KNOWLEDGE AND ADOPTION OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY TECHNIQUES AMONG WOMEN IRRIGATORS IN THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE. BOTLHOKWANE PERCUNIA MOGOGANA I) orcid.org/0000-0003-3091-1182 . > A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the r::::) a.: degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Extension in the 3 < Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension of the z~ Faculty of Agriculture, Science and Technology at the North- , :::i West University, Mafikeng campus. Supervisor: PROF 0. OLADELE Co-supervisor: DR K. MABE LIBRARY MAFIKENG CAMPUS NOVEMBER 2017 CALL NO,, 26183889 2018 -11- 1 4 I ACC ,NO .: I NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY • NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY ® YUNIBESITI YA BOKONE-BOPHIRIMA NOORDWES-UNIVERSITEIT It all starts here ™ DECLARATION I, Botlhokwane Percunia Mogogana, declare that the dissertation entitled "Knowledge and adoption of water use efficiency techniques among women irrigators in the North West Province", hereby submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Agricultural Extension, has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university. I further declare that this is my own work in design and execution and that all materials contained herein have been duly acknowledged. Botlhokwane Percunia Mogogona Date t' -..I ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Professor Oladimeji Oladele, for his patience and encouragement during the course of this research. This research would not have been possible without the help, support and patience of my supervisor, not to mention his advice and unsurpassed knowledge. • I must express my gratitude to Dr. Karabo Mabe, my co-supervisor who generously accommodated me as her student. Her great support, huge work experience and patience were necessary for finishing this thesis. It would not have been possible to write this research without the help and support of the kind people around me, Mr. C. Tshwene and Department of Rural Environment and Agricultural development staff on Local development centres (Taung and Ramotshere Moiloa). • I acknowledge the financial assistance received from the Water Research Commission and North West University during my studies. • Lastly, my deepest thanks go to my family who were always supportive and took care of my beautiful daughter while busy studying. • Mostly importantly, I would like to thank Almighty God for the wisdom and strength. iii ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to determine knowledge and adoption of water use efficiency techniques among women irrigators in the North West Province, South Africa. The study was conducted in two districts: Dr Ruth Segomotsi Mompati; and Ngaka Modiri Molema. In this study, ex-post facto designed was used with a sample size of 108 farmers interviewed from the list obtained from the Department of Rural Environment and Agricultural Development (Farmer Support and Development - extension officers). The targeted group was women farmers involved in irrigation schemes. Data collected was sorted, coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) with frequency counts, percentages, means standard deviation and prob it regression model. The findings revealed that majority of women irrigators (44%) were above 60 years of age, 41 . % of women were married, 42.5% of farmers had a household size of 4-6 members while 43% of women had 1-3 dependents. 80. 6% off armers had secondary level of education and 87% of women involved in irrigation farming were allocated land by tribal authorities with the assistance of the Department of Agriculture. Women irrigators in the study area are involved in the cultivation of the following crops: maize (X= 4.67, SD=5.65); Lucerne (X= 2.89, SD= 5.41); and Barley (X=2.22, SD=6.26). They are mostly aware of water use efficiency techniques such as crop rotation (93.5%), application of manure and fertilizer (92. 6%) and terracing techniques (78. 7%). However, they are not aware of irrigation scheduling models such as lysimeter (4.6%), crop density improvement (6. 7%) and conveyance losses and percolation (1.2%). The adopted water use efficiency techniques used in the schemes are: crop rotation (78.8%); application of manure and fertilizer (78.8%); and cover crops (47.2%). The farmers have high knowledge on mulching (91. 7%), water harvesting (88.9%) and weed control (86.1%). The most common constraint faced by women farmers on water use efficiency is lack of information (92.6%). The probit regression model was used to determine factors influencing the adoption of water use efficiency techniques. The most adopted techniques were reduced tillage, cover crops, crop rotation, manure and fertilizer. Significant determinants for adoption of water use efficiency techniques include membership of farmers ' groups, frequency of extension visits, existence of water tariffs, payment of tariffs, age, farm size and number ofp lot. Key words: Water use efficiency techniques, women irrigators, adoptions of WUE iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ITEMS PAGES DECLARATIONS II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III ABSTRACT IV TABLE OF CO TENTS V LIST OF TABLES IX LIST OF FIGURES X LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS XI CHAPTER ONE 1.0. Introduction 1 1.1. Background Study 1 1.2. Problem Statement 4 1.3 . Research Questions 5 1.4. Objective of the Study 6 1.5. Hypothesis of the Study 6 1.6. Justification of the Study 6 1.7. Conclusion 7 1.8. Definition of terms 7 V CHAPTER TWO 2.0. Literature Review 8 2.1. Introduction 8 2.2 Irrigation and Agriculture in Africa 8 2.3. Women and Irrigation in the North West Province 9 2.3.1 Women, irrigation and poverty 9 2.4. Environmental Impact of irrigation Systems 11 2.5. Water Use Efficiency 12 2.6. Techniques to increase Water Use Efficiency 12 2.6.1. Agronomic Management Practices 12 2.6.2. Mechanical Measures 14 2.6.3. Irrigation Description and Classification 15 2.6.3.1. BEWAB and SWAMP 15 2.6.3.2. CANEGRO and CANESIM 17 2.6.3 .3. CERES and CROPGRO 18 2.6.3.4. PUTU 18 2.7. Factors affecting Water Use Efficiency 19 2.8. Improving Water Use Efficiency in Irrigation 19 2.9. Common models and Theories 20 2.9.1. Diffusion of Theory 22 2.10. Theory of Planned Behaviour 22 2.11. AIET A Model theory of adoption 26 2.10. Summary of Chapter 26 vi CHAPTER THREE 3.0 Methodology 27 3.1. Introduction 27 3.2 The Study Area 27 3.3 . Research Design 30 3.4. Population of the Study 31 3.5. Sampling Procedure and Sampling Size 31 3.6. Data Collection 31 3.7. Validity and Reliability 32 3.8. Data Analysis 32 3.9. Ethical Consideration 33 3.10. Summary of Chapter 33 CHAPTER FOUR 4.0. Result and Discussion 34 4.1. Introduction 34 4.2. Socio-Economic profile of women irrigators involved in the irrigation Scheme 34 4.3. Awareness of water use efficiency techniques among Women irrigators 46 4.4. Adoption of water use efficiency techniques 48 4.5. Knowledge of water use efficiency among women irrigators 49 4.6. Constraints to the adoption of water use efficiency 55 4.7 Factors influencing the adoption of water use efficiency techniques 56 vii 4.8. Summary of Chapter 60 CHAPTER FIVE 5.0. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 61 5.1. Introduction 61 5.2. Summary 61 5.3. Major findings and conclusion 62 5.4. Recommendations 63 List of references viii LIST OF TABLES ►Table 4.1 Personal Characteristics of women irrigators 35 a: C:Z: Table 4.2 Type of farming enterprises practiced by women irrigators z -m a: in the schemes and Income 40 ,\ f ..I Table 4.3 Source of information 41 Table 4.4 Method of irrigation practiced 42 Table 4.5 Source of water for irrigation schemes 42 Table 4.6 Nature of ownership of land on irrigation scheme 43 Table 4.7 Level of water security 44 Table 4.8 Other factors related to water security 45 Table 4.9 Awareness of water use efficiency techniques 47 Table 4.10 Adoption of water use efficiency techniques 48 Table 4.11 Knowledge of water use efficiency techniques 51 Table 4.12 Constraints in using water use efficiency techniques 55 Table 4.13 Determinants of adoption of reduced tillage, cover crops, crop rotation, manure and fertilizer on water use efficiency techniques 59 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Furrow integrated raised bed planting (FIRB) 13 Figure 2.2 Mechanical practiced to improve WUE Contour practice techniques 14 Figure 2.3 Schematic presentation of MyCanesim irrigation scheduling systems 17 Figure 3.1 North West Map 28 Figure 3.2 Small Scale farm: Type of irrigation, proximity to extension service and water 30 X LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ACWP : Apparent Crop Water Production BEWAB : Besproeiings Water Bestuursprograrn CSM : Cropping System Model CWP : Crop Water Productivity DOI : Diffusion of Innovation DT : Diffusion Theory DSSAT : Decision Support System for Agro-technology ET : Evapo-Transpiration FIRB : Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed FWUE : Field Water Use Efficiencies GWBASIC : Gee Whiz Basic PAWC : Profile Available Water