TRANSFER OF LEARNING: CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES EXPERIENCED BY EMPLOYEES IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS OF THE NORTH WEST PROVINCE. 11!II!!11111,1111111111 11111111111111111111111111111 North-West University Mafikeng Campus Library BY GAITSIWE SHERON SEPENG MINI-DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND GOVERNMENT LEADERSHIP OF THE NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY (MAFIKENG CAMPUS) SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR C. MIRUKA MAY 2010 1 :1'0 F F!,i` A M 4/ 11S ft, . 205 -04- 01 sd, .4cc. No.: v. r Fa' 0,14 S tirti. vaSITY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I would like to extend my gratitude to my mentor and co-supervisor Professor D. Akinnusi who gave me the opportunity to complete the research report through candid advice and courage. I would like to pass my sincere gratitude to my beloved family; the support, strength and courage they gave me to complete this project. To all those special adorable people who contributed at various stages of this report, and are not mentioned in this acknowledgement, I appreciate your efforts and I thank you all. DECLARATION I declare that the mini-dissertation, which I submit for the degree Master of Business Administration (MBA) at the Mafikeng Campus of the North-West University, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution. Gaitsiwe Sheron Sepeng (Mrs.) Date ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to explore and identify the constraints and challenges that prevents public service employees from transferring what they have learned during training intervention to the workplace. The aim was to further make recommendations to address the factors identified as constraints of transfer of learning into the workplace. To achieve the goal, the study focused on extensive literature and theoretical inquiry with the aim of understanding concepts of transfer of learning, and constraints to transfer of learning, to determine the relationship between transfer of learning and employee/trainee performance, and to suggest a framework to manage or mitigate the constraints to transfer of learning. The study used a qualitative and quantitative research methodology, with emphasis on quantitative research methodology to draw conclusions. A sample of 106 was drawn from the two departments, where a questionnaire was administered. The findings of the study revealed that the following factors as constraints to transfer of learning: lack of learner's readiness before training; lack of support and acknowledgement of new skills acquired by trainees from their line managers; even though training improves knowledge level and competency level, thereby increasing productivity, however lack of support constrain transfer; lack of appropriate or relevant tools for application of theory; and lack of cooperation and support from colleagues. iii IPJge TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS DECLARATION ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS iv LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1 1.2 Background of the study 1.3 Statement of the problem 4 1.4. Objectives of the study 6 1.5. Significance of the study 6 1.6 Scope of the study 6 1.7 Definition of concepts 7 1.8 Plan of the study 7 1.9 Summary 8 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 What is transfer of learning? 9 2.3 Key concepts in Transfer of learning 12 2.4 Measuring transfer of learning 14 2.5. Constraints to effective transfer of learning 17 2.6 The context of transfer of learning for the purpose of this study I 8 2.7 Effective education for transfer: some general principles I 8 2.8 Learning in the workplace: its strengths and limitations 23 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 28 2.9 Sociological and socio-cultural approaches to transfer and work-based learning 28 2.10 A Transfer of Training Model 30 iv I a g 2.11 Theories on Motivation of Transfer 32 2.11.1 Expectancy Theory. 32 2.11.2 Equity Theory. 33 2.11.3 Goal-Setting Theory. 34 2.11.4 Impact of These Theories on Transfer Motivation 35 2.12 Theories for Training Transfer Design 36 2.12.1 Identical Elements Theory 37 2.12.2 Principles Theory 37 2.12.3 Near and Far Transfer 37 2.13 Theories Supporting Transfer Climate 39 2.13.1 Transfer Climate Framework 40 2.13.2 Organization Theory 41 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Research design 44 3.3 Population and Sampling 45 3.4 Data collection 46 3.5 Reliability, validity and trustworthiness 50 3.6 Data analysis 51 3.7 Ethical consideration 53 3.8 Summary 53 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS 54 4.1 Introduction 54 SECTION ONE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS 55 4.2.1 Gender of the respondents 55 4.2.2 Age of the respondents 55 viPage 4.2.3 Number of years in the service of the department 56 4.2.4 Level of education 56 4.2.5 Position in the department 57 4.2.6 Department currently working for 57 SECTION TWO: TRAINING PROGRAMMES WHICH THE RESPONDENTS ATTENDED 58 4.2.7 Training programmes which the respondents attended 58 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF LEARNING. 59 4.2.7 Leaner's readiness before training 59 4.2.8 Motivation to transfer 60 4.2.8 Positive personal outcomes 61 4.2.9 Personal Capacity for transfer 6 7 4.2.10 Peer support 62 4.2.11 Supervisory Support 63 SECTION 3: IMPACT OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING 64 4.2.12 Transfer effort performance expectations 64 4.3 Summary of constraints as identified by the findings of the study 65 4.4 Constraints to transfer of learning as identified by various authors 66 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68 5.1 Introduction 68 5.2 Main findings 68 5.3 Discussion of the main findings 69 5.4 Recommendations 71 5.5 Limitations of the study 72 5.6 Suggestions for further studies 7' 5.7 Conclusion of the study 7' will , d LIST OF REFERENCES 73 Appendix A: Research Questionnaire 77 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 3.1 A comparism of five probability sampling designs 54 Table 3.2 Levels of measurement 6() Table 4.1.1 Gender of the respondents 64 Table 4.1.2 Age of the respondents 64 Table 4.1.3 Years of experience 65 Table 4.1.4 Level of education 65 Table 4.1.5 Positions of respondents 66 Table 4.1.6 Departments where respondents work 66 Table 4.1.7 Training programmes attended 67 Table 4.1.8 Learner's readiness before training 68 Table 4.1.9 Motivation for participants to transfer 69 Table 4.1.10 Factors that encourage participants to transfer 70 Table 4.1.11 Personal capacity to transfer 71 Table 4.1.12 Peer support to transfer 71 Table 4.1.13 Supervisory support 72 Table 4.1.14 Transfer effort expectations 73 Table 4.1.15 Constraints to transfer as identified by other authors 75 Table 5.1 Framework for managing transfer of learning 80 Figure 1 Holton's factors affecting transfer 40 viii I a g e CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.1. Introduction of the study The ultimate goal of training and development intervention is to improve the performance or productivity of employees within an organisation, thereby increasing service delivery. Over the fifteen years of the South African democratic dispensation, much attention has been given to increasing workplace productivity and national economic performance in an era of globalization and international competitiveness (Fuller, Munroe & Rainbird, 2004). Increased knowledge, highly skilled performance and problem solving are seen as central to enhancing workplace productivity. In achieving these goals the concept of transfer of learning is central. Transfer of learning involves the application of knowledge and skills gained in one setting to other settings that differ in terms of 'subjects, settings, people, behaviors and/or time' (Stokes & Baer, 1977:350). Transfer of learning is an essential element in problem solving (Haskell, 2001) while the current interest in generic skills revealed in vocational and school education amounts to a rediscovery of the importance of transfer of learning. However it is doubtful whether educators, policy makers and employers fully understand the complexity of the learning involved in either transfer of learning or generic skills (Cornford, 2005). Transfer of learning involves very considerable complexity, and attaining positive transfer has long been recognized is one of the important and difficult problems in educational psychology (Cox; 1997; Haskell, 2001). It has been, and still is assumed incorrectly to be a passive, naturally occurring phenomenon (Stokes & Baer, 1977). In brief, transfer of learning is what all vocational educators either in the workplace or classrooms hopes to achieve, and the credibility of all real-world education for the workplace is dependent upon achieving it. Yet the estimates are that only about ten percent of training is effectively transferred to the workplace (Detterman, 1993). The worrying factor in this is that much training is carried out in the workplace or in simulated settings, with such settings seen as most likely to encourage transfer of learning (Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004). 1IPage Many of the current policies and practice of workplace or work-based learning are based on the assumption that the critical factors reside in social and cultural contexts (e.g. Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004; Fuller et al., 2004). Yet Detterman's (1993) and others' judgments (see Haskell, 2001) about transfer of learning indicate that there is a low rate of success of transfer despite in many cases similar social contexts in workplace and learning settings. Logically there appear to be significant other factors that are not being identified and captured in currently dominant socio-cultural paradigms and approaches to learning and transfer. There is also the problem that Fuller et al. (2004:1) have identified from the investment in human capital perspective, the increase in formal qualifications has not led to increased productivity. The conclusions that may be drawn from this in part are that formal qualifications are not including greater understanding of learning and adaptation processes, and specifically understanding of what transfer of learning is and how to achieve it. 1.2 Background of the study The South African workforce is characterized by an array of diverse groups which needs to be leveraged for competitive advantage in the quest to combine the best management practices employed successfully elsewhere in the world with the strength which is unique in the people of South Africa, and that can be used as a success driving factor in the current education and training institutions (Thomas 2002:237) In 1998, the South African government, in pursuit of addressing the imbalances of the past, promulgated the Skills Development Act no 97 of 1998, which was followed by the Skills Levies Act no 9 of 1999. Amongst others, the purpose of the Skills Development Act is to: to develop the skills of the South African workforce to improve the quality of life of workers, their prospects of work and labour mobility; to improve productivity in the workplace and the competitiveness of employers; to improve the delivery of social services; to encourage employers to; to use the workplace as an active learning environment; to provide employees with the opportunities to acquire new skills; 2IPage - to provide opportunities for new entrants to the labour market to gain work experience; to encourage workers to participate in leamership and other training programmes; to improve the employment prospects of persons previously disadvantaged by unfair discrimination and to redress those disadvantages through training and education; to ensure the quality of education and training in and for the workplace; In 2001 a National Skills Development Strategy was adopted as a driving force to give directions to the changes initiated by South African Qualification Authority (SAQA) in 1998. Amongst its objectives was to overcome the structural rigidities and inequalities inherited from the apartheid era and to transform the labour force from low skills base to one that is committed to high quality of lifelong learning (SAQA, 2001). The end result of this objective is for the labour force to acquire a high level skills base. To ascertain the achievement of the objectives, transfer of learning or skills should be visible. It is therefore vital to also make reflection to the role played by the National Qualification Framework (NQF) in transfer of learning in the workplace. The NQF was introduced to establish a bridge between formal learning and informal learning with the following key objectives: creating an integrated national framework for learning achievements facilitating access, mobility and progression within education and training system accelerating the redress of the past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities, and contributing to the full personal development of each learner and the social and economic development of the nation at large (SAQA 2000:3). The NQF adopted applied competence to determine whether learning outcomes has been achieved. Applied competence suggests that foundational, practical and reflexive competence should be the core of determining the achievements of learning outcomes. According to SAQA (2000:5), the South African Education system should shift from education for employment to education for employability. This implied developing the ability to adapt acquired skills to a new working environment. Adaptability is an essential element of transfer of learning to the workplace. The NQF introduced a radical shift from classroom based assessment to a combination of both 3IPage classroom and workplace assessment. Assessors are encouraged to use more than one assessment method which amongst others includes observation, interviews, portfolio of evidence, simulations and finished products. The use of assessment methods is an indication that assessors measure transfer of learning to the workplace. The study of transfer of learning constraints and challenges will complement the NQF because the framework concentrates on the assessment of transfer of learning while this research focuses on the constraints and challenges preventing transfer of learning. As stated above, the study focuses on transfer of learning by public servants with specific reference to the North-West Provincial Youth Commission, and the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport looking at how employees transfer or how they should transfer their learning to the workplace. The study concentrates on the challenges and constraints preventing trained employees to transfer learning and on what possible solutions can be used to address the problem. 1.3 Statement of the problem As it is believed that the ultimate goal of any training intervention in the workplace is to improve the performance of productivity and service delivery standards. All training interventions in a workplace are costly as the cost is calculated against the time of participants, the time of the trainers, training aids such as handouts, trainers' notes, electricity and refreshments provided to employees. The idea is supported by Rowe (1996:17) as he points out that one can understand the concerns that top managers have on the evaluation of training and development. If one considers the millions of pounds companies put out- not just on courses, but on trainers, consultants, hotel bookings, training rooms, materials, meals, and etc, then managers are entitled to ask: why should this produce better employees, how will this be to the long-term financial benefit of the company? Arising from the above citation, one could simple say that managers want to see value for money and demand justification of training costs. However, while such precise measurements may be viable in some areas, in most instances and certainly in areas such as management training, it might be possible. According to Maurice Taylor (1997:3) it is estimated that while North American industries spend over one hundred billion dollars on training and Wage development, not more than 10% of these expenditures actually result in transfer of knowledge to the job. If the participants do not apply what they have learned during training at the workplace, the investment on training is a total waste of time, resources and money. Caccioppe (1998:335) points out that little research has been done to establish how much learning from classroom training and development programmes, have been transferred back to the workplace. He further indicates that senior managers often ask what changes have been made after training and in too many cases there is nothing evident that can be labeled as the value of training. The problem experienced is that organizations, particularly public sector usually send employees to attend training interventions hoping that when they come back they will apply what they have learned in the workplace and improve their performance and productivity. As indicated by various researchers, the situation does not improve, hence we witness a lot of service delivery protests both at local and provincial governance levels. The focus of the study is to explore that constraints and challenges that prevents public service employees who received training within a certain financial year to transfer what they have learned from learning intervention to the workplace. 1.3.1 Research Questions The study attempts to answer the following primary and secondary research questions: To what extent do trained employees in public sector transfer what they have learned from classroom training to the workplace? For the purpose of the study, the following secondary questions arising from the problem statement will be investigated: What constitutes transfer of learning to the workplace? What constraints and challenges of transfer of learning to the workplace are experienced by trained public service employees? What is the relationship between transfer of learning and service delivery or productivity? 