
entrepreneurship 
1 2 3 4 5 
D7 More business sector interaction would encourage 
entrepreneurship 
1 2 3 4 5 
D8 Private sector support for student entrepreneurs would 
result in more schools based business start-ups 
1 2 3 4 5 
D9 A programme exempting student loan repayments, for 
student entrepreneurs would encourage more students to 
pursue a business venture  
1 2 3 4 5 
SECTION E: THE SOUTH AFRICAN ENTREPRENEURIAL ENVIRONMENT 
E1 South Africa is an excellent country to start a business 1 2 3 4 5 
E2 My local community supports entrepreneurs 1 2 3 4 5 
E3 It would be very difficult to raise the money needed to start 
a new business in South Africa 
1 2 3 4 5 
E4 I know how to have access to the assistance I would need to 
start a new business 
1 2 3 4 5 
E5 I am aware of programmes the government provides to 
help people start businesses 
1 2 3 4 5 
 
WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION AND TIME. 
 
 
 
 
 
  
118 
 
ANNEXURE B