Capacity RCWP : Real Crop Water Productivity READ : Rural Environment and Agricultural Development SA : South Africa SACAU : Southern African Confederation of Agricultural Unions SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPAWAT : South African Procedure for Estimating Irrigation Water Requirement SWAMP : Soil Water Management Programme TOBP : Theory of Planned Behaviour UFS : University of the Free State xi WFD : Wetting Front Detector WR : Water Requirement WRC : Water Research Commission WUE Water Use Efficiency y Yield ZIMSTAT : Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency xii CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUNDSTUDY South Africa receives about half of the average global annual rainfall as one of the driest country in the world based on the per capita water availability (Schreiner et al. , 2010). Most areas, about two-thirds in South Africa receives less than the minimum of 500mm required for successful dry land cropping (De Villiers et al., 2004), however, 7% of the total area of the country receives more than 800 mm per annum (Schulze, 1997). In a water-scarce country like South Africa, there is a need to improve water use efficiency despite the decreasing demand for irrigation from 80 to about 50% in the last twenty years, (De Villiers et al., 2004). As a result of water scarcity in South Africa, increasing water productivity in agriculture is indispensable such that higher production with the same amount of water, lower need for infrastructure development, lower competition for water, greater levels of food security, and more water for agriculture (Hamdy et al., 2003). As the backbone of the South African economy, agriculture has been identified as one of the major sectors that can ensure the achievement of the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa due to the fact that about 80% of South Africa' s population depends on agriculture for their livelihood. Thus, economic growth and poverty alleviation are factors linked to increased productivity and incomes from agriculture. Moreover, agricultural growth creates job for poor rural people, increases the value of consumer goods and services and improves the non-farm economy (OECD, 2006). Agriculture remains a major contributor to improving the standards of living of rural people in South Africa. There is a need for increased agricultural production to change the status of South Africa from food insecure to a food secure country. 1 In South Africa, women play a pivotal role in agriculture as 41 % are involved in agricultural production activities (ST AT SA, 2016), the non-recognition of their contribution notwithstanding. Women have always struggled to have access to productive resources such as land, inputs, financial services, technology and education (F AO, 2011 ). One major breakthrough for increased production in a dry country such as South Africa is increased water use efficiency in agricultural production. Hussain and Hanjra, (2004) stated that enhancing agricultural productivity is a major strategy to reduce poverty among majority of rural poor that depend directly or indirectly on agriculture .The role of water as a single element in poverty equation, is disproportionately powerful through impacts on other factors of food production (Hussain et al., 2004). Improvement in water use efficiency enables adoption of new technologies, increased productivity, higher productivity and returns from farming, which opens up new prospects for on-farm and off-farm income, livelihoods and the quality of life in rural areas (Hussain et al. , 2004). Hussain et al. (2004) identify interrelated dimensions of the relationship between access to good agricultural water, higher socioeconomic status and poverty alleviation, income, consumption patterns, job creation, and improved resilience to food insecurity. Increased output from irrigated agriculture can further be supported by improved water use efficiency, higher yields diminished crop loss, increased cropping intensity and increased cultivated areas (Namara et al. , 2010). Consequently, reliable access to water enhances the adoption of high-yielding cultivars and agrochemicals to, improve farm income and reduce poverty (Smith, 2004). The productivity of water used in agriculture is important to the needs of food and environmental security. Tekana and Oladele, (2011) stated that irrigation is a major technology to enhance household food security. Increasing the productivity of water to promote productivity in agriculture, reduce environmental degradation and provision of food security are critical in areas where water is a scarce resource (Rijsberman, 2001). A major emphasis by development-planners has been that improving agriculture and enhancing agricultural productivity through irrigation is an important strategy for rural poverty alleviation where majority depends directly or indirectly on agriculture such as the previously disadvantaged low income areas of South Africa, including the orth West Province 2 The agricultural sector in South Africa faces a complex series of challenges to increase the production of food with better quality and at the same time use less water per unit of output. This is predicated on the fact that as a water scarce country where water needs are overwhelmingly above the supply through natural sources. Presently, water demand has been increasing at more than twice the rate of population increase (Tshwene and Oladele 2016), with the use expected by irrigated agriculture to increase by 11 % in 2050 to equal the demand for biomass production (Postel, 2003). Foley et al. (2011) stated that agricultural water management is key to enhancing food security despite the limitations posed by irrigation expansion, thus the need to identify and implement new techniques for water to contribute towards food security. Similarly, the challenges of scarce water and food insecurity have been aggravated by climate change. According to Brauman et al. (2013), demand and actual water use in agriculture is perceived as the key factor behind water scarcity. Water demand for agriculture is reducing as irrigated account for about three- quarters of global freshwater withdrawals, with 85% of such withdrawals in emerging and least developed countries, while, rain-fed agriculture uses 6,400 m3 per year (Tilman et al. , 2011). Agriculture water is the largest freshwater user, accounting for 99% of the global meeting all its demand from consumptive water footprint (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012); three-quarter of its withdrawals from natural water sources and also its total demand in some developing countries with rain-fed agriculture covering every eight out of ten hectares of world's cultivated land, which is responsible for about two-thirds of crop production (UNESCO, 2014). Molden et al. (2007) indicate that productivity of water can be related to the economic value of the produce per unit volume of water. Brauman et al. (2013) determined the use of water through amount of food produced (kcal) per unit of water (1) consumed. Crop water productivity is expressed as kilocalories produced per litre of water through evapotranspiration, calculated separately for rain-fed and irrigated crops (Tilman et al., 2011, Seo and Mendelsohn 2008). Among many indicators that determine water productivity in terms of produce obtained are agricultural operations, climatic conditions, soil standards and water supply rate. If there is enough water supply rates, farmers are likely to produce more due to abundant water resources (Abdullaev et al. 2003). To improve water use efficiency and ensure food security, several water use efficiency techniques have been developed and disseminated to farmers in South Africa 3 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT There is an increasing need for food production in South Africa due to increased population, economic development which leads to expiation of land under irrigated agriculture. With the prevailing development trajectories, severe water shortages in the future are expressed in South Africa thus competition for water has increased between different users. A major approach to alleviate the scenario above is to improve the understanding of improving water use efficiency and water wastage. Therefore it will lead to compliancy with National Water Act (DWAF, 1988) that water should be used efficiently. In South Africa, about 1 6775 882 ha of land is registered for irrigation use; which uses between 59 and 63% of South African water resources (Van der Stoepet al., 2008, Backe berg, 2005 , Reinderset al., 2010). One of the long-term solutions lies in understanding how, and improving the efficiency with which water is used, reducing wastage and ensuring that unnecessary "water export" are avoided. It is estimated that agriculture uses between 59% and 63 % of South Africa's water resources, so improving the water use efficiency (WUE) without expansion can potentially contribute to water savings and food security(] Among several methods for determining crop water use and water use efficiency are measurements of evapotranspiration, (ET) direct