5IPage 1.4. Objectives of the study The central objective of the study is to explore and identify the constraints and challenges that prevent public service employees from transferring what they have learned during training intervention to the workplace. More-specifically, the study aims to: Define the concept of transfer of learning based on relevant theoretical foundation. Identify constraints preventing transfer of learning both from the existing literature and in the workplace context. Determine the relationship between the trainees' performance and constraints of transfer of learning. To suggest the framework that could be used to manage or mitigate the constraints on transfer of learning. 1.5. Significance of the study The study will contribute towards the existing body of knowledge on transfer of learning and will assist in developing a strategy towards reducing barriers to effective application of knowledge, skills and attitude in the workplace situation, particularly in the public sector. The study will also assist training and development managers, and practitioners in designing learning interventions that considers ways of dealing with constraints and challenges on transfer of learning to the workplace. The study will play a significant role in ensuring that the main purpose of the National Qualification Framework, and moreover, the South African National Skills Development Strategy which is to contribute to the economic and social potential development of every South African citizen (SAQA, 1998) is realised because its main focus is recognition and implementation of learning. 1.6 Scope of the study The focus on of the study is on constraints and challenges experienced by public service employees who received training within the Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) 2006-2009. The study targeted employees from the North-West Provincial Youth Commission and employees from the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport. 6IPage 1.7 Definition of concepts 1.7.1 Learning: The word" learning" widely varies by context. The dictionary definition states that learning is "the acquiring of knowledge or skill". Thus learning encompasses two meanings- the acquisition of skill or know how, which implies the physical ability .to produce some action and the acquisition of know-why, which implies the ability to articulate conceptual understanding of an experience. 1.7.2 Transfer of learning: Transfer of learning refers to the degree to which employees use newly acquired knowledge and skills to perform their jobs effectively and enhance organisational effectiveness. It refers to what degree was learning from the programme applied in the work place (Nelson 2000:25). 1.7.3 Training: According to De Cenzo and Robbins (1994:255) training is a learning experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his/her ability to perform on the job. Training can, therefore, be regarded a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skilled behaviour through learning experience so as to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. 1.7.4 Education :The concept of education refers to activities directed at providing the knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in the normal course of life. It focuses on a wide range of activities rather than on providing knowledge and skills for a limited field or activity. Education is, therefore, concerned with the development of sound reasoning processes to enhance one's ability to understand and interpret knowledge (PS Nel et al 2004:426) 1.8 Plan of the study The study will consist of the following chapters. Chapter 1 will describe the background and problem of the study including the research questions, objectives, significance and scope of the study. Chapter 2 presents the theoretical foundation of the study and reviews various theories that have a link to the statement of the problem and the review of related literature. An exposition of the research design and analysis will be given in chapter 3. The research results and interpretation thereof follows in chapter 4. Chapter 5 focuses on the discussion of the outcomes of the study, draws conclusions and makes recommendations. 7IPage 1.9 Summary Transfer of learning to the workplace is essential for any organisational productivity and performance improvement. A study. exploring this phenomenon would benefit the existing body of knowledge and contribute to the effectiveness of training and development interventions. The point .of departure for this study is that not only the public sector or the two targeted departments are experiencing problems of transferring learning to the workplace, other government departments and organisation alike are experiencing the problem and therefore the study is significant and important. 8IPage CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Transfer of learning is a concept that dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901; Thorndike, 1903). However, there has been a recent resurgence in interest, especially in the area of training because there is a growing concern that though billions of dollars are spent on training annually, it is often not utilized on the job. Research suggests that there is a typical transfer skill dollar loss ranging from 28 to 90 cents on every training dollar spent (Curry, 1997; Rackham, 1979). In child welfare, this transfer problem probably translates into increased risk of harm to children. Therefore, strategies to improve transfer of learning are extremely important. 2.2 What is transfer of learning? The goal of any learning intervention is to prepare an individual to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enables him or her to better perform his/her task and to be able to handle all the challenges posed by the continuous changing world of work. A learning task has no use unless it is put in practice (Slabbert, 1997:23). Caccioppe (1998: 195) points out that there are a limited number of definations of transfer of learning in the literature. He further stated that " little research has been done before to establish how much work is transferred back at the workplace". Peter Goodge (1998: 86) supports the idea by pinting out the senior managers often ask what changes were made after training and in too many cases there is nothing evident they can show as a result of training. These observation raise the question of what transfer of learning is. Any learning has the potential of affecting the individuals future performance in some circumstances or the other and therefore all learning transfers. However in some practical circumstances the transfer of learning might not be observed. Maurice Taylor (1997: 1) defines the transfer of learning as the effective application by trainees to their jobs of the knowledge and skills gained as a result of attending an educational programme. According to Don Clark (2002: 2) transfer of learning is the influence of prior learning on performance in a new situation. 9IPage For the study of this study, transfer of learning is defined as putting into practice the skills, knowledge and attitudes that were gained through learning intervention on either the classroom or on job in a specific working environment. Traditional transfer research and intervention has emphasized instructional strategies involving the use of ririnciples such as identical elements, general principles, stimulus variability, and response availability (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). However, recent approaches are more ecologically focused, recognizing the important role of the learner's work environment. These approaches also emphasize the importance of key persons before, during, and after the formal training session (Beaudin, 1987; Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Curry, 1997; Curry, 2001; Curry & Caplan, 1996; Curry, Caplan, & Knuppel, 1991; Curry, Caplan, & Knuppel, 1994). One approach, developed and utilized at the Northeast Ohio Regional Training Center, builds off of Lewin's force field theory and advocates for assessment and intervention within a worker's "transfer field." It is described as the transfer of training and adult learning approach. Transfer of learning has fallen in and out of fashion in psychological research (Haskell, 2001), and thus it is not surprising that there is frequently lack of understanding even by educational psychologists of this often neglected phenomenon. There are a number of different types of transfer and understanding of this is important if real advances in workplace learning and training are to be made. Earlier work identified a number of different types of transfer (Cornford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). These include positive transfer where previous learning assists with later learning, negative transfer where earlier learning adversely affects later learning and zero transfer where there is no facilitative or inhibitory effect for earlier learning because the later material is so different from earlier learning. There is also the practically important differentiation between near and far transfer. Near transfer is essentially transfer that differs not too much from the original learning and specifically has similar or identical cues to indicate that application of previously learned knowledge and skills. Far transfer is transfer that involves fairly radical modification of previous learning for the new situation or where the cues are considerably different from those involved in the original application and learning. This radical, highly creative type of transfer is of course much desired in workplace and business settings to solve problems that even high status, highly paid managers and CEOs cannot solve 10IPage (Cornford, 2002). There is also general transfer: this is essentially a notion that by leaning something like mathematics, aspects of learning are transferred to other subjects and areas. The notion of general transfer has been under sustained attack since Thorndike's work (Cox, 1997: Haskell, 2001). Research into the development of expertise indicates that expertise, and to a degree learning more generally, is specific to the area of greatest familiarity (Cornford, 1999; Haskell, 2001). The above types of transfer are generally widely accepted by researchers. However Haskell (2001) has identified a wider range of types of transfer. The value of the wider classification has yet to be determined, but may have more value with language and liberal arts teaching since the above categorizations of long standing would appear to suffice for workplace learning. The important question is which types of transfer can be reasonably be expected to be achieved by training for workplaces to meet everyday expectations relating to problems for which already recognized solutions can be found. Detterman (1993:21) has claimed that 'significant transfer', by which he means far transfer and also general transfer, are extremely rare yet Haskell (2001) has correctly argued that transfer is in fact very common depending on types and how you define it. However, Haskell agrees that highly creative and original solutions to major problems do not occur easily or very frequently. He also argues, like most researchers, that attaining transfer from training with any degree of confidence is difficult. Certainly it is unrealistic to believe that highly creative solutions to difficult problems can be readily attained by training. Yet, while even attaining near transfer remains a challenge with novice or inexperienced learners, there is certainly evidence that near transfer can be reliably attained if there is conscious awareness in learners and teachers and specific training for transfer is engaged in (Cornford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). Hence the position adopted here is that near transfer can reasonably be expected to occur if there is conscious, effective education and learning, and social conditions are receptive to applications of new learning. The following sections explore what can be considered effective education and training and what must be done to ensure receptivity of application of learning so that transfer can occur. 111Page 2.3 Key concepts in Transfer of learning There are some key concepts that influence transfer of learning and they need to be clarified so that in-depth understanding of the. transfer of learning can be attained. Transfer of learning serves as the output or outcomes of either education or training and plays a crucial role in determining whether transfer of learning has taken place or not. The training and education concepts will now be defined to determine their link with transfer of learning. 2.3.1 Training Training is defined as the use of specific means to inoculate specific learning through techniques and methods. It is therefore a deliberate effort to teach specific skills, knowledge and attitudes. According to Tight (2002: 39) the idea of training is usually associated with preparing someone to perform a task or roles it could be in a workplace or any other setting. He also adds that it involves instruction and practice aimed at reaching a particular level of competence or operative efficiency. Robbins and de Cenzo (1998: 246) define training as a learning experience that seeks to improve employee's job performance by changing their skills, knowledge, attitudes or behavior. They further elaborate that training must be evaluated according to performance-based , measures such as how well employees perform their jobs after training. This definition affirms that the end result of training is to transfer learning as confirmed by competency and operative efficiency or simply performing the task learned. 2.3.2 Education Nel defines education as an activity aimed at developing knowledge, moral values and understanding with the purpose of developing the students intellectually (Gerber et al. 1987: 215). Tight (2002: 15) defines education as "organized and sustained instructions designed to communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all activities of life." Knowles (1998: 10) defines education as an activity undertaken or initiated by one or more agents that is designed to effect changes in the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of individual, groups or communities. Tight (2002: 16) indicates that the common understanding of the words education, training and learning has linkage with specific settings. Commonly people associate learning wit school, training with work environment and learning is learning is associated with enjoyable 12 rage discovery. For the purpose of this study, education relates to all organized efforts of the educator or practitioner as agents of education undertaken to develop or communicate knowledge, skills and attitude for the purpose of effecting changes in the life of another individual. 2.3.3 Adult education and training Before one can define the concept of adult education it is proper to break down the concept. Tight (2002; 14) acknowledges that defining the word adult has been problematic for many authors as different countries have their own set of what constitutes an adult. Some look at the age, some look at mere status of an individual. He further aligns himself with the definition that considers adulthood as a state of being that accords rights to individuals, simultaneously conferring duties and responsibilities upon them. Gert at al. (1987: 228) maintain that trainees in industries and organisations are mostly adult learners and they learn considerably different from children. The authors allege that adult learners evaluate and integrate what they learn in terms of their personal experiences. Adults are more interested in the usability of learning tasks in the future and the authors propose that the learning tasks should be broken down into smaller units. Adult learner prefers to plan their own learning and adopt self directed approach to it, like to set their own pace and whether they want guidance not grades. They judge learning achievement according to learning experience and material gain, not according to how well they scored. Management trainees should therefore be treated as adults and implies that training and development practitioners should take into consideration that the training content is aligned to the management trainees work reality and that adult training principles and development practitioners should use real-life problems rather than predetermined theoretical and abstracts notions. Gerber et al. (1987: 233) propose that an in-depth training needs analysis be done on an individual, occupational and organisational level before any training intervention is undertaken. Performance analysis should be conducted to identify any personal or work related gap so that the learning intervention design can be done accordingly. 131Page 2.3.4 Human resource development (HRD) HRD is the process of developing or unleashing expertise through organisational development and personnel training for the purpose of improving performance at organisational work process and individual level. HRD involves employee development and management development. This study focuses on determining whether management trainees are transferring the content learned during an accelerated management development programme. The focus is therefore on management development rather than employee development in their current positions. 2.3.5 Management development Gerber et al. (1987: 253) agree that there are various connotations to the term management development and he proposes a definition, which includes both the process and the context. A management development process is primarily concerned with helping the individual manager to change his ways in such a manner that there is such a manner that there will immediately be discernible improvement in his management skills. Management development programmes are usually geared to historical or past career patterns. 