methods lysimetric method and indirect method or micrometeorological methods, Eddy Covariance, Surface Renewal, Bowen Ratio, Scintillometry, and Soil Water Balance. Those developed in South Africa include soil water balance (SWB), African Procedure for estimating irrigation Water requirements (SAPW AT), BEsproeiings W AterBestuursprogram - Afrikaansfor Irrigation Water Management Program (BEWAB), MyCanesim system (CANESIM®) to determine water use and requirements from agricultural fields (Jarmain et al., 2014). The purpose of water-use efficiency is to conserve water by reducing conveyance losses either by channels lining or use of closed conduits, evaporation losses by avoiding midday sprinkling, reduced foliar interception by under-canopy,; runoff and percolation losses by eliminating over-irrigation; mulching and by keeping the inter-row strips dry and applying weed control measures where needed (F AO, 1997) Similarly, the purpose of water-use efficiency is to enhance crop growth, use of optimal timing for planting and harvesting, use optimal tillage, use appropriate pest and disease control, application of manures, practice of soil conservation for long-term sustainability, 4 monitoring of water-table elevation and early signs of salt accumulation, and appropriate drainage and irrigation as well as, taking into consideration weather conditions and crop growth stage (NRC, 2010). Annandale et al. (2011) posit that the irrigation industry as the largest user of freshwater resources in South Africa is a major determinant of achieving the country ' s water goal of ' some, for all , forever ' . Water Research Commission-funded research efforts over the past 40 years to analyse and develop the use of irrigation-scheduling tools in South Africa have been extensive, however, much research have to follow up to determine the adoption of these irrigation-scheduling tools as no single agricultural innovation has received universal acceptance. In most cases, adoption of new technologies has only been sustained where elongated and regular follow-up was supplied, by development practitioners. There are several technologies that have been developed to improve efficient use of water among farmers, particularly women involved in irrigation farming, it is due to the fact that women has always been isolated from agricultural activities and information disseminations. It is important to determine how much of the techniques are known to women involved in irrigation farming, their knowledge of water use efficiency techniques and what the barriers and constraints to the use of these techniques are. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following research questions were asked: 1. What are the personal characteristics of women farmers on irrigation scheme in the North West Province? 2. Are women farmers on irrigation schemes aware of water use efficiency techniques? 3. What is the level of knowledge of women farmers on irrigation schemes on water use efficiency techniques? 4. Do women farmers on irrigation schemes adopt water use efficiency techniques? and 5. What are the constraints to the use of water use efficiency techniques among women farmers on irrigation schemes? 5 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of the study was to determine knowledge and adoption of water use efficiency techniques among women irrigators in the North West Province. The specific objectives were to: 1. Identify the personal characteristics of women farmers on irrigation schemes in the North West Province; 2. Determine the level of awareness on water use efficiency techniques among women farmers on irrigation schemes; 3. Ascertain the level of knowledge on water use efficiency techniques among women farmers on irrigation schemes; 4. Determine the adoption of water use efficiency techniques by women farmers on irrigation schemes; and 5. Examine the constraints to the use of water use efficiency techniques among women farmers on irrigation schemes. 1.5 HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY There is no significant relationship between personal characteristics, awareness, knowledge, and adoption of water use efficiency techniques. 1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY Agriculture continues to be the dominant livelihood globally demanding water use due to increasing population and demand for food and thus the need to adopt water use efficiency techniques to enhance the productivity of irrigated farming much more than rain-fed agriculture which is less productive. For better use of water in agriculture in water-limited environments, there is a need to assess the knowledge of water users on their awareness and knowledge of water use efficiency techniques that have been developed and disseminated. 6 1.7 CONCLUSION This section covered the genesis of the study emphasising the research gaps to be filled by this study and placing it in the context of what will be contributed to knowledge. The research questions provided the direction of the study and issues to be covered in the study. The hypothesis was stated which revealed the significant relationship between variables. The importance of agriculture as a dominant consumptive user was examined in this chapter as well as the important role played by women in the sector. The challenges of scare water and food insecurity have been made worse by climate change hence; there is a need to improve water use efficiency techniques in agriculture. 1.8. DEFINITION OF TERMS Water use efficiency According to Connellan (2013), water use efficiency (WUE) "describes how well water, supplementary to rainfall, is used to maintain vegetation, including turf and landscape areas". Irrigation Niguissie (2002) defines irrigation as a technology to augment soil moisture deficits to enhance continuous cropping and higher yield Irrigation water is applied to ensure that the water available in the soil is sufficient to meet crop water needs and thus reduce water deficit as a limiting factor in plant growth (Van A verbeke et al. , 2011 ). Adoption Adoption of an innovation is a process whereby a farmer becomes aware of the innovation takes decisions to adopt innovation or not finally adapt the innovation of his or her own farm environment (Adebayo, 2013) Knowledge Knowledge is regarded as an important asset for an organization to create values for effective competition (Nonaka, 2006).Knowledge establishes that beliefs are true and justified (Hunt, 2003). 7 ,: ►a: :lc:c CHAPTER TWO 3a: 2.o LITERATURE REVIEW ZC-D ..1 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter provides the literature review on water use efficiency techniques. The literature review focused on the following: irrigation and agriculture in Africa; definition of water use efficiency; techniques to increase water use efficiency; factors affecting water use efficiency; and common theories of adoption. 2.2 IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE IN AFRICA In general, the amount of irrigation systems in Africa is quite modest compared to other countries in the world, with the exception of Egypt and Sudan. In Asia, 32.4 percent of the total cropland is under irrigation. In Africa, it is only 6.1 percent but while in sub-Saharan Africa, the percentages is even lower with 3. 5 percent of the total cropland irrigated (McLean et al., 2006). Furthermore, the irrigation costs are doubly so high compared to other continents and the topography of the landscape is irregular which complicates the construction of irrigation sites. To meet population growth, there is a need for developing countries to produce more crops per litre of water in the agricultural sector (F AO, 1997). It is believed that irrigated land leads to an increase in agricultural productivity, and irrigated areas are 2.5 times more productive compared to rain-fed agriculture (Stockle, 2001 ). One of the benefits of irrigation systems is that farmers have the possibility to decide when they need the water, instead of depending on it when and if it thus rains . In Asia, yields increased from 100 -400 percent after irrigation (Schoengold et al., 2005). About 85 percent of the total water withdrawals in Africa are used by agriculture and in semi- arid regions, the percentage is even higher. In these areas, water used for irrigation represents a major part of the water resources (FAO, 1997). According to Rijsberman (2001 ), the International Water Management Institute maintains that during the average rainfall year, rain-fed agriculture evaporates 20 % of rainwater, compared to 3-6 % of irrigated lands. Rain- fed agriculture consumes a big quantity of water, because of its large area, that could instead be used for river runoffs. 8 2.3 WOMEN AND IRRIGATION IN THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE Mutsvangwa (2006) argued that irrigation also empowers women and emancipates them socially. Women tend to play a leading role in irrigation farming and this ensures their participation in development initiatives and poverty alleviation in rural areas. Manzungu, (2004) concurs and points out that irrigation farming has enabled women in rural areas to generate income which has enabled them to influence changes in the balance of power within their households. This has increased women's confidence in community decision making and debates. From the educational perspective, irrigation farming also has enabled agricultural households to generate income to educate their children. Education is very important since it implies more opportunities of generating income, as well as better understanding of new and improved farming technologies. This has enabled children to be self-reliant, (Chazzovachii, 2012). In South Africa, irrigation schemes that cover about 1.3 million hectares of land were mainly found in the rural areas of the former homeland areas where poverty levels are very high, with only a few located close to towns. The role of establishing these smallholder irrigation schemes in such areas was to try and help rural farmers to improve their livelihoods and, hopefully, escape the vicious circle of poverty that has been so severe in South Africa. Poverty alleviation, employment and ensuring household food security in rural areas are major objectives for the establishment of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa (Aliber, 2003). 2.3.1 Women, irrigation and poverty According to Tekana and O ladele (2011) eighty four percent of their respondents agreed that the use of irrigation contributes greatly to the improvement of rural livelihood. Research conducted by de Louw et al. (2008) shows that the Northern Cape irrigation agriculture provides jobs to approximately 60 041 people with 37, 56% permanent labourers and 62, 44% as seasonal or casual labourers. However IF AD (2007) reports that many female farmers in irrigation are still poor marginalized with no food security. Farm businesses for smallholder farmers do not generate adequate income that ensures farmer's needs are all covered. Most farmers in the irrigation schemes have other means of generating income other than agricultural work. Revenues generated from cash crops are usually controlled by men. This means that women cannot use money that they worked very hard to generate (IF AD, 1998). 9 Small-scale farmers who are part of irrigation schemes realized an improved and increased supply of food that eventually lead them to being food secure. Farmer's income have doubled and even tripled because of the use of irrigation systems. The use of irrigation has even made it possible for rural dwellers to have drinking water reducing the amount of time women spend collecting water. However irrigation had a negative impact effect on the health of farm workers because of the use of pesticides, but with higher income margins they are able to afford healthcare services. (IF AD, 1998). According to IPTRID (1999) poverty can be reduced by giving irrigation access to both men and women. A significant difference in income and nutrition has been made in female headed household who have been given access to irrigation systems in Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Kenya and Gambia (IPTRID, 1999). As stated by Motsi and Madyiwa (2007) irrigation did not empower women to make decisions as much as it empowered men, 49.3 percent of men made the decisions while only 27, 7 percent of female were empowered to make decisions. However at Nyitenga and Chitora irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe women and children were not given opportunities to maintain irrigation systems thus (Motsi and Madyiwa, 2007) they have knowledge on other farm operation yet no skills on maintaining irrigation systems. It was also found that women who make more decisions and participate in most family duties do so because they head their households. Women do not use water for the purpose of farming only but also for domestic use (IF AD, 2007). They find it useful to use both rainfall runoff and irrigation water for other used other than irrigating their fields (IF AD, 2007). The community uses water for a vast number of reasons, domestic and or for farm purposes, however water projects in the past either focused of water for either irrigation of for domestic use (IF AD, 2007). As stated by IF AD (2007) in some irrigation scheme it is considered illegal to use irrigation water for household purposes and this has a negative effect on the availability of household water. Availability of irrigation schemes is also advantageous to women in that they save hours that they could have spent to collect water. Irrigation has also provides water for drier areas ensuring supply of food and improved livelihood. 10 Most of the water in South Africa is being used for agricultural purposes and irrigated agriculture needs maintenance and improvement to meet the needs of the growing population, the cost of water is an important factor to be considered since water is becoming increasingly scarce and highly demanded by non-agricultural. The success and adoption of irrigation systems relied on farmers' literacy levels and circumstances under which farming took place. Even thou farmers need skills, management skills are also of importance in an irrigation scheme. Lack of coordination and corporation among management contributes to the failure of most irrigation schemes or the ineffectiveness thereof. Problems identified in the management of the schemes were an attitude towards risks that may be associated with the use of irrigation with their limited knowledge but has shown an interest in expanding their farms however due to lack of personal finance to do so they view it as a big obstacle. Most of farmers do not have title deed so they cannot use their land as collateral to acquire credit. Smallholder farmer's cash flows poor which puts them at a disadvantage whenever trying to acquire credit (Armitage 1999). 2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS An irrigation system can increase the agricultural rate of returns and, at the same time, contribute to negative and positive impacts on the environment. One of the positive environmental impacts of an irrigation system is that lands under heavy cultivation or grazing can be avoided. However, for rural people who are used to traditional rain-fed agriculture, it could be difficult to socially transform or convince them to start using irrigation. Other aspects could be to change their cultivation methods if the land is under too much pressure (FAO,1997). To increase food production, farmers need to use their land more effectively due to population growth. One way to do this is by constructing irrigation systems (Schoengold et al. , 2005). Development of an irrigation system can increase the salinity of cultivated land in the area. All water contains dissolved salt particles and when the water evaporates, the salt remains in the soil. If the soil is under high water pressure during a long period of time, it affects the soil structure and there is a possibility for water percolating within the soil (Stockle, 2001). In semi-arid or arid environments, it is problem, especially in arid regions, because of the little rainfall which cannot dissolve the salt in the soil. 11 2.5 WATER USE EFFICIENCY Water use efficiency (WUE) has been severally defined to the extent that a commonly accepted definition is that a composite indices that can be used to evaluate water use in irrigation. In general, the term index was used to present a relationship between water (input) and (output), how much water utilized to how much water applied. (Sigh et al., 2014) defines water use efficiency or productivity "as the yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used in evapo-transpiration" . Increasing global population and demand for food are jointly stressing the need for agriculture to be a major user of water and thus the need to practice intensive agriculture such as irrigated agriculture which is more productive than rain fed agriculture. The combination of irrigation farming and adoption of water use efficiency techniques will lead to more crops per drop of water (Sigh et al., 2014). 2.6 TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE WATER USE EFFICIENCY The following techniques are reported to increasing water use efficiency. These are clustered into Agronomic management practices, mechanical measures and irrigation scheduling systems. 2.6.1 Agronomic management practices The agronomic practices covered in this review in relation to water use efficiency include tillage practices for moisture conservation, mulching, intercropping, crop selection, furrow irrigated raised bed, weed control, deficit and supplemental irrigation and micro-irrigation methods .According to Meena et al.