2.4 Measuring transfer of learning According to May (1997: 271) evaluates seek to determine whether the acquired leaning has led to any noteworthy improvements in performance or productivity. Rowe (1996; 24) favours the evaluations that allow for the measuring of the whole process of training and development (T&D) as well as the monitoring of particular programmes. He further point out that it should allow us to pose fundamental (perhaps controversial) questions about training and development, explore what T&D is trying to do and, equally important, whether there is different between the two. Rowe (1996: 22) maintains that course evaluations do not indicate whether there is transfer or learning or not by stating that: " given that most organisations laud the importance of T&D, it is extraordinary that so little time and effort is given to evaluating the suitability and success of programmes. Evaluation often receives little more than lip-service. Most organisations use "happiness sheets", for delegates to complete at the end of training programmes- and these have their place, but they say far more about the delegates than about the programme and do not tell you anything about how effectively 14 IPage delegates have digested the material and apply it in the workplace. Happiness sheets provide useful feedback for presenter, and whether the returns are generally favourable, one has to question what is gained by issuing them for more than three months." Thorpe et al. (1993:13) identified two approaches that could be followed to evaluate the impact of transfer of learning in the workplace. The first approach is to evaluate whether the concepts learned from training can survive over a period of time. The second approach is to assess the extent to which the skills learned during training are being implemented or there are plans to implement the skills in future. This study focuses on the latter approach because it relates directly to the following question: why do management trainees not transfer what they have prom classroom training to their workplace? Bladwin and ford (in Axtell et al 1997:202) proposed a model containing three types of influence on the transfer of learning, namely aspects of the course, characteristics of the trainee and futures of work environment. The questionnaire tool was tailored along this line of thinking and included the particular details and readiness for the course, training intervention and organisational features. Cheng and Ho (2001 :102) mentioned that most recent researchers refer to Donald Kirkpartrik' s four-level taxonomy to evaluate transfer of learning which are: Reaction of participants Learning acquired Behavioural changes Organisational results Kirkpatrile s four-level evaluation taxonomy is supported by wide community of researchers. Bramley (1999 :145) is of the opinion that developmental activities, which are interested to increase the effectiveness of managers, can be evaluated at a number of levels. In the most widely used frame work of evaluation, that was proposed by Kirkpatrik. Bramley and Kitson (194 :10) take a step further to quote Hamblin who added the fifth-level to Kirkpatrik's fourth level focuses on the on the impact of courses on the whole organisation, using productivity and labour turnover; the fifth level of assesses the effect of the learning on profitability and growth of the organisation as a whole. Jack Phillips (2003: 12) takes it further by introducing methods to convert data (benefits of courses i.e. productivity and labour turnover) to 151 monetary value. The ROI convertion method is different from many perceived process module or standards because it ensure consistent application of the process., Al-Athari and Zairi (2002: 243) conducted a study in Kuwait aimed at identifying the best practice of training and its impact on employees and organisations effectiveness and performance. Their finding was that the entire sample used Kirkpatrik model to evaluate training programmes, while only five percent of the sample added other modules to that of kirkpatrik. The authors maintain that the findings were consistent with a similar study conducted in the USA by ASTD which found that 67% of 300 sampled USA organisations use Kirkpatrik model to conduct training evaluations. Fred Nickols (2003 :3) uses the Kirkpatrik model as a centrepiece of his article on evaluating training because it survived the turbulence and shouldered the challenges that were channelled through the wave of changes since it was the first researcher to develop a coherent evaluation strategy and stress that the model is well known to all those involved in the development and delivery of training and that it form the core of the systematic approach to education. In line with Kirkpatrik four level evaluation taxonomy, Cheng and Ho (2002: 102) identified a narrower and more generic process that can specify the transfer of learning to workplace. The four stages are the following: Pre-training Motivation Learning Training performance Transfer outcome For the purpose of this study, the Kirkpatrick model of training evaluations, including Cheng and Ho approach, was considered, mainly because of the study does not only aim to determine how effective the training was but to identify the constraints of transferring learning to workplace. The following data collection instruments were used: A questionnaire specifically designed for this research A semi-structured interview A focus group 16IPage 2.5. Constraints to effective transfer of learning Meldrum and Atkinson (1998 :329) are of the idea that the problem do not necessarily lie with the learning intervention programmes but with organisational issues. The organisation usually gives broad expectations than specific changes required from learning. It is therefore difficult to measure the broad expectations. They maintain that the way in which training and development are managed, restricts its ability to demonstrate the value. The authors further elaborate that management development practitioners are seen as administrators without influence in the business operation. Most of them hardly know what it entails to be manager. The authors affirm that excellent development courses often fails to enable the individuals who attend to achieve significant organisational change due to hostility and mistrust between the practitioners and line managers leading to disappointment and frustration. Management development should not be treated as a shopping list of courses or as an item selected from a course catalogue. Conant (1991: 188) suspects that the problem could arise from how we measure the outcomes of training and development. The central concepts of this study is transfer of learning and thorough review of literature focused on this concept. Tight (1996 : 22) maintains that learning is a continuous holistic process grounded in experience involving interactions between the learner and the world. Illeris (1996: 169) regards learning as all processes leading to permanent capacity change whether physical, cognitive, emotional or social in nature. It extends to factors such as personal development, socialisation, qualifications and competence development. Kolesnik (1976; 158) defines transfer as a carryover of application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, habits etc., from the situation in which they were acquired to the other. In my experience mangers are usually sent on course in "ones and twos" and rarely with their boss. This is usually because large numbers cannot be spared out of a department at the same time but it means that delegates learn "in isolation" and return from programmes as "missionaries" carrying" the word" back but are unable to generate the necessary support to make real changes. Many people do their training with managers from other companies and other functions — courses at local colleges are good example which provides considerable gains in terms of broadening knowledge and experience, but creates problem for missionaries is that they invariably return to an environment hostile to the ideas they have learned and, 17IPage consequently, over time, the ideas evaporate through indifference or opposition (Rowe, 1996: 20) The paragraph above proves that there are constraints that prevent learning to transferred to the workplace and the paragraphs below explain the nature and extent of each constraint. 2.6 The context of transfer of learning for the purpose of this study It is crucial to define the context in which the learners are expected to operate. According to Thomas (2002: 237), the South African workforce is characterised by adversarial relationships, lack of trust and communication between individuals and groups, poor team work, apparent absence of employees, commitment and motivation for organisational goals, high staff turnover especially amongst the designated groups, industrial conflict and low levels of profitability, quality and customer service. According to Doyle (2002: 579) managers are being presented with a new agenda of demands, expectations and challenges which some are forecasting have complex implications for managerial roles and futures. He further states that growing number of managers are finding themselves having to cope with additional responsibilities and longer working hours. The concept of transfer of learning is crucial to workplace learning, as it does not only contribute to increased production, but also helps to strengthen the production capability. It ensures that there is return on investment for the organisation and contributes to individual effectiveness. This study is based on workplace learning (classroom and on the job) with special emphasis on employees who received training within the public service. 2.7 Effective education for transfer: some general principles A major revolution in education thinking is required to ensure that transfer is no longer seen as a passive, naturally occurring phenomenon (Stokes and Baer, 1977), but becomes a conscious part of education for life beyond the initial learning setting, and specifically the workplace. This includes whether the learning/teaching occurs specifically in the workplace or whether it is off-site. Detterman's (1993) analyses clearly imply that workplace training often fails when the task changes slightly from the original setting or where there are changes in technology or machinery. What seems central is meaningful education, as opposed to narrow training, and preparation of learners to anticipate problem solving and transfer. What is needed here are changes in the culture of teaching and training, and also employer 18 1Page expectations, with the notion of educating more broadly often in conflict with the realities of narrow training for workplace purposes. . Perkins and Salomon (1989) drew attention to the concept of high road transfer where openness to the need for adaptation and modified ways of thinking are central to achieving successful transfer. This aligns with Rumelhart and Norman's (1978) concept of tuning as part of schema/mental model construction in memory, and adaptation of initial structures through later applications to make the schemas more effective. In turn, tuning involves generalization which seems to be a key to effective transfer (Stokes & Baer, 1977) and central too to the concept of generic skills (Cornford, 2005). If skill development can be established in the minds of educators and learners as further tuning, that is creating more effective models to guide thinking and behaviour after the initial acquisition of information, then more effective learning will be encouraged over the lifespan. Further support regarding the importance of tuning of schema comes implicitly from Fitts' skill learning theory where the practice—fixation phase of skill learning, involving practice and feedback, leads to increasingly effective mental models guiding performance and also better actual performance in terms of speed and accuracy (Cornford, 1999). Recognition of the need for problem solving perhaps needs to start early in educational processes but importantly there must be recognition of the limitations of the novice learner. If too much is demanded from those with a low knowledge base, or the initial learning too difficult, there will be 'turning off' and loss of motivation vital for other aspects involving maintenance of skills and application (Comford, 1996). There also needs to be recognition that the novice should not be pushed into transfer and problem solving before there is solid understanding. Too frequently transfer is expected without adequate understanding and learning having taken place (Comford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). The classic example is with mathematics, where learners are expected too often to apply new principles to different examples before having grasped the basics. Employment of worked examples in teaching is currently seen as one way of overcoming these problems. What is also central to effective learning for near transfer is guidance by more knowledgeable teachers who understand real world applications and the variety of such applications (Comford, 2002; Haskell, 2001). It is necessary to reassign a substantial role for teaching, 19IPage and even training, rather than hold the currently fashionable view that learning is the only thing that matters. Effective teaching and learning go hand-in-hand and this reality has been recognized over many centuries (Bandura, 1997). We need to recognize this, even when confronted with the reality that the teacher cannot learn for the learner. 2.7.1 Initial learning Cornford (2002) has advanced a model of sequential skill development, based on empirical evidence. This conceptualizes five steps in learning and schema development in the skill development process leading to effective transfer of learning. It also establishes a number of conceptually distinct assessment stages that provide feedback to both teacher and learner on progress in learning to successfully transfer initial learning. This model is developed for near transfer and conceives of a series of five steps in learning that moves from understanding and then consolidation of basic principles, to a stage of generalization from initial principles and then also consolidation of generalization, before moving still further to more generalization and transfer of learning to other settings. The model recommends that teaching and practice occur as much as possible in controlled situations where the buzzing complexity of the real workplace for does not distract and confuse the novice learner in early stages, and where understanding of the cues that signal the need to apply these particular skills can be learned in conjunction with the principles guiding the skills. Central to the skill development model also are the use of suitable performance models so that it is possible to see and learn from these how things need to be done. The skill model operates along the long recognized lines of modeling, practice, feedback and learning through application (Bandura,1997), and seeks to establish sound schemas with solid understanding and performance before transfer to the complex, natural setting is attempted. There are some obvious limitations with this model. In some cases because of the setting and the types of training it will not be cost/time effective or feasible. However there is evidence that despite the introduction of training packages in Australia that approximately 70% of learning occurs in non-workplace settings. There are also limitations given the thoroughness of controlled practice involved and whether there is any clear path of generalization. Only skills of considerable importance would warrant being taught in this specific way, where there are discernible later applications involving generalizations, and transfer is intended (Cornford, 2002). 20IPage This model needs to be seen in combination with Yelon's (1992) M.A.S.S. model for achieving transfer that operates on a macro contextual level, since the model advanced by Comford operates at a micro level of teaching/training. Many of the elements in YeIon' s model were recognized as specific, important factors in Comford's original experimental work, but are not immediately spelled out in the micro-level sequential skill development model. In Yelon's M.A.S.S. model the M stands for Motivation, the A stands for Awareness, the first S stands for Skill and the second S stands for Support. The first three of these are relevant to initial skill acquisition so will be considered in this section; the last will be considered in the next section. However, it should be noted that in Yelon's model all these factors have implications for continued use and application of the skills in the workplace, that is to say he conceives of motivation operating before, during and after the initial training as does Bandura (1997). Motivation is important for the individual desiring to acquire the skill in the first place rather than to ignore it or learn something else, to store information effectively in long term memory, to apply it at the right time and in the right context and to maintain standards that have been learned, or even try to improve those standards over the longer term (Comford, 1996). In short, motivation is the factor that drives a great number of internal cognitive and metacognitive (self-regulation) processes and without which it is unlikely that effective positive transfer will occur. Yelon (1992) considers motivation within the needs of the organization and also the pressures against application due to workplace culture. He insists that the organization needs to decide whether there really is a high priority need to use what is to be taught, and whether the trainees perceive this as one of their priorities as well. In a very practical way he indicates trainers and management need to ask whether the need exceeds the pressures to maintain the cultural status quo within the organization and whether the trainees will be able to counter present cultural norms and apply their knowledge. He also indicates the need to consider if the knowledge and skills will make a difference to the organization as well as the trainees, with there being a need, if these questions are answered in the affirmative, for the trainee to appear more effective as a result of using them. These are very practical issues that go to the heart of whether the organization and trainers are really serious about the transfer issues and see education/training as a means of maintain skill and knowledge currency, and creating a workplace culture receptive to these things. 211Page In relation to awareness, Yelon asks a number of equally pointed questions. YeIon is acutely aware of the fact that trainees must be mindful of the use of the skill, not just in the general sense but 'they must know exactly how to use it' (Yelon, 1992:15). Hence he focuses upon making transparent to trainees why previous performance was unsuccessful and what is needed to change the performance. In addition to this he signifies that trainees need to know when, where and why the skills may be used, the cues that denote the appropriateness of usage, as well as being able to logically justify that usage. Here Yelon draws upon, and integrates, what have been seen as the two main approaches to effective transfer (Cox, 1997), understanding of principles and stimulus recognition (cues). With regard to actual acquisition of skill knowledge, Yelon focuses upon the need to use as many procedures that enhance acquisition and storage, that is cognitive and metacognitive strategies, to ensure that the trainee learning the initial knowledge and skill very thoroughly. He also includes elements of behavioral psychology that have a strong track record, such as distributed practice, extended practice and feedback to autonomasticity, along with application to gain feedback and self- awareness of understanding (Yelon, 1992:16). There is evidence that effective initial learning through multiple strategies, outlined briefly here, in combination can serve to strength the individual's learning to at least in part combat less than receptive or sympathetic workplace cultures (Cornford, 1991). 2.7.2 Beyond initial learning The last of the elements in Yelon's model is support. Yelon recognizes only too well the pressures working against new trainees in an existing workplace culture. Relative novices or newcomers must compete for regard with longer serving, older employees who have absorbed the culture and hence act to preserve that with which they feel comfortable and part of. He sums up the issues by stating: 'All staff must learn not to discourage transfer' (Yelon, 1992:17). In this Yelon is very much in agreement with the analyses of Broad and Newstrom (1992). Their analyses parallel and are in agreement with Yelon's in terms of the forces operating in the workplace to discourage transfer and the change that it brings with it. The inside cover of their book contains a clear summary of the roles of the manager, trainer and trainee, all of whom have distinct roles to play in the process, with these following fairly closely what Yelon's more general and concise model indicates is necessary. Broad and Newstrom further spell out the need for managers, who act as leaders, power figures and exercise control in organizations, to signal approval of the new information, its value and its 22IPage importance in functioning of the organization. What they also do, which extends beyond Yelon's work, is to indicate how the value which are sought in the new, learning may be transferred and incorporated into management and human resources development procedures by simple mechanisms such as performance reviews where serious assessment of the new learning and transfer can serve as bases for recognition, reward and promotion. This is in accordance with now generally accepted best practice of performance reviews and career progression guidance in medium-larger organizations. 2.8 Learning in the workplace: its strengths and limitations In this section salient findings from a series of studies into workplace learning (Billett,1995) are synthesised. These studies examine the consequences of participation in activities in the workplace as a means of securing knowledge and highlight some strengths and limitations associated with that participation. The key concerns are how these forms of knowledge referred to earlier can be constructed by engaging in problem-solving activities encountered as part of everyday workplace activities. 2.8.1 Strengths In preview, authentic activities, expert others, other workers and engagement in tasks are seen as the basis for effective learning in workplaces (Billett, 1995). The construction of the knowledge required for expert performance is reported in the above mentioned studies as being realised through learning experiences that are authentic, thereby providing goal- directed activity (problem- solving) which has cognitive consequences of particular salience to workplace activities. Close or proximal guidance by other workers in securing workplace goals is valued by learners. It is held that, everyday participation in work tasks provides opportunities for learners to generate tentative solutions to vocational tasks and then attempt to secure those solutions. This results in knowledge being indexed and organised in ways that is purposeful in terms of the successful securing of workplace goals. Such a guided approach to learning provides the opportunity for learners to develop increasingly mature approximations of the procedures required to be successful in these tasks, through a process of testing and modifying their approximations. As these procedures are tested and modified it is likely that concepts associated with goals and sub-goals will become deepened through rich associations, linkages and purposeful 23IPage organisation. Over time, it is proposed, this activity results in the development of a repertoire of goal-securing schemata which are richly associated with the circumstances of their acquisition through routine and non-routine problem-solving. Indexing to the social environment provides a form of mediation which draws upon the social and cultural contributions (clues and cues) of the particular setting (Brown, et al., 1989). The interaction with expert others guides the learners' tentative solutions to tasks and the means of securing goals (Billett, 1994). Experts provide the means for achieving task goals, through proximal guidance and more distal contributions such as access to further practise and increasingly complex tasks. This proximal interaction is analogous to the modelling, coaching and scaffolding of the approach to learning referred to as cognitive apprenticeships (Collins, Brown & Newman, 1989) in what Vygotsky (1987) refers to as the Zone of Proximal Development. That is the array of the tasks that can be successfully accomplished with the assistance of an expert, which otherwise could not be accomplished, by learners on their own. Indirect or distal forms of guidance also provide sources of supplementary mediation for the construction of knowledge. For example, listening to and the observation of other workers in the workplace is reported to assist the learner with the conceptualisation and approximations of workplace tasks (Billett, 1994). It is proposed that the active and constructive learner-focussed nature of engagement in workplace activities presses learners into goal-directed activity, is conducive to accessing higher orders of procedural knowledge and deeper conceptual knowledge, as well as the development of more specific forms of knowledge (Billett,1995). It is these forms of knowledge which are particularly useful for the transfer of knowledge to other circumstances. From a constructivist perspective, the active engagement in routine problem-solving activities affords another key quality -- reinforcement -- the satisfaction that individuals experience when they adapt new stimuli to their existing knowledge structure, or, put more simply, when they are 'making sense' of the stimuli (von Glasersfeld, 1987). This is an important distinction between views which are premised on the nature of learning as being externally directed (e.g. behaviouralists), where reinforcement is linked to external endorsements, and constructivist views where reinforcement is the internal gratification realised through making sense of a novel stimuli through a process of interpretative construction. From this view, as individuals acquire knowledge they experience reinforcement as procedures become more 24IPage effective, predictions are realised through monitoring, and task goals are achieved to a standard required by the culture of the particular workplace practice. In these ways, the above mentioned studies offer evidence of the potential that exists within workplaces for the development of purposeful vocational knowledge, a potential which can occur through everyday work practice. 2.8.2 Limitations Although workplaces offer the potential for rich learning outcomes, through participation in everyday practice, there are also barriers to realising the full potential of these settings. What follows is a set of possible limitations to the effectiveness of workplace learning (Billett, 1995a). These limitations are: (i) the construction of inappropriate knowledge; (ii) access to authentic activities; (iii) reluctance of experts; (iv) access to expertise; (v) opaqueness of some knowledge and (vi) access to instructional media. Underpinning the limits to workplace learning is that workplaces, like any other settings, are inherently value-laden. Values associated with the goals of the organisation (e.g. productivity, service) and of those individuals working the setting (e.g. personal or sectional interests) cannot be denied as they influence the nature, type and access to the activities which influence cognitive development. Consequently, the array of activities and access to these activities are constrained by personal and organisational preferences and goals. 2.8.2.1 Inappropriate knowledge Not all activities in workplaces may lead to the development of appropriate knowledge. The construction of inappropriate knowledge, including attitudes and values may result if these are present and rewarded in the community of practice. For example, dangerous work practice or exclusive views about gender and race might be pervasive. As most forms of situated learning occur where relationships between participants are unequal (Verodonik, et al, 1988), the nature and values embedded in workplaces are likely to play a role in determining the types of knowledge that are constructed. Therefore, despite individuals ultimately constructing their own version of knowledge, the press of the community or desire to conform may result in deleterious learning outcomes. So, for example, dangerous or shoddy work practice might be appropriated because such practice is a community norm. 25IPage 2.8.2.2. Access to authentic activities Limits to accessing either activities or guidance are likely to have consequences for learners. The potency of learning is determined by the quantity and quality of guided access to authentic activities which press learners into problem-solving. If learners are denied engagement in activities which are increasingly challenging, it is likely that the learning outcomes will be constrained. Access to work activities need to be sequenced to take the novice from engaging in peripheral activities through to increasingly complex tasks. Moreover, those activities which allow the learner to access both the process and the product of those activities need to be included. 2.8.2.3 Reluctance of experts As stated above, workplace environments in which novices are furnished with models, coaching and insights are likely to provide rich learning outcomes. However, reluctance by experts to furnish these interactions may severely inhibit the outcomes of workplace learning. Expert workers may well be cautious about sharing their knowledge for fear of loss of status or even concerns about displacement, by those whom they have guided. In Japanese corporations, where workplace learning is used widely, supervisors, whose roles include training subordinates, are secure in the knowledge that their promotion is based on seniority (Dore & Sako 1989). These experts provide learning experiences for their subordinates without concerns about displacement by those they have trained. Experts who are not rewarded or fear displacement may be unwilling to provide the proximal guidance and access to increasingly complex tasks which is essential for learners. A particular issue in the Australian context is concern about industrial affiliation in which particular jobs are undertaken by particular groups of workers. So, for example, a tradesperson may be reluctant to show a non-tradesperson a particular task, if they believe it may jeopardise the tradesperson's interest. 2.8.2.4 Access to expertise A lack of available expertise will be likely to have a negative impact upon workplace learning. Although expertise external to the community may be required to provide guidance, any external expertise has to account for the conditions under which work practice is conducted. For example, in one of the studies (Billett, 1993a), coal workers stated that the technical teachers at a nearby vocational college lacked an understanding of how work was 26IPage conducted in coal mines. However, in another study (Billett, 1994), novice staff worked alongside experts from overseas during the commissioning of a secondary ,processing plant. In doing so, these novices gained important understandings and insights which have allowed them to take responsibility for the plant's operation and to respond to problems that arise during production. Access to expertise is likely to be an important factor in workplace learning, therefore limit to access could have negative outcomes. However, as is reported consistently in the studies, the learner determines who is and is not an expert. 2.8.2.5 Accessing conceptual (propositional) knowledge Concerns were reported in two studies (Billett, 1994) about the inability of workplace learning activities to secure the depth of understanding required for complex work activities. Prawat (1993) also suggests that situated learning may favour the development of procedures over propositions. Such concerns need to be acknowledged because, as Berryman (1993) reports, the increasing complexity of work is making many tasks more opaque, requiring a rich conceptual base to understand and be effective in these more complex forms of work. The studies indicate that, despite the concerns of Prawat (1993) and some participants, propositional knowledge is developed tluotigh guided everyday activities in the workplace. However, close guidance and even instructional intervention is likely to be required to develop understanding about knowledge that is opaque and hidden from the novices. For example, black box technology, computer-driven processes, complex forms of work organisation are making knowledge inaccessible. Yet the conceptual knowledge required for this understanding is often inaccessible to the novice without proximal guidance of an expert. 2.8.2.6 Instructional media Currently, much of the effort to manage learning in workplaces is grounded in the use of various forms of text-based instructional materials. These media, such as computer-based and text-based learning systems, are often proposed as training solutions for workplaces. However, it is reported that such media offer access to forms of knowledge that are disembodied from the activities for which they claim to be developing knowledge (Billett, 1994). The knowledge, so constructed, has to be transferred from the context of acquisition to application in the workplace in order for knowledge to be deployed. This is because the type 27 IPage of knowledge developed through interacting with these texts does not develop the types of knowledge required to secure goals in novel circumstances. In addition, these types of learning arrangements are most likely to be generative of certain types of knowledge, particularly very specific procedures and low-level propositional knowledge, which are not, of themselves, likely to assist with complex work performance. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 2.9 Sociological and socio-cultural approaches to transfer and work-based learning Socio-cultural paradigms have been seen as critical in the issues of transfer and learning by many theorists (eg Billett, 1996; Eraut, 2004). However the importance of these elements has been overstated where learning is concerned and thus, at best, what they offer is a half-truth. It is argued very strongly here that it is cognitive-constructivist views that hold the key to learning issues in transfer. Cornford (1996:5) stated almost a decade ago, when the infatuation with situated learning and socio-cultural paradigms was developing: "...it is the self-regulatory and control factors within the individual that determine whether a skill is learned or not, or to what degree social influence is accepted and whether there will be internalization or rejection of standards. Acquisition and maintenance of skills are dependent upon cognitive factors largely controlled by the individual..'