( 2013) tillage determines crop yields and water use efficiency through preparation of seedbeds to encourage germination of seeds and seedlings growth; conservation of soil moisture; proper placement of seeds and fertilizers in the soil and weed control ; breaking compacted soils and making soil permeable for ease of movement of soil moisture and plant roots Rana et al (2003) identifies the different types of materials used for mulching as straw, saw dust and plastic. Stubble mulching leave considerably effective parts of the vegetative material, crop residues or litter on the surface to reduce the incidences of wind and water erosion and for moisture conservation through high filtration and reduced evaporation (Rana et al., 2003). Intercropping systems are adopted for rainfed crops because of stable yields and the maximum use of water as almost equal amount of water is used in intercropping system 12 when compared with sole cropping. This supports the increasing yield with improved water efficiency (Singh et al., 2013) and also enhances the provision of eco-friendly tool for effective management of plant infections under changing climate changes.(Singh et al., 2012 and Singh et al. , 2013). According to Singh et al. (2008), the use of adaptable agronomic practices are crucial for the success of agriculture in rainfed areas . The selection of crops and their varieties in response to water amount and distribution of avai lable water are crucial to semi-arid areas and unpredictable rainfall. Figure 2.1: Furrow integrated raised bed planting (FIRB) Source: (Larson, 2015) Furrow irrigated raised bed planting leads to conservation of water and soil moisture by as much as 40% when compared to flat planting systems (Kumar et al. 2010). To ensure efficient water used by crops, weeds and other competing plants for moisture, nutrients and light are eliminated through weed control, although the need to satisfy water requirements supersedes nutrient supply for weed control (Singh et al. , 2014). Deficit and supplemental irrigation ensure that limited amount of water is added during critical and water stress sensitive crop development stages. This method is very crucial in areas such as semi-arid and dry sub-humid cropping systems with high rainfall variability and occurrence of high intra seasonal dry (Singh et al., 2014). Deficit irrigation is "the deliberate management of crop water applications to create a prescribed water deficit that results in a small yield reduction, which is less than the concomitant reduction in evapo-transpiration" (Barron, 2004). The targeting of irrigation water to root zones of plant, is micro irrigation which reduces water 13 loss through seepage, evaporation, leakages. However, the competence of operators of micro- irrigation greatly influence the efficiency or otherwise of this type of irrigation (Kijne et al., 2009). 2.6.2 Mechanical measures The mechanical measures enumerated m this section are contour farming and terracing. Contour farming involves pre and post planting operations across the slope rather than up and down with contour lines that run across a slope such that it stays at the same height and does not run uphill or downhill. Singh et al., (2014) stated that soil erosion are reduced by as much as 50% when contour farming is adopted. Figure 2.2 shows contour practice technique as a mechanical practice to improve WUE. Figure 2.2: Mechanical practices to improve WUE: Contour Practice Technique. Source:TACIO (2017) Singh et al. (2014) reported that terraces are adopted in farming to cultivate land with high gradient. On hilly or mountains terrain terraces are graduated to reduce erosion and surface water runoff and retain soil moisture along the terraces. 14 2.6.3 Irrigation description and classification The modelling of soil-water balance have both empirical and mechanistic approaches with models being either crop-specific or ' generic ' in nature if they can be used for several crops, with pre-programmed or real time output. There is a spectrum of soil, atmosphere, plant irrigation scheduling methods and techniques available for users to select from in order to assist with the decision to be taken to ensure that peak growing conditions prevail by holding soil water content at the optimum level (Stevens, 2006). 2.6.3.1 BEWA B and SWA MP The Soil Sconce Section of the Department of Soil , Crop and Climate Sciences at the University of the Free State developed two models namely BEsproeiingsWAterBestuursprogram (BEWAB), and Soil Water Management Program (SWAMP): which means "irrigation water management programme". The model BEW AB follows a pragmatic approach to assisting irrigation farmers with daily decisions regarding the amount and timing of water applications. The model caters mainly for field crops and uses fixed planting dates for the Vaalharts, Sandvet and Riet River irrigation schemes. Upper and lower limits of plant available water for different soils are estimated from textural properties (i.e. silt-plus-clay content). Built into the model are crop water production functions and non- linear crop water demand functions for different crops and planting dates for each locality, based on water use measurements (Bennie et al., 1988). Bennie et al. (1998) modified the procedure which accounts for the effect of water stress on growing season length. Crop water demand functions have also divided into four linear stages following the major growth stages defined by Smith (1992). The empirical nature of the model was addressed by Strydom (1998), who introduced the universal transpiration efficiency theory and concepts developed by de Wit (1958). Consequently, the model can be applied on any irrigation scheme if the maximum biomass yield and maximum evapo-transpiration are available for the location concerned. The software suggests appropriate values for these inputs for different locations. Irrigation schedules also take into account two types of irrigation: sprinkler and flood. 15 Sales record show that more than 500 farmers, extension officers and consultants have made use of the programme since 1988. It is also an educational tool in undergraduate and post- graduate water management courses. The programme was recently upgraded by Van Res burg and Zerisghy (2008) by incorporating new research findings and converting the programming code from DO based GWBasic to Windows based Visua1Basic6 (Microsoft Crop). This enabled significant improvements to processing efficiency and user friendliness . The motivation for developing another model of SW AMP (soil water management programme) arose from the need to integrate available knowledge on the water balance components related to dry land farming (Bennie et al., 1998). Before the model was developed, different water balance algorithms were selected from the literature and then evaluated against experimental data obtained from tillage experiments conducted at various locations in the Free State Province. Although SWAMP was meant to be a pragmatic model to support operational management, users perceive it to be more of an analytical tool to support tactical management. A valuable aspect of the model is that it provides estimates of the amount of water that will be stored in the soil during fallow periods. It also gives insights into water the conservation process so that tillage practices can be optimised accordingly. The model estimates, with reasonable accuracy, evaporation for maize, wheat, sorghum and sunflower using different tillage systems on different soil/climate combinations. Another strong point is the model ' s ability to estimate changes in soil water content of the root zone. Such information can be used to optimise agronomic practices. 16 Figure2.3: Schematic presentation of MyCanesim irrigation-scheduling system (Annadale et al. , 2011) 2.6.3.2 CANEGRO and CANESIM CANEGRO was developed primarily as a tool to direct and assist research and its application was limited to studies by scientists who had direct access to the code. Examples of these applications are: scheduling and management of irrigation (McGlinchey et al. , 1995; McGlinchey& Inman-Bamber, 1996); crop forecasting of potential and attainable yield optimising harvest age and consultation studies for farmers and millers to estimate (1) climate yield potential, (2) yield loss due to mill shutdowns and interruptions in irrigation water supply, and (3) the impact of changing milling season length on productivity. The CANEGRO model was also developed to stimulate the mass of leaves, stalks, roots, leaf area, and root density and tiller population, especially for sugarcane. It further stimulates processes such as soil water movement, radiation interception photosynthesis and dry matter portioning (Steven, 2006). 17 According to Singles & Smith (2013) the CANESIM model was developed with the aim of making sugarcane modelling accessible to a wider user base. The focus was on simplifying inputs required for running the model and in providing a user-friendly interface. It uses a single layer soil module and thermal time-driven canopy cover development (Singles & Donaldson, 2000), thus circumventing the need for (1) detailed input data, and (2) simulation of layer specific water redistribution, extraction and leaf and tiller development. The model is also used to calculate late crop water use and cane yield for specific SA climates, soils and cropping seasons, either in hind cast or forecast mode. A later and more powerful version is been used to provide real time irrigation advice to small-scale and commercial sugarcane farmers (Singles & Smith, 2006). 