. It is not claimed that cognitive psychologists hold all the answers, and it is recognized that social factors are often important (see Cornford, 1996:5). For example certainly power relationships in workplaces and workplace cultures (eg Fuller et al., 2004) can be important influences on learning. What is argued here is that cognitive processes are central to understanding and attaining effective learning for workplaces but social factors will also influence acquisition and performance, hence there needs to be a distinct balance between the cognitive and social sides of the equation. The main problem in essence is socio-cultural and sociological paradigms cannot explain learning processes, with the learning being taken for granted and the results of learning becoming the bases of these theories. What is more, when viewed objectively, sociology and derived disciplines have a poor track record over the past century in both predictive and explanatory value (Sherden, 1998). Sherden (1998,) has argued that this is because of the 28IPage complexity of social situations and foundations that these approaches are based upon. However, as Sherden indicates, through a, citation of earlier writing by Karl Popper, mental processes are an important factor in understanding change in human society (Sherden, 1998:197). Until now concentration upon socio-cultural factors in workplace learning literature, largely to the exclusion of cognitive elements, has resulted in far less attention to the learning part of the equation when the learning processes are absolutely central to the acquisition, storage and refinement of schemas or mental models in memory which are foundations of human understanding and behaviour (Rumelhart & Norman, 1978). Learning per se is widely recognized as an important factor in the organizational development and management literatures (French and Bell, 1995), with learning being central to bringing about changes in culture, both in terms of the culture of a specific organization (French & Bell, 1995) but also of the wider cultures to be found in the wider communities of any nation (Bandura, 1997). Garvan (1997), in analyzing issues in organizational learning and the learning organization, correctly argues that organization are inanimate and cannot learn; only individuals can learn and thus influence the actions of the organization and the quality and nature of the culture. Transfer of learning is certainly all about learning and adaptation of learning that leads to more complex understanding and knowledge. As will be argued further below, one of the main impediments to attaining effective positive transfer is hostile cultures. That is lack of understanding and positive attitudes within organizations, and specifically understanding of owners, manager and trainers (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Yelon, 1992). Policy makers also are lacking understanding of both learning and transfer of learning (Cornford, 2005). For there to be enhanced workplace learning and performance there needs to be transfer of learning and for this to occur there needs to be changes in attitudes to teaching transfer of learning and changes in the workplace cultures where this learning is to be returned to and built upon (Eraut, 2004). The most useful explanatory and predictive learning theory with application to both organizations and the wider society is that of Bandura, specifically his observational learning model involving modeling (Bandura, 1977) and later social-cognitive theory encompassing self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Central to Bandura's social-cognitive theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism where person, behaviour (activity) and environment interact in 29IPage complex ways (Bandura, 1997). Bandura is an important, established theorist and researcher in social learning theory, yet references to his work, with its major body of underpinning experimental evidence, are conspicuous by their absence from the work of the sociological, socio-cultural theorists, situated learning theorists and activity theorists. This is a grave error since Bandura managed to successfully combine both social and cognitive aspects of learning as early as 1977. Unlike other theorists who have tried to reconcile social and cognitive elements (Billett, 1996), Bandura recognized that learning is a precursor to the establishment of behaviour and culture, and learning of individuals is the basis of cultural change. Bandura's theories underpin the following analysis of transfer of learning that focuses upon acquisition, retention and performance processes and also motivation as the supremely powerful factor that is necessary for learning. These concepts apply equally to skill learning as to learning of more abstract cultural and social elements. In Bandura's work social factors are seen as powerful in the selection and creation of models as well as allowing the performance of acquired knowledge and skill, especially practice and feedback, to refine the mental models or schemas, in different social settings. 2.10 A Transfer of Training Model Traditional approaches to transfer of training tend to consider it as a horizontal link between training and performance. A comprehensive review of the literature (Baldwin and Ford, 1988) classified the factors affecting transfer of training into three categories: (1) training inputs, including trainee characteristics, training design, and work environment; (2) training outputs, consisting of learning and retention; and (3) conditions of transfer, which focus on the generalization and maintenance of training. All three sets of training input features are seen as affecting learning and retention, which directly influence generalization and maintenance. However, a significant purpose of training and development is to improve performance (Swanson, 1995). Learning is of little value to organizations unless it is transferred in some way to performance (Holton, Bates, Seyler, and Carvalho, 1997). Kuchinke (1995) also argued that learning is a means, not a primary organizational outcome. Learning is an internal behavior, whereas performance is usually a more external one. Therefore, training outputs should emphasize performance, not just learning. Holton (1996) provided a conceptual evaluation model of training focused on individual performance. This model proposes three primary outcomes of training intervention: learning, 30IPage Organisationa Resul Individual Performance individual performance, and organizational results. These outcomes are defined, respectively, as achievement of the learning outcome desired in an HRD intervention, change in individual performance as a result of learning being applied on the job, and results at the organizational level as a consequence of change in individual performance. Figure 1 illustrates Holton's transfer of training model, which suggests that three crucial factors affect transfer of training—motivation to transfer, transfer climate, and transfer design. Figure 1: Holton's Factors Affecting Transfer of Training Transfer design Source: adapted from Holton EF III- 1996, Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol 7, no 1, p9 Individual performance is at the core of Holton's transfer of training model. Learning is expected to lead to individual performance change only when the three primary influences on transfer behaviour are at appropriate levels. This model emphasizes three factors that affect implementation and transfer. However, this model needs theories and a conceptual framework to explain (1) why people desire to change their performance after attending a training program, (2) what training design contributes to people's ability to transfer skills 311Page successfully, and (3) what kind of organizational environment supports people as they apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes gained, in a training program to their job. To enhance transfer of training, the HRD consultant must understand theories of evaluation and performance. Without this information, it is difficult to conduct the high-quality research that leads to effective solutions to transfer of training problems. Therefore, to access theories and conceptual frameworks necessary to describe Holton's three factors affecting implementation and transfer of training and the HRD implementation strategies to help organizations achieve a high level of transfer, this article will address theories of motivation of transfer, theories of transfer design, and theories of transfer climate. 2.11 Theories on Motivation of Transfer Motivation to transfer was hypothesized in Holton's (1996) model to connect learning with individual performance change. Motivation to transfer can be described as trainees' desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job (Noe and Schmitt, 1986). Behavioural change will likely occur for trainees who learn the material presented in training and desire to apply that new knowledge or skills to work activities. To support the degree of transfer of training desired, it is important to understand why individuals choose to apply their knowledge, skills, and attitudes in their workplace. Several theories of human behaviour help us understand and predict behaviours that contribute to performance at work, as well as clarify the motivation to transfer factor in Holton's model. They include the theories of expectancy, equity, and goal setting. 2.11.1 Expectancy Theory. Vroom's original presentation of expectancy theory placed it in the mainstream of contemporary motivation theory (Moorhead and Griffin, 1992). Vroom (1964:17) defined expectancy as "a momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will precede a particular outcome." His formulation suggested that job performance (P) is the result of the interaction of two components, Force (F) and Ability (A), with ability representing the potential for performing some task. The force to perform an act is the algebraic sum of the products of the valences of all outcomes (E) and the valence or rewards of those outcomes (V). In equation form, the theory reads: P _ F (F _ A) (cited in Kilgore, 1997). Vroom's model emphasizes an individual's capacity or ability, rather than willingness, 32IPage to perform a specific task. Since it was first introduced, the model has been refined and extended. An exception is the version of expectancy theory presented by Porter and Lawler (1968, as cited in Moorhead and Griffin, 1992), which takes a novel view of the relationship between employee satisfaction and performance. Although the conventional wisdom was that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse: if rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. The Porter-Lawler extension includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions (how well the individual understands his or her job). At the beginning of the motivation cycle, effort is a function of the value of the potential reward for the employee (its valence) and the perceived effort-reward probability (an expectancy). Effort then combines with abilities, traits, and role perceptions to determine performance. Performance results in two kinds of rewards. Intrinsic rewards are intangible a feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement, and so forth. Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes, such as pay or promotion. The individual judges the value of his or her performance to the organization and uses social comparison processes to form an impression of the equity of the rewards received. If the rewards are regarded as equitable, the employee feels satisfied. In subsequent cycles, satisfaction with rewards influences the value of the rewards anticipated, and actual performance following effort influences future perceived effort-reward probabilities. 2.11.2 Equity Theory. Equity theory is based on the simple premise that people want to be treated fairly (Adams, 1963). The theory defines equity as the belief that employees are being treated fairly in relation to others and inequity as the belief that employees are being treated unfairly in relation to others. Vroom (1964) recognized that individuals seek equity in their jobs; thus, job satisfaction reflects the extent to which rewards received match the rewards the employee believes should be received. Vroom also stated that "the greater the difference between these two amounts, the greater the tension or disequilibrium experienced by the person" (p. 168). According to Carrell and Dittrich (1978, cited in Ilgen and Klien, 1988), equity theory rests on three main assumptions: "(1) people develop beliefs about what constitutes a fair and 33IPage equitable return for the contributions they make to their jobs, (2) people compare their own returns and contributions to those of others, and (3) beliefs about unfair treatment (inequity) create tension that motivates people to reduce that tension" (p. 149). Mechanisms for reducing perceived inequities include cognitively distorting the inputs or returns and outcomes, acting on the comparison with others to change one's inputs or outcomes, changing one's own inputs or outcomes, changing the person with whom a comparison is made, and leaving the situation where inequity is felt (Campbell and Pritchard, 1976). Equity theory predicts that individuals will choose a method of inequity reduction that is personally least costly (Adams, 1963). However, predicting which mode will be seen as least costly has proven to be quite difficult. Noe (1986, cited in Kilgore, 1997) explained the relationship between motivation to transfer and equity theory: "If an individual feels that by attending training he [or she] is likely to gain equity in pay or other sought-after rewards, there is a greater chance that learning will occur, and such learning will transfer to the job" (p. 55). Thus, in studying motivation to transfer of training, it seems logical to focus on what employees feel they should receive from their jobs. 2.11.3 Goal-Setting Theory. Goal-setting theory suggests two cognitive determinants of behaviour: intentions and values. Intentions are viewed as the immediate precursors of human action. The second cognitive process manifests itself in the choice or acceptance of intentions and subsequent commitment to those goals (Locke, 1968). It is the recognition that instructions will affect behaviour only if they are consciously accepted that makes goal setting a cognitive theory of motivation. A goal is that level of performance the individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of behaviour. According to Locke (1968), goals direct attention and action. In addition, they mobilize effort in proportion to perceived requirements of the goal or task (Locke, Shaw, Saari, and Latham, 1981). Therefore, goal setting, like expectancy theory, may explain how and why behaviour is facilitated or restrained in the pre-training, training, and post-training processes. Goal-setting theory holds that, once a hard task is accepted, the only logical thing to do is to try until the goal is achieved or until a decision is reached to lower or abandon the goal (Locke, 1968). Research further suggests that both goals and feedback are necessary to improve performance and that participation, incentives, and individual differences affect 34IPage performance primarily through goal setting (Locke, Shaw, Sarri, and Latham, 1981). McLean and Persico (1994) cautioned, however, that these goals must be valid, which requires that they meet three criteria: data must be derived from a system in a state of statistical control, a valid methodology must be used, and employees must be able to meet the goal. In a study of a management development program for hospital administrators, Wexley and Nemeroff (1975) found that a treatment group assigned performance goals were significantly better at applying learned KSAs than a control group for which no goals were assigned. However, Gist, Bavetta, and Stevens (1990) contrasted the effects of goal setting and self- management as transfer strategies in the use of salary negotiation strategies in a simulation. They found that self-management training resulted in a significantly higher level of transfer than did goal setting. 2.11.4 Impact of These Theories on Transfer Motivation According to these theories, trainees leave training programs with different levels of motivation to use their learning on the job. According to Holton (1996), influences on transfer motivation fall into four categories: intervention fulfillment, learning outcomes, job attitudes, and expected utility. All of these Categories can be explained by expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal setting theory as follows. 2.11.4.1 Intervention Fulfilment. Intervention fulfilment refers to the extent to which training meets or fulfills training expectations and desires. Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and Cannon-Bowers (1991) conducted a rigorous study and found that training fulfilment played a significant role in understanding training motivation. Training motivation is similar to motivation to transfer because it is a measure of the trainees' perception of the relationship between training success and future job performance (Holton, 1996). Intervention fulfilment can be explained by goal- setting theory and expectancy theory. If individuals perceive that what they learn is relevant to their goal (what they need to know) or an intervention has met their expectations and fulfilled their need for performance-related learning, they will be more motivated to transfer learning into on-the-job performance. 35IPage 2.11.4.2 Learning Outcomes. Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and Cannon-Bowers (1991) also found that performance during training had an independent relationship with post training motivation. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) suggests that individuals will be more motivated if they believe that their efforts will lead to enhanced performance. More successful learners would be expected to feel better able to perform, and therefore, more motivated to transfer. In contrast, less successful learners would be expected to be less motivated to transfer learning (Holton, 1996). 