2.6.3.3 CERES and CROPGRO In South Africa, the CERES-maize model within DSSAT was first used by XC in the preliminary evaluation of two maize growth-simulation models with SA field data sets, referred to as the Phoenix Project and also to evaluate the models. CERES maize and CROPGRO have now become part of the new CSM (Cropping System Model) and have been used to find solutions to problems from farm to regional scale and stimulate maize yields for a range of applications such as drought assessment and climate changes (Singles et al. , 2013). 2.6.3.4 PUTU PUTU, named after the South African maize meal porridge, was adopted and the model has been used to: determine crop water and irrigation requirements; optimise irrigation water use; incorporate weather-based irrigation scheduling advice founded upon research into a participatory management approach based drought monitoring; and identify drought mitigation crop production strategies (Singles et al. , 2013). The PUTU system explains and quantifies the growth and development process of agronomic crops using mathematical equations and the fundamental laws of physic and chemistry. The rationale was that mechanistic, dynamic simulations are analytical, precise and repeatable and hence, indispensable for practical agricultural problem-solving and management decision support. PUTU calculates the daily values of maximum total evaporations of a specific crop surface and reference evaporation from data obtained from an automatic weather station to give the indication of danger of the onset of water stress; daily water use over the past seven days; percolation of water out of the zone; expected timing on next irrigation; current plant available water in the root zone; and assessment performances (Stevens, 2006). 18 2.7 FACTORS AFFECTING WATER USE EFFICIENCY The following factors have been reported in the literature as affecting water use efficiency. These are: climatic conditions; temperature; relative humidity; solar radiation; wind velocity; edaphic factors ; and nature of the plant. Climatic conditions have abiotic components, including topography and soil , of the environmental factors that influences plant growth and development. Weather affects both crop yield and evapotranspiration. Singh et al.( 2014) defines evapo-transpiration as an evaporative process largely controlled by climatic factors and influenced by weather elements. Evapotranspiration has direct proportional relationship with high temperature, humidity, and wind velocity. Soil texture, the combination of relative proportion of sand, silt and clay; soil structure and soil aggregates influence the ratio of soil macro pores and micro pores determine the water holding capacity of the soil which in turn regulates the response of soil to water use efficiency (Singh et al., 2014).Singh et al. ( 2014) indicated that WUE is influenced by the plant species, plant varieties as these factors initiate different responses by plant to adaptations, photosynthesis, rooting habits, transpiration rates and energy consumption. 2.8 IMPROVING WATER EFFICIENCY IN IRRIGATION The need for irrigation arises when plants cannot satisfy all their water needs through natural precipitation. Therefore, irrigation effort aims to cover the deficit between a crop ' s optimal water needs and uptake through natural means. Climatic conditions, soil type and structure, plant type and the irrigation techniques applied are among the main factors that influence the efficiency and effectiveness of irrigation practices. For a given location, climatic and soil conditions, the efficiency of water irrigation practices can be improved by making the right decisions regarding crop type, irrigation scheduling, irrigation method, soil enhancement measures and source of water (WFM, 2008). 19 2.9 COMMON MODELS AND THEORIES The theories of adoption covered in this section include: diffusion of innovations; diffusion theory; and theory of planned behaviour (ToPB). Ndah et al (2010) categorised adoption decision theories into behavioural , cognitive, development, humanist and personality theories while conceptual models of innovation systems include Innovation Systems model (The World Bank 2006), The Innovation Policy Terrain-a map of issues (OECD 1997), Elements of ational Innovative Capacity (Speirs et al 2008 based on Porter and Stem 2002), A Generic National Innovation System (OECD, 2003). A simple innovation network, (Wall et al. , 2002), based on Rycroft and Kash, (1994) and Innovation system perspective (Lundvall 1985) expanded model for adoption of conservation practices (Clearfield and Osgood, 1986) Rogers ' (2003) identified the major theory on adoption and diffusion of innovations. Diffusion describes the process through which new ideas, practices or objects are spread into and taken up by a social system (Rogers, 2003 ; Rogers et al. , 2005). This process includes both the planned and spontaneous spread of innovations (Rogers, 2003). According to Rogers (2003), diffusion "is a form of communication, that the messages are concerned with new ideas". Rogers and Kincaid (1981) argued that communication is a two-way process through which participants not only exchange information, but also create and share views on certain events, and this can either bring them together or drive them apart. Thus, diffusion is a dynamic learning process contingent upon the constant interaction (both formal and informal information exchange) of community members with a view to reaching a common understanding (Rogers, 1995; Abadi Ghadim & Pannell, 1999). In addition, diffusion is also thought as a form of social change in that change occurs in the structure and function of a given community (Rogers, 2003). That way, invention, delivery, and adoption ( or rejection) of new ideas impose changes on an individual or the entire community (including decisions about ECDis) . DOI ( Diffusion of Innovation) postulates characteristics of an innovation, the nature of communication channels, the social system and the passage of time as critical elements of the diffusion process (Rogers, 2003). 20 The Innovation Rogers (2003) defines an innovation as ' an idea, practice or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption'. Perceivable newness of an innovation is more significant than its pre-existence within a population and it postulates that certain innovation characteristics predispose its adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trial- ability and observability (Rogers, 2003). Communication channels: To create understanding about an innovation, the diffusion of innovation theory proposes communication channels through which information is diffused. Mass media and interpersonal communication are conceptualised as the two key communication channels (Rogers, 2003) through which messages about new ideas or practices can be shared between innovation sources and its recipients. The theory also claims that mass media channels (including television, radio, opinion leaders and newspapers) are more pivotal at the knowledge stage while interpersonal channels (between friends , neighbours, researchers, and so on) are significant at the persuasion stage. Time: The DOI theory is outlined through the context of time. The theory conceptualises that some individuals adopt an innovation earlier than others, and that individuals have different personal characteristics that make them to adopt an innovation earlier or later than others (Rogers, 2003). It is in this light that Rogers (2003) categorised adopters into groups based on the relative amount of time it takes a group of people to adopt. This diffusion curve (also known as an ' S' shape or normal curve) denotes that there is a small percentage of early adopters (at the beginning of the diffusion process), a large group of mainstream adopters (as diffusion proliferates), and finally, a small percentage of late adopters, as the rate of diffusion slows down (Rogers, 2003; Straub, 2009). Social system: This refers to a community of individuals governed by certain elements and processes upon which the system relies for its perpetuity and sustenance (Loomis & Beegle, 1950). Elements such as roles, ranks, norms, mores, traditions, sanctions, facilities, and so on, and processes such as socialisation, boundary maintenance, social-cultural or systemic linkage and communication, serve as frameworks or scaffolding on which the society is built. Whether an individual who is a member of the social system adopts an innovation or not would depend on these key guidelines and components of the society. 