2.11.4.2 Job Attitudes. Expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and equity theory would lead us to speculate that people with high commitment and job satisfaction would be more likely to exert effort to transfer. Noe and Schmitt (1986) investigated the relationship between training transfer and trainees' attitudes concerning jobs, careers, and participation in the training program. Results of the study suggest that job involvement and career planning are antecedents of learning and behavior change. Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and Cannon-Bowers (1991) also found that participants with more positive job attitudes would be expected to be more motivated to transfer learning to performance. 2.11.4.3 Expected Utility or Payoff. Clark, Dobbins, and Ladd (1993) found that trainees who perceived training to have more job and career utility were more motivated. These findings are consistent with expectancy theory, which states that individuals will be more motivated to transfer if they perceive that their effort will lead to rewards that they value (Porter and Lawler, 1968). 2.12 Theories for Training Transfer Design According to Holton (1996), one cause of failure to transfer is that training design rarely provides for transfer of learning. That is, cognitive learning may well occur, but program participants may not have an opportunity to practice the training in a job context or may not be taught how to apply their knowledge on the job. So the training itself can have a direct influence on transfer of training. Holton's evaluation model does not provide guidelines to explain what constitutes appropriate transfer designs. Thus, it is important to understand the theories that provide information about the conditions necessary to achieve positive transfer. 36IPage The two primary viewpoints that describe the conditions necessary for transfer are the identical elements and the principles theories. 2.12.1 Identical Elements Theory. The theory of identical, elements was proposed by Thorndike and Woodworth (1991). According to the theory, transfer is improved by increasing the degree of correspondence among the training setting stimuli, responses, and conditions and those related factors operative in the performance setting. Holding (1965) summarized this work on transfer by detailing the type of transfer expected based on the similarity of the stimuli and responses. Holding explained that if the task is identical in both training and transfer, trainees are simply practicing the final task during training and there should be high positive transfer. The second case assumes that the task characteristics—both stimuli and responses—are so different that practice on one task has no relationship to performance on the transfer task. The third case is common to many training programs. The stimuli are somewhat different in the training and transfer settings, but the responses are the same. In this case, the learner can generalize training from one environment to another. The fourth case presents the basic paradigm for negative transfer: if the response to identical stimuli in the two settings is different, negative transfer results. 2.12.2 Principles Theory. The principles theory suggests that training should focus on the general principles necessary to learn a task so that the learner can apply them to solve problems in the transfer environment (Goldstein, 1986). This theory suggests that it is possible to design training environments without too much concern about their similarity to the transfer situation, so long as it is possible to utilize underlying principles. 2.12.3 Near and Far Transfer. According to Laker (1990), transfer of training can be near or far. Near transfer is the application of learning to situations similar to those in which initial learning has taken place; far transfer is the application of learning to situations dissimilar to those of the original learning events. Whether one achieves near or far transfer appears to be dependent on which theory of transfer guides the development and presentation of the training program. Research 37IPage reviewed by Clark and Voogel (1985) suggested that the following recommendations would increase the likelihood of near transfer: The more the training content and program reflect the workplace, the more successful the near transfer (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). The greater the specificity about where and how the training is to be applied to the job, the more successful the near transfer (Clark and Voogel, 1985). The more overlearning of the task is encouraged, the more successful the near transfer (Noe, 1986). The more the procedural nature of the task is emphasized, the more successful the near transfer (Clark and Voogel, 1985). The more the application of the training is restricted to only those areas for which the trainee was prepared, the more successful the near transfer (Clark and Voogel, 1985). Therefore, the identical elements theory influences the acquisition of near transfer. According to Spitzer (1984), near transfer would be the objective of short-term skill development that can be applied immediately to improve performance in one's present position. Near transfer would seem to be most desired when pursuing technical training (Laker, 1990), because technical training usually teaches specific behaviors and procedures applicable to the individual's current job. In contrast, the theory of transfer through principles emphasizes the importance of creating variety and explaining the why that underlies what an individual is being taught. From this perspective, the following factors may hypothetically influence the acquisition of far transfer: The better trainees understand the underlying principles, concepts, and assumptions of the skills and behaviors they are learning, the more successful the far transfer (Goldstein, 1986). The more trainees practice in different contexts and use novelty in their practice exercises, the more successful the far transfer (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Goldstein, 1986). The more encouragement trainees receive during training to discuss and apply the training in situations of their own choosing, the more successful the far transfer (Noe, 1986). 38IPage • The more encouragement trainees receive after training to apply the training to situations other than those for which they were trained, the more successful the far transfer (Goldstein, 1986). Principles theory is critical to far transfer because knowledge can be abstracted and connected to new problems. If trainees can understand the principles and concepts and if they have a chance to practice exercises and apply situations in training programs to their workplace, they are more likely to apply their newly acquired skills and behaviors when they are faced with new challenges and unfamiliar problems. According to Laker (1990), far transfer might be most attractive for management development or creative problem solving, as these types of training are frequently directed toward long-term goals and future positions. In conclusion, near transfer and far transfer can be viewed as a series of goals or objectives of training and should be reflected in the content and design of training. So it is critical to identify in advance the situations in which training is to be applied. However, if we accept the hypothesis that training strategies differ in terms of the types that facilitate near transfer versus far transfer, it is important to identify which parts of the training content and design represent specific parts of the training program. However, Bates (1997) insisted that a key aspect of training design is formulating a training program that directly addresses individual and organizational problems. A number of studies have suggested that the issue of relevance of knowledge, skills, and attitude taught in training is of critical value in determining transfer (Ameel, 1992; Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Garavaglia, 1993). Thus, not only instructional design but also the relevance of instructional content are important and necessary components of conditions supporting training transfer. 2.13 Theories Supporting Transfer Climate Transfer climate was described by Schneider and Rentsch as a "sense of imperative" (cited in Holton, Bates, Seyler, and Carvalho, 1997: 97) that arises from a person's perception of his or her work environment. It influences the extent to which that person can use learned skills on the job. Transfer climate is seen as a mediating variable in the relationship between the organizational context and an individual's job attitudes and work behavior (Holton, Ruona, and Leimbach, 1998). Thus, when learning occurs in training, the transfer climate may either support or inhibit application of learning on the job. Organizational climate is at least as 39IPage important as learning in facilitating transfer (Rouiller and Goldstein, 1993). The conceptual framework and theory that help to explain Holton's transfer climate factor—how organizational environment supports transfer of training—are presented in the following paragraphs. 2.13.1 Transfer Climate Framework. Rouiller and Goldstein (1993) offered a conceptual framework for operationalizing transfer climate; they suggested that transfer climate consists of two types of workplace cues, including eight distinct dimensions, as defined in Exhibit 1. The first set of workplace cues— situation cues—remind trainees of opportunities to use what they have learned when they return to work. There are four types of situation cues: goal cues, social cues, task cues, and self-control cues. The second set of workplace cues—consequence cues—is the feedback trainees receive after they apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they gained in the training to their jobs. There are four types of consequences: positive feedback, negative feedback, punishment, and no feedback. Rouiller and Goldstein used this framework in a study of fast-food restaurant management trainees and demonstrated that the transfer climate added significantly to the explained variance in post-training job performance. They also found that a positive organizational transfer climate appears to be important if transfer of training behaviour is to occur. Exhibit 1. Definition and Illustration of Transfer Climate Items Situation Cues. These cues serve to remind trainees of their training or provide them with opportunities to use their training when they return to their jobs. Goal cues. These cues serve to remind trainees to use their training when they return to their jobs; for example, existing managers set goals for new managers that encourage them to apply their training on the job. Social cues. These cues arise from group membership and include the behavior and influence process exhibited by supervisors, peers, and subordinates; for example, new managers who use their training supervise differently than existing managers. (This is reverse-scored.) 40 Fage Task cues. These cues are concerned with the design and nature of the job itself; for example, equipment is available that allows new managers to use the skills they gained in training. Self-control cues. These cues refer to various self-control processes that permit trainees to use what they have learned; for example, "I was allowed to practice handling real and job-relevant problems." Consequences. As employees return to their jobs and begin applying their learned behavior, they encounter consequences that affect their use of what they have learned. Positive feedback Trainees are given positive information about their use of trained behavior; for example, new managers who successfully use their training receive a salary increase. Negative feedback. Trainees are informed of the negative consequences of not using their learned behavior; for example, area managers are made aware of new managers who are not following operating procedures. Punishment. Trainees are punished for using trained behaviors; for example, more- experienced workers ridicule the use of techniques learned in training. (This is reverse-scored.) No feedback No information is given to the trainees about the use or importance of the learned behavior; for example, existing managers are too busy to note whether trainees use learned behavior. (This is reverse-scored.) Source: Rouiller and Goldstein, 1993 : 383. 2.13.2 Organization Theory. Organization theory describes organizational climate supporting transfer of training in Holton's model. According to Kozlowski and Salas (1997), the need for change, the implementation of interventions, and the transfer of trained skills are embedded within the context of work team, subunit, and organization levels. They propose an organization theory that benefits from the application of concepts drawn from systems oriented theories. Key concepts that underlie the systems framework include that organizations are open to external environmental influences, subsystem events are embedded in the larger systems context or network of relations, and it is impossible to understand complex events in systems by reducing them to their individual elements. Organization theory enhances the identification of tangible work environment characteristics. Contextual factors exert an influence on 41 1Page individual responses through their perceptions of the organizational environment. This means that important, tangible, and meaningful work environment factors (structure, reward systems, or decision autonomy) are stimuli that underlie perceptions of the context. Under this analysis interpretive perceptions serve as mediating mechanisms to link salient contextual features to individual responses (Kozlowski and Fan, 1988). Kozlowski and Salas (1997) posited that three theoretical concepts or themes levels, content, and congruence, underlie organizational context from the perspective of climate theory. This framework can be used to identify issues to improve the effectiveness of training implementation and transfer that are missing in Holton's transfer of training model. The dominant feature of their model is the distinction among the levels that make up the system, individual, team or unit, and organization. Second, the model distinguishes between techno structural and enabling process content, which provides a means to identify relevant features that make up the contexts. Third, the framework incorporates congruence as a critical mechanism for conceptualizing configurations or alignments among key variables of the organizational system. It addresses the connection of variables within content domains, between content domains, and between levels. Changes in system functioning produced by training interventions are (1) congruence between content areas within levels, (2) congruence between higher-level embedding characteristics and lower-level training targets, and (3) composition processes that link training-induced change at lower levels to higher-level change targets. Training significantly benefits from integration with concepts drawn from organizational theory. According to this theory, trained knowledge, skills, and attitudes at the individual level are embedded in team or unit-level technology, coordination processes, and social system contexts, with broader contextual constraints originating at higher system levels (Kozlowski and Salas, 1997). From this perspective, preparing individuals to accept training- induced change and encouraging them to express their new capabilities in the work environment require training that is delivered at the appropriate level and is congruent with contextual supports. 42 rage Kozlowski and Salas asserted that the transfer processes in this model implicate the pre- training environment as well. If a context does not support or actively discourages the use of new skills prior to the implementation of training, it is unlikely that trainees will be motivated to learn. 43IPage CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter reflects the methodology and research design used in the study. The following aspects are dealt with: research design; method of data collection; sampling; data analysis and ethical consideration. For the purpose of the study a combined method of research was used. This combination is called triangulation. It involves a combination of the qualitative and quantitative approaches. 3.2 Research design Cooper and Schindler (2003:146) define research design as the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions. They further explain that the plan is the overall scheme or programme of the research, which includes the outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. Cooper and Schindler (2003) put forward the notion that a research design expresses both the structure of the research problem and the plan of the investigation used to obtain empirical evidence in relation to the problem. Cooper and Schindler further make a deduction on the above and summarise the essentials of the research design as follows: The design is an activity and time based plan, The design is always based on research questions, The design guides the selection of sources and type of information, The design is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study variables. Smith (1995) in De Vos (2005:132) defines research design as a specification of most adequate operation to be performed in order to test specific hypothesis under given conditions. Malton (2001), in De Vos (2005:132), further defines research design as a plan or blueprint of how you intend conducting the research. According to the researcher's view, it means that the design is the overall plan for conducting the whole research study e.g. case study, survey and classic experiments etc. Neuman (2000) and Bless and Smith (1995:156), distinguished between quantitative and qualitative research design. Bless and Smith (1995:156), define qualitative research as a method conducted by using a range of methods 44 IPage which use qualifying words and descriptions to record and investigate aspects of social reality. Quantitative research design includes experiments, surveys and content analysis. Two research designs were used in the research project, namely descriptive and exploratory research designs. Descriptive research is a method used in quantitative while exploratory is used in qualitative research. The two methods complement each other since through descriptive, the research described the current situation in as far as transfer of learning is concerned, where qualitative research design was applied. The researcher used exploratory research design to explore possible ways and means of ensuring that conducive environment is created to enable employees trained to transfer knowledge gained into practice. 3.3 Population and Sampling 3.3.1 Population Mouton (1996:134), defines population as a collection of objects, wants or individual having some common characteristics the researcher is interested in studying. The population of this research will be comprised of a training and development managers, practitioners and a sample of employees who were trained on different fields within Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) (2006-2009) in the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport, and the Office of the Premier Youth Commission within the North West Provincial Government. 3.3.2 Sampling and sample size There are several compelling reasons for sampling, including amongst others; lower costs, greater accuracy of results, greater speed of data collection, and availability of population elements. The ultimate test of sample design is how well it represents the characteristics of the population it purports to represent. In measurement terms, the sample must be valid. Representativity of a sample depends on two considerations being accuracy and precision (Cooper & Schindler 2005:204-205). There are some economic advantages of taking a sample rather than investigating the whole population. If sampling errors are eliminated the study can produce accurate results at lower costs. Effectively sampling possesses the possibility of better testing, and more thorough investigation of missing information. Furthermore, sampling enables the investigator to aptly 45IPage sat equlres a 'sting of . population elements. Takes more time to ir ' , iplement. Uses a eer sample sizes. -oduces lamer ors. with lling ling) i zed supervise the elements under study. It also ensures that the investigator is able to process information faster than can be possible with the population (Cooper 2005:206). According to De Vos (2005), sampling means a selection from the sampling frame in order to identify the people or issues to be included in the research. Sampling is described as a portion of the element in a population. Non-probability sampling has been used namely: purposive sampling. Table 3.1 gives a comparison of different probability sampling designs. Table 3.1: A comparison of five probability sampling designs, their description, advantages and disadvantages. Type Description Advantages Simple random Each population elements has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. Easy to implement automatic dia (random digit dial and with compute Source; Cooper and Schindler (2005:221) The researcher used probability sampling where simple random sampling was used to select participants from the list of all employees who were given an opportunity to attend training intervention within the 2006-2009 Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF), in the selected departments. A total of two departments (North West Provincial Youth Commission, and Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport) were selected for the study, where in each department, a sample of 50% employees were selected, amounting to a sample of 104 respondents or participants. 3.4 Data collection Data is an important part of any research in that it does not only give the description of how data will be collected, but also constitutes the basic information from which conclusions will be drawn (Monette, 2000:11). Data collection methods are those specific procedures utilized by the researcher to obtain information about the topic at hand from the subset in choosing the appropriate data collection methods. It is imperative that the researcher consults the 461Page research problem to determine the appropriate instruments and protocols for data collection (Cooper and Schindler 2005). The following methods were used: 3.4.1 Documentary secondary data Documentary secondary data are often used in research projects that also use primary data collection methods, and it includes written documents such as notices, correspondences, minutes of meetings, reports of shareholders, diaries, transcript of speeches, administrative and public records (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill: 2003: 190). Saunders et al further outline the following advantages and disadvantages of secondary data: Advantages May have fewer resource requirements, Longitudinal studies may be feasible, Can provide comparative and contextual data, Can result in unforeseen discoveries, Permanence of data Disadvantages May be collected for a purpose that does not match your need, Access may be difficult and costly, Aggregation and definitions may be unsuitable, No real control over data quality, In most cases, many researchers who use secondary data experience difficulties, especially due to the disadvantages, whereas for the researcher in the present study, the disadvantages did not hinder the access to documents necessary for the study. In ensuring validity of secondary data collected, the researcher used measurement validity and precise suitability, which according to Saunders et al (2003:205) is an instrument to measure the suitability, reliability and validity of any data set. Documents depicting number of employees trained within the MTEF in question were collected from Training and Development Managers and were used to draw conclusions. 47IPage 3.4.2 Personally administered questionnaires. A questionnaire is a set of questions on a form which is completed by respondents in respect of a research project (Devos 2000:152). Because each person or respondent is asked to respond to the same set of questions, it provides an efficient way of collecting responses from a large sample prior to quantitative analysis. Questionnaire can be used for descriptive and exploratory research. According to Saunders et al (2003:281), the design of questionnaire normally affects the response rate and the reliability and validity of the data collected. Therefore response rate, validity and reliability can be maximized by: Careful design of individual questions, Clear layout of the questionnaire form, Lucid explanation of the purpose of the questionnaire, Pilot testing, Carefully planned and executed administration. In ensuring validity and reliability of primary data collected in a form of a questionnaire, the researcher took into account the above listed principles for ensuring validity and reliability. Cooper and Schindler (2006:253) provide a comparison of communication approaches. The advantages and disadvantages of self-administered surveys, telephone surveys and surveys through personal interviews are comprehensively dealt with. The advantages of interviews as outlined by Healey & Rawlinson (1994) are flexibility and consistency between research question(s) and objectives. Using this as a basis it was decided to use the self-administered questionnaires. Observation of company documents was also used in the process. The target group to whom the questionnaires were distributed to employees who received training within the MTEF 2006-2009. 3.4.2.1 Advantages of questionnaire Using a questionnaire has been found to have several following advantages (Bailey, 1994:148): Considerable saving of money, Time saving, The questionnaire may be completed at the respondent's convenience, Greater assurance of anonymity, 48IPage Standardized wording No interviewer bias Secure information. 3.4.2.2 Disadvantages of questionnaire Although this method of data collection seem to be cheaper and convenient, it has its disadvantages, which according to Bailey (Ibid) are as follows: Low response rate Many questions may remain unanswered, No control over date of response, Lack of flexibility. 3.4.3 Construction of questionnaire In total, one set of questionnaires was constructed focusing on personal data collection, and also on collecting information relating to transfer of learning and was hand delivered to employees who received training. All copies of the questionnaire were accompanied by a covering letter (Appendix A). The letter explained the purpose of the study and its intentions. 3.4.4 Pre-Testing Before the questionnaires were sent out, they were pre-tested using staff members at KIKA Consultant, which is a training and development consultancy. The purpose of pre-testing was to ensure that the questionnaire addressed the problem, and were able to collect the required data. Bailey (1994:152) highlight the following as purpose of pre-testing: That the vocabulary and instructions are simple and clear, None of the words are ambiguous, None of the statements are inappropriate, and The attention of the respondents is aimed at the duration of the procedure. As a result of pre-testing, the researcher was able to detect issues which were irrelevant in the questionnaire, and thus ensuring that it is relevant and is able to gather the required information. 49IPage 3.5 Reliability, validity and trustworthiness 3.5.1 Reliability Reliability of a measurement procedure is the consistency of the measurement. This means that the same variable measurement procedure were identical measurement. It refers to measuring instruments a.nd the ability to yield consistent numerical results. Each time it is applied, it does not fluctuate unless there are variations in the variable being measured. Gravelter and Forzano (2003:91), in De Vos (2005:163), suggest the following procedure to increase reliability measures: Clearly conceptualize all constraints Increase the level of measurement Use multiple indicators of a variable Use pre-tests, pilot studies and replications In this study, the researcher used more questions in a questionnaire to measure each aspect of a variable. Reliability is concerned with what is being measured and how well it is being measured. The more reliable the questions and observation the more consistent and dependable are the results. 3.5.2 Validity According to Babbie (2004:143), in De Vos (2005:160), validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measurement accurately reflects the concepts it is intended to measure. It is the degree to which the measurement processes measures the variable it claims to measure. Validity has two aspects namely: the instrument actually measures the concepts in question and that the concepts are measured accurately. The researcher made use of the questionnaire instrument to gather information from the informants. Open and closed questions were asked. These questions contain all the aspects needed in order to cover the full range of meanings or forms, so that the valid measuring device provides an adequate or representative sample of all content or elements of the phenomenon being measured. Validity is established on the basis of judgement, that is, the researcher's judgement about whether the measurement covers the universe of facets that make up the concepts. The researcher structured the questionnaire in such a way that it measures the attribute under consideration and also relevant measurement of those attributes. 50 IPage 3.5.3 Validity (soundness) of qualitative research Marshall and Rossman (1995), in De Vos (2005:345), observe that all research must respond to canons that stand as criteria against which the trustworthiness of the project can be evaluated. The canon in this study is the questions used in the questionnaire and the participants responses to them. 3.6 Data analysis Before analyzing data, one has to make sure of the measurement level of the data that were collected. There are many variables which denote categories, while other variables give measurements or counts. Therefore variables were divided into two broad classes; qualitative data and quantitative data. In Table 3.2 levels of measurements are depicted. Table 3.2: Levels of measurement Level Description Example Nominal Classify into categories Sex, gender, race, province, marital status, religion. Ordinal Order by rank or magnitude Employment status, disability status Source: De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport, (2005:219) According to Denzin and Lincoln (2001:393) the analysis and interpretation of written material offer distinctive challenges which enable the qualitative researcher to collect data which would have not become available otherwise. 3.6.1 Qualitative data analysis Data analysis necessitates revision in data collection procedures and strategies. Data collection and analysis go hand in hand in order to build a content interpretation of data. Marshall and Rossman (1999:147-149), in De Vos (1995:335), contend that the researcher is guided by initial concepts and developing understanding but shifts or modifies them as he collects and analyses the data. Data collection and analysis are intertwined in qualitative research, as the researcher is busy collecting data, s/he is also analyzing the data. Integration of steps in qualitative data analysis is made by Creswell (1998), Marshall and Rossman (1999), in De Vos (2005:334). The steps in qualitative data analysis include: Planning for recording of data Data collection and preliminary analysis Managing or organizing the data 511Page Generating categories, themes and patterns Coding the data Testing the emergent understanding Searching for alternative explanation Representing, visualizing The researcher used content analysis to analyse secondary data. Content analysis was chosen as the best suited method to analyse secondary data. Babbie (1995:306) defines content analysis as the process where researchers examine a class of artefacts, typically written documents. Goldenberg (1992:245) indicates that content analysis includes the study of private journals, letters, diaries, textbooks or articles, school, industry, hospital or government records, legislation, billboards and cartoons, television and radio shows, advertisements and records. In this study, articles, textbooks, government reports and documents and corporate reports were studied. The study adopted a qualitative method and content analysis focusing on categorization and structuring of the content of the body of the text in order to identify factors posing as challenges and constraints to transfer of learning. 3.6.1.1 Strengths and weaknesses of content analysis Goldberg (1992:246) indicated the following as weaknesses and strengths of content analysis: Weaknesses: Items are selectively deposited or retained and the retained data can therefore not be seen as a representative sample of the original data, this makes the generalisation of results to a population difficult. Strengths: It is unobtrusive and non-reactive. It has definitive advantages in ensuring low levels of distortion pertaining to internal validity, It is an economical or low cost method. It is a method capable of measuring, describing and analysing temporal change. It can be historical, longitudinal or change over time. 521Page 3.6.2 Quantitative data analysis Quantitative data analysis in a professional research that can be taken manually or by means of computer program called SPSS. The researcher utilized frequency distribution tables, graphs and charts to analyze data. The researcher analyzed, make inferences and draw conclusions about these relations. 3.7 Ethical consideration Collecting data from people raises ethical concerns, these include avoiding harm to the respondents by having due regard to the privacy and by respecting them as individuals with rights to give or with-hold information. In order to ensure that the respondents are protected, the researcher kept data collected confidential. The research did not require the respondents to fill-in their personal details such as names, surnames, date of birth or Identity Document numbers when answering the questionnaire. The researcher also censored the questionnaire to ensure that the language used is appropriate, not offensive to any respondents' cultural, religious or traditional belief systems and is at the level where all respondents were able to comprehend. 3.8 Summary This chapter presented an overview of the research methodology that was employed in the study. In the next chapter, the results of the study are presented and discussed. 