21 2.9.1 DIFFUSION THEORY (DT) The Diffusion Theory was developed to explain farmers' adoption of innovations (Leeuwis, 2004). The adoption of an innovation is seen as a process and follows five main phases (Rogers, 1995, 2003): 1) Knowledge about the innovation; 2) Persuasion, evaluation of the attributes of an innovation; 3) Decision to adopt the innovation or not;4) Implementation of the innovation; and 5) Confirmation, that is, the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision already made. 2.10 THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR (TOPB) The Theory of Planned Behaviour (ToPB) (Ajzen, 1991) is a general theory used to explain social behaviour. It consists of three theoretical constructs which influence the intention to perform a given behaviour namely attitude towards behaviour, the subjective norm, and the perceived behavioural control. Consequently, these constructs are based on different kinds of beliefs, such as; consequence beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs. These beliefs are interrelated and affect one another. Consequence beliefs influence the attitudes which are subjective evaluations of the consequences of performing the given behaviour. The subjective norm shows the perceived social pressure to perform the behaviour. The more satisfactory the attitude towards a given behaviour and the subjective norm, the higher the perceived behavioural control, the stronger should be the person' s readiness to perform the behaviour in question. Once an intention is formed, people are expected to put to practice their readiness when the opportunity arises. After performing behaviour, people can alter their beliefs , because personal experience is crucial for changing attitudes. The Innovation-Decision Process Rogers (2003) described the innovation-decision process as "an information-seeking and information-processing activity, where an individual is motivated to reduce uncertainty about the advantages and disadvantages of an innovation". For Rogers (2003), the innovation- decision process involves five steps: (1) knowledge, (2) persuasion, (3) decision, (4) implementation, and (5) confirmation. 22 The Knowledge Stage The innovation-decision process starts with the knowledge stage. In this step, an individual learns about the existence of innovation and seeks information about the innovation. "What?" "How?" and "why?" are the critical questions in the knowledge phase? During this phase, the individual attempts to determine "what the innovation is and how and why it works" (Rogers, 2003). According to Rogers, the questions form three types of knowledge: (1 ) awareness- knowledge, (2) how-to-knowledge, and (3) principles-knowledge. Awareness-knowledge: Awareness-knowledge represents the knowledge of the innovation' s existence. This type of knowledge can motivate the individual to learn more about the innovation and, eventually, to adopt it. Also, it may encourage an individual to learn about other two types of knowledge. How-to-knowledge: The other type of knowledge, how-to-knowledge, contains information about how to use an innovation correctly. Even the faculty who have technical backgrounds may not use technology in teaching, if they do not have knowledge of how to use it correctly. Thus, technology is not used at an expected level, since they need help in how to use the technology effectively in teaching (Spotts, 1999). Rogers saw this knowledge as an essential variable in the innovation-decision process. To increase the adoption chance of an innovation, an individual should have a sufficient level of how-to-knowledge prior to the trial of this innovation. Thus, this knowledge becomes more critical for relatively complex innovations. Principles-knowledge: The last knowledge type is principles-knowledge. This knowledge includes the functioning principles describing how and why an innovation works. An innovation can be adopted without this knowledge, but the misuse of the innovation may cause its discontinuance. For Sprague et al. (1999), the biggest barrier to faculty use of technology in teaching was that faculty lack a vision of why or how to integrate technology in the classroom. To create new knowledge, technology education and practice should provide not only a how-to experience but also a known-why experience (Seemann, 2003). In fact, an individual may have all the necessary knowledge, but this does not mean that the individual will adopt the innovation because the individual ' s attitudes also shape the adoption or rejection of the innovation. 23 > ::) 0:rhe Persuasion Stage 3 ~ I he persuasion step occurs when the individual has a negative or positive attitude toward the Z -a:)nnovation, but "the formation of a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward an innovation --..-l:ioes not always lead directly or indirectly to an adoption or rejection" (Rogers, 2003). The individual shapes his or her attitude after he or she knows about the innovation, so the persuasion stage follows the knowledge stage in the innovation-decision process. Furthermore, Rogers states that while the knowledge stage is more cognitive- (o r knowing-) centered, the persuasion stage is more affective- (o r feeling-) centered. Thus, the individual is involved more sensitively with the innovation at the persuasion stage. The degree of uncertainty about the innovation' s functioning and the social reinforcement from others (colleagues, peers, etc.) affect the individual's opinions and beliefs about the innovation. Close peers ' subjective evaluations of the innovation that reduce uncertainty about the innovation outcomes are usually more credible to the individual: "While information about a new innovation is usually available from outside experts and scientific evaluations, teachers usually seek it from trusted friends and colleagues whose subjective opinions of a new innovation are most convincing" (Sherry, 1997). Individuals continue to search for innovation evaluation information and messages through the decision stage. The Decision Stage At the decision stage in the innovation-decision process, the individual chooses to adopt or reject the innovation. While adoption refers to "full use of an innovation as the best course of action available," rejection means "not to adopt an innovation" (Rogers, 2003). If an innovation has a partial trial basis, it is usually adopted more quickly, since most individuals first want to try the innovation in their own situation and then come to an adoption decision. The vicarious trial can speed up the innovation-decision process. However, rejection is possible in every stage of the innovation-decision process. Rogers expressed two types of rejection: active rejection and passive rejection. In an active rejection situation, an individual tries an innovation and thinks about adopting it, but later he or she decides not to adopt it. A discontinuance decision, which is to reject an innovation after adopting it earlier, may be considered as an active type ofrejection. In a passive rejection (or non-adoption) position, the individual does not think about adopting the innovation at all. Rogers stated that these two types of rejection have not been distinguished and studied enough in past diffusion research. In some cases, the order of the knowledge-persuasion-decision stages can be knowledge- 24 decision-persuasion. Especially in collectivistic cultures such as those in Eastern countries, this order takes place and group influence on adoption of an innovation can transform the personal innovation decision into a collective innovation decision (Rogers, 2003). The Implementation Stage At the implementation stage, an innovation is put into practice. However, an innovation brings the newness in which "some degree of uncertainty is involved in diffusion". Uncertainty about the outcomes of the innovation still can be a problem at this stage. Thus, the implementer may need technical assistance from change agents and others to reduce the degree of uncertainty about the consequences. Moreover, the innovation-decision process will end, since "the innovation loses its distinctive quality as the separate identity of the new idea disappears" (Rogers, 2003). Reinvention usually happens at the implementation stage, so it is an important part of this stage. Reinvention is "the degree to which an innovation is changed or modified by a user in the process of its adoption and implementation" (Rogers, 2003). Also, Rogers (2003) explained the difference between invention and innovation. While "invention is the process by which a new idea is discovered or created," the adoption of an innovation is the process of using an existing idea" (Rogers, 2003). Rogers further discussed that the more reinvention takes place, the more rapidly an innovation is adopted and becomes institutionalized. As innovations, computers are the tools that consist of many possible opportunities and applications, so computer technologies are more open to reinvention. The Confirmation Stage The innovation-decision already has been made, but at the confirmation stage the individual looks for support for his or her decision. According to Rogers (2003), this decision can be reversed if the individual is "exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation". However, the individual tends to stay away from these messages and seeks supportive messages that confirm his or her decision. Thus, attitudes become more crucial at the confirmation stage. Depending on the support for adoption of the innovation and the attitude of the individual, later adoption or discontinuance happens during this stage. Discontinuance may occur during this stage in two ways. First, the individual rejects the innovation to adopt a better innovation replacing it. This type of discontinuance decision is called replacement discontinuance . The other type of discontinuance decision is disenchantment discontinuance. In the latter, the individual rejects the innovation because he or she is not satisfied with its performance. Another reason for this type of discontinuance 25 decision may be that the innovation does not meet the needs of the individual. So, it does not provide a perceived relative advantage, which is the first attribute of innovations and affects the rate of adoption. 2.11. AIETA MODEL OF ADOPTION When an innovation is disseminated to a society, the decision to adopt such innovation is not taken immediately nor at the same time by all the society's member. The different stages of processes that several individuals in the society would go through have been depicted by AIETA model of adoption by Rogers (1962, 2003). These stages are awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and adoption and they vary with time and degree of innovativeness of individual farmers as well as their exposure to media sources as well as the dominance of culture in their practices. At the awareness stage, there is consc10usness about an innovation from media sources (usually mass media). This consciousness is often an involuntary process but sometimes voluntary if there is a need-driven search for appropriate innovation. The interest stage the innovation has gained the attention of the farmers and a high level of curiosity would be develop to know more about the innovation thus motivated to seek more information and knowledge about it. The evaluation stage makes the farmers to appraise the innovation by subjecting it to practicability and adaptability of such innovation to their environment. The innovation is thus tried to prove its workability in the farmer ' s environment. At this stage individual methods of communication become more effective to convince the farmers. The trial stage as the final stage of the adoption process is characterised with the experimentation of the innovation usually at a small-scale. The farmers decide to try out the innovation on their plot, A successful trial will consequently lead to adoption. 2.12 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER This chapter reviewed literature on the importance of water use efficiency, techniques used to increase water use efficiency and factors that affect water use efficiency. The main focus was on different techniques used to increase water use efficiency and a comparison was done with authors from other countries. The next chapter will present the methodology used in conducting the study. 26 CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes all the research activities carried out in the implementation of this study. It described the study area, the application of ex-post facto which explains the present adoption decisions with past factors experienced by the women irrigators, the selection of the study sample using the criteria of representativeness, the generation and analysis of data. 3.2 THE STUDY AREA The study was conducted in the North West Province. It shares borders with Gauteng Province to the east, Limpopo Province to the north east, Botswana in the north, the Free State Province to the south and the Northern Cape Province to the west. The Province consists of four district municipalities and 19 local municipalities and it is predominantly rural with most of the people relying on agriculture for their livelihoods (READ, 2015). The North West Province has four districts, as Mahikeng the capital city. The 2014 mid-year population estimates that there are approximately 3.67 million people residing in the Province (Statistics South Africa, 2014). Nearly 43% live in the eastern Bojanala Platinum District Municipality and further a 24% live in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality. The North West Province is rural, with 60% living in rural areas and the rest in urban areas. The climate of the Province is characterised by well-defined seasons with rainy season from October to March. Within the Province, there are more than 10 irrigation schemes developed to enhance livelihood options in agriculture due to the semi-arid nature of the Province. In the North West Province they are several irrigation schemes, see figure 3.2 but only schemes from Taung and Dinokana are operational hence the study focused on those two areas. 27 100 0 100 200 Kilometers * Markets.shp • Gps towns.shp N /\/ Roads.shp ~ Municipality.shp s Figure 3 .1 : Map of the North West Province In Taung, the scheme is divided into five cooperatives which are Bosele, Ipeleng, Reitlhoma, Rethuseng and Tshidiso located in the western part of the North West Province, in Dr Ruth Mompati District Municipality). The greater Taung Local Municipality is a typical rural municipality with 106 villages mostly concentrated adjacent to the N18 and the Dry-harts River. The population of this Municipality lives in small, low-intensity settlements consisting of mostly informal housing scattered throughout the eastern part of the Municipality area (ST A TS, 2016). The gravel road to the area is well-maintained and there is predominantly good access during all seasons. The GPS co-ordinates are 27° 34' south and 24° 44' east. The dominant people in the area are the Tswana, who are characterised by rural poverty. The Household food plots play an important part in their livelihoods. The area has a uniform terrain consisting of slightly irregular plains and pans, hills and escarpments. It lies between an altitude of 1 100m andl 300m above sea level and has a slope factor of between flat and 9%. The area experiences high temperatures ranging from 18.7°C to 32.5°C. Securing crop production from rain fed agriculture is impossible. This projects thus extracts water from the Vaal Dam located about 50km from the irrigation farm. The irrigation system is a centre 28 pivot. Individuals within the farm have expressed interest in household food production, as well as income generation from the produce. Water security could prove to be a challenge to sustain small-scale farming, due to large-scale irrigation farming, as well as other water demand activities in the area, such as mining. Farmers have to pay a water fee of R600/annum, which sometimes, is difficult. The majority (53%) of households are headed by men while 40% of households are headed by women. The farm is an initiative of two women farmers, who were inspired by an award from "Family farmers". Household food plots play an important part in their livelihoods. The area has a uniform terrain that consists of slightly irregular plains and pans, hills and escarpments. It lies between 1 100m and 1 300 m above sea level and has a slope factor of between flat and 9%. The area is generally dry, with average annual rainfall of 318mm. Securing crop production from rain fed agriculture is impossible and the project extracts water from the Spitskop Dam, located about 50km from the irrigation farm. The women within the farm have expressed interest in household food production, as well as income generation from the produce. There is interest in empowering other women as soon as the project is established. Water security could prove to be a challenge to sustain small-scale farming, due to large-scale irrigation farming. An innovative floppy irrigation system is used to reduce water wastage and maintain moisture, considering that the area is very humid. Within the Province (in Zeerust), the Dinokana project is located in the eastern part of the North West Province, in Ngaka Modiri Molema District Municipality (Lehurutshe). There is predominantly good access during all seasons, because the gravel road to the farm is well- maintained. The GPS co-ordinates are: 25° 26' south and 25° 51' east. The dominant people in the area are the Tswana. Most of the active farmers are women. Household food plots play an important part in their livelihoods. The area has a uniform terrain that consists of hills undergoing massive deforestation. The irrigation farm (85 hectares) encompasses a former rice scheme, which has now been converted to vegetable plots, distributed to 35 members of the co-operative. Each plot of 2.5 hectares, or in some cases, 5 hectares, is allocated to an individual, either a female or a male farmer. Not all plots are cultivated. The area is generally dry, with an average annual rainfall of 439mm. It experiences high temperatures, ranging from 19° C to 30°C. Since reliance on rain for crop production definitely results in crop failure, the project abstracts groundwater which feeds into furrows for distribution within the farming area. 29 Individuals on the farm have expressed interest in household food production, as well as income generation from the produce. Water security could prove to be a problem to sustain small-scale farming, due to the current system of irrigation - furrow plots are serviced using a cyclic rotation. If the system of irrigation is revised, the farm has the potential to provide and improve the livelihoods of the community. Ng ot¥1iefl Mola1tad1 S e huj ~ •• ~Nyetse Din o n JVladlkwe Lehu•rutshe Dtsaneng_ Mayayane ftilafikeng Sm all_ 5c a le_l rrlg atlon_typ•Spft d