53IPage CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DATA ANALYSIS • 4.1 Introduction The purpose of this study is to define the concept of transfer of learning, identify the constraints to the transfer of learning to the workplace and to suggest possible framework that will be used to eradicate the constraints of transferring learning in the workplace. Chapter 3 gave a clear exposition of the research methodology used in the study; this chapter will present the findings and analysis of data collected. According to Denzin and Lincoln (2001:393) the analysis and interpretation of written material offer distinctive challenges which enable the quantitative researcher to collect data which would have not become available otherwise. Denzin et al (2001) further indicates that to simplify the complexity of data analysis, it is best to break the data down into manageable steps which are organizing data, summarizing data, and interpreting data. Data analysis for quantitative data was done. Firstly the questionnaire was coded, integrated with the qualitative data and then interpreted. A coding table was used to organize the quantitative data and summarized through a pie chart and graphs to enable the interpretation. Based on the sample, 104 questionnaires were sent out as follows; 52 questionnaires were sent to North West Provincial Youth Commission and 54 were sent to the Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport. Out of the 106, 73 questionnaires were returned from both departments, therefore the response rate is: 69%. The chapter aims to address the following aspects based on the research questions as outlined in chapter 1: Assessment of factors that constitute transfer of learning to the workplace Constraints and challenges of transfer of learning to the workplace as experienced by public service employees trainees The relationship between transfer of learning and service delivery or productivity This chapter is therefore, divided into three sections. Section one describes the characteristics of the respondents. Section two provides data on training programmes attended by the 54IPage respondents within which constraints to the transfer of learning were assessed. In section three, the impact of transfer of learning is reported. SECTION ONE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS 4.2 Demographic Data 4.2.1 Gender of the respondents Table 4.1.1: Gender of the respondents Gender Respondents Peralkage Male 43 59 Female 30 Totaitaaak- , i 73 In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.1, the slight majority of the respondents are males which account for 59% of the respondents compared to females which accounts to 41% of the respondents. The statistics indicates that empowerment is still a bit slightly skewed towards males than females in the two organisations under study. 4.2.2 Age of the respondents Table 4.1.2: Age of the respondents Age Respondents Percentage Below 30 10 13 31-40 36 49 41-50 18 25 51-60 9 1/ 61-65 0 0 73 In accordance with table 4.1.2 above, 49% of the respondents which is the highest are employees within the age bracket 31-40 years, followed by 41-50 which accounts for 25%. The two age groups which accounts for high percentage is normally an adulthood age group, which indicates that training is focused on adults than those who are below 30, who only accounts to 13% of the respondents. 55IPage 0 A e 15 ears and above 10-14 ears 5-9 ears 1-4 ears Less than a year Total 4.2.3 Number of years in the service of the department Table 4.1.3: Years of experience in public service In accordance with table 4.1.3 50% of the respondents have between 5 and 9 years of service with their respective departments, whereas 25% have between 1-4 years and 15% have more than 15 years. The statistics indicates that more efforts are put on training of employees with more than 5 years of working experience, even though it would be expected that the focus should be on those who are less than 5 years. 4.2.4 Level of education Table 4.1.4: level of education of the respondents Age Respondents Percentage PhD 0 Masters 10 13 Honours 9 19 Degree 38 52 Diploma 18 25 Matric/Grade 12 0 Total 100 In accordance with table 4.1.4, majority of the respondents accounting to 52% have bachelors degree, whilst 25 % of the respondents have diploma's. The statistics indicates that the focus of the department is to ensure that those with entry qualifications, particularly those with diplomas and degree are capacitated through further education and training, particularly on aspects which relates to their jobs. 56 IPage LIB 4.2.5 Position in the department Table 4.1.5: Position of the respondents in the department Res ondents Senior Mana er 0 0 19 Middle Mana er 14 Su ervisor 13 18 Senior Em lo ee 20 17 Emplo ee 26 36 Other (S ecific) 0 0 100 Total 73 In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.5, the highest number of 36% and 27% of the respondents respectively are employees who are not in managerial level positions in their respective departments, whereas those who are in managerial positions accounts only to 18% and 19% respectively. The statistics indicates that training is spread to all levels below senior management level, with 63% concentrated on employees below senior management. The statistics depicts a good picture since employees below senior management level are responsible for implementation. 4.2.6 Department currently working for Table 4.1.6: departments where respondents belong Department Respondents Percentage Youth Commission 48 66 Public Transport Works, Roads and 25 34 Total 73 100 In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.6, 66% of the respondents are employed by the North-West Provincial Youth Commission, whereas 34% are employed by the department of public works, roads and transport. 57IPage SECTION TWO: TRAINING PROGRAMMES WHICH THE RESPONDENTS ATTENDED 4.2.7 Training programmes which the respondents attended The following are the programmes which respondents attended in the medium term expenditure framework 2006-2009: Table 4.1.7: Training programmes attended by participants in the medium term expenditure framework 2006-2009. Programme Duration In-house/ External Category Middle Management Employees Project Management 2 vveeks External 37% 63% Financial Management for non-financial manages 12 months External 32% 68% Introduction to computer literacy 2 weeks External 0 100% Customer service 3 days External 0 100% PFMA 1 week External 37% 63% Introduction to labour relations I week External 37% 63% Am= resource practices 1 week External 37% 63% Policy development and implementation 2 weeks External 37% 63% Management development programme 3 months External 37% 63% Mainstreaming of HIV and AIDS in the workplace I week External 19% 81% Supply chain and logistics management 3 months External 11% 89% In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.7 above, majority of the respondents who attended training are amongst middle managers and non-management employees. The programmes which were given priority are PFMA, introduction to labour relations; human resource practices; management development programmes; computer literacy and financial management for non-financial management. All the above listed programmes were attended by 37% of middle managers and 63% of non-management employees. 58IPage FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF LEARNING: In this section, an assessment of the various factors affecting transfer of learning is undertaken 4.2.7 Leaner's readiness before training Table 4.1.8: Learners' readiness before trainin Items Agree , `ree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree I had an understanding of how the training would fit my job related development 0% 45% 0% 55% 0% I was informed about the contents of the training 0% 34% 0% 66% 0% I was aware of the barriers of applying what I learn to the workplace 0% 26% 36% 0% 38% I anticipated the importance of what I was supposed to learn 0% 37% 63% 0% 0% My interests were taken into consideration when I was selected for the training 0% 37% 0% 63% 0% I had some knowledge or experience of what was to be covered before training 0% 12% 40% 38% In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.8 above, 55% of the respondents disagree that they have an understanding that training will fit their job related development, whilst 45% agree; 63% indicated that they were however not informed of the content of the training, whilst 37% indicated that they were informed; 38% strongly disagree on anticipation of the importance of what they were supposed to learn; 63% disagree that their interests were taken into consideration when training was arranged, whilst 37% agree that their interest were taken into consideration when training was arranged; and 40% were neutral on whether they had knowledge or experience on what was to be covered before training, whilst 38% disagree and 22% agree. Based on the above interpretation, it is evident that learner's readiness before training is one of the constraints to effective training and thereby application of theory into practice. 59IPage 4.2.8 Motivation to transfer Table 4.1.9 motivation for participants to transfer i Ily Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 0% I am motivated by the fact that when I applied what I learned during training. I became competent 0% 45% 25% 30% The acknowledgment given by my supervisor gave me the desire to apply new skills 0% 30% 25% 45% 0% I gained more confidence as I applied what I have learned 37% 35% 27% 0% 0% The idea of promotion opportunity through hard work, motivated me to transfer the new knowledge to the workplace 26% 35% 0% 38% 0% I get enough support from my line managers to implement what I learned during training 0% 31% 24% 43% 0% Did the training program include application exercises as a major part of instructional activities? 0% 31% 27% 41% 0% In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.9 above 45% of the respondents agree that they are motivated by the fact that they will be competent if they apply what learned, whilst 30% disagree; 45% of the respondents disagree that their supervisors give them acknowledgement which could enable them to apply new skills, whilst 30% disagree and 25% maintained a neutral view ; 35% and 37% of the respondents respectively agree and strongly agree that they have gained more confidence to apply what they have learned; 35% of the respondents agree that the idea of gaining promotion as a result of hard work motivated them to transfer new knowledge, whilst 38% does not agree; 43% of the respondents indicated that they do not get enough support from their line managers to transfer what they have learned; and 41% of the respondents indicated that the training programme did not include application exercises as major part of instruction activities. In terms of the above interpretation, it is significant that lack of support and acknowledgement of new skills acquired by the respondents from their line managers contribute to constraints to transfer of learning. The interpretation also indicates that respondents are aware that application of new knowledge and skills increase their 60IPage productivity levels, thereby contributing to promotion, however lack of support as indicated act as constraints. 4.2.8 Positive personal outcomes Table 4.1.10: Factors that encourages participants to transfer Items Agree Undecided Strongly Disagree My work environment encourages me to transfer what I learned during training _ 0% 27% 31% 42% The training coincided with promotion exercise at work 0% 0% 23% 49% I get chances of receiving favourable commendations when utilizing newly learned skills to the workplace 0% 20% 41% 0% The training improved my work satisfaction and self-esteem 0% 58% 42% 0% The training programme had a direct impact on me 0% 45% 30% 0% The training improved my productivity level 0% , 43° ., 35% 0% In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.10, 42% of the respondents indicated that their work environment does not encourage transfer of learning, whilst only 27% agree; 49% indicated that the training intervention did not coincide with the promotion exercise at work, whilst 23% maintained a neutral view; 41% and 38% of the respondents indicated that they disagree and neutral on receiving chances for favourable commendations when utilising new skills; 58% of the respondents indicated that indicated that the training programme increase their work satisfaction and self-esteem, whilst 42% maintained a neutral view; 45% of the respondents indicated that the training programme had a direct impact on them, whilst 30% maintained neutral view and 25% disagree; and 43% of the respondents indicated that the training programme improved their training level, 35% maintained a neutral view, and 21% disagree. Based on the interpretation above, it is clear that training does improve competency, job satisfaction as a result of providing adequate orientation, and improving productivity. However, it is worth noting that as indicated above, it becomes difficult for participants to apply what learned into practice if the work environment is not supportive. As such, lack of support could be classified as constraints for knowledge transfer. 611 Page 4.2.9 Personal Capacity for transfer Table 4.1.11: personal capacity to transfer _ Items Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree My current workload allows me to try new things learned during.training 0% 39% 25% 36% 0% I have relevant working tools to implement new skills which I gained from the recent training 0% 30% 21% 49% 0% In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.11 above, 39% of the respondents indicated that their current workload allows them to try new things learned during training, whilst 36 indicated that their workload does not; and 49% of the respondents indicated that they do not have relevant working tools to implement new skills which they gained from training; whilst 30% agree. In terms of interpretation above, it is evident that beside the fact that participants' workload allows them to try new things learned during training, it becomes difficult to implement or transfer due to lack of appropriate or relevant working tools to enable them to transfer new skills and knowledge learned. As such, lack of appropriate or relevant tools could be classified as constraints for transfer of new skills and knowledge. 4.2.10 Peer support Table 4.1.12: peer support for transfer of learning Items Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 0% My colleagues encourage me to use the skills I have gained in previous training 0% 20% 38% 42% My colleagues give me their spare time to apply what I have learned 0% 14% 26% 40% 20% My colleagues are ready to apply what I have transferred 0% 15% 23% 29% 24% My colleagues coach me to apply the newly learned behaviour at work 0% 15% 24% 24% 33% My colleagues make their equipment available for me when I needed to apply what I have learnt from training programmes 0% 18% 30% 21% 30% 62 In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.12, 42% of the respondents indicated that their colleagues does not encourage them to apply new skills at work, which might be attributed to numerous reasons such as work jealousy, with 38% maintaining a neutral view; about 60% of the respondents indicated, that their colleagues do not give them their spare time to apply what they have learned, whilst 26% maintained neutral view and 14% agree; about 53% of the respondents disagree and strongly disagree that their colleagues are ready for them to apply the newly learned behaviour at work, whilst 23% maintained neutral view and 15% agree; 57% of the respondents disagree and strongly disagree that their colleagues coach them to apply the newly learned behaviour at work; and 51% of the respondents disagree y that their colleagues make their equipment available for them when needed to apply what was learned from the training programmes, whilst 30% maintained a neutral view. In terms of the above, it is evident that lack of cooperation from colleagues also hampers or prevents transfer of learning. 4.2.11 Supervisory Support Table 4.1.13: Supervisory Su ort - Items Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree My supervisor sets goals which encourage me to apply my training on the job 0% 23% 49% 35% 0% My supervisor created a specific time for me to apply my training 0% 14% 14% 30% 42% My supervisor uses me as a role model for my colleagues 0% 30% 20% 50% 0% My supervisor makes sure that all the equipment needed to apply what I have learnt is readily available. 0% 24% 14% 90% 42% My supervisor is always responsible for seeing that trainees apply their newly acquired skills, knowledge and attitude. 0% 26% 14% 16% 44% My supervisor opposes the use of the techniques I acquired in training 15% 16% 35% 23% 11% 63 In accordance with table 4.1.13 above, 42% and 35% of the respondents are neutral and disagree respectively on whether their supervisor sets goals which encourage application of knowledge gained; 72% of the respondents disagree and strongly disagree respectively that their supervisors created a specific time for knowledge and skill application, whilst only 28% of the respondents agree and neutral respectively; 50% of the respondents disagree that their supervisor as a role model for their colleagues; whilst 30% agree and 20% maintains a neutral view; 62% indicated that their supervisor does not make available all the equipment need to apply new skills and knowledge, whilst 24% agree; 60% indicated that their supervisors are not always responsible for seeing the respondents apply their newly acquired skills, knowledge and attitude and 26% agree; 35% of the respondents are neutral that their supervisor opposes the use of the techniques acquired at training, whilst 34% disagree and agree respectively; and 31% agree respectively with the statement. Based on the interpretation above, although supervisors does not oppose the use of techniques acquired at training; the fact that relevant equipment are not made available and the fact that supervisors does not create time for mentoring of the trainees in applying new skills constitute constraints to transfer of training. SECTION 3: IMPACT OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING 4.2.12 Transfer effort performance expectations Table 4.1.14: transfer efforts performance expectations Items Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree As a result of applying what I have learnt in training programme, the level of my productivity has increased 0% 39% 35% 24% 24% 0% I feel more confident of myself as a result of the training programme 0% 39% 35% 0% There are more positive opportunities for promotion since I attended the training programme 23% 39% 38% 0% 0% I am working harmoniously with colleagues since I attended the training programme 0% 23% 54% 2 3% 0% My job performance improves when I use new knowledge, skills and attitude that I have learned 30% 28% 24% 16% 0% 64 In accordance with data presented in table 4.1.14, 39% and 35% of the respondents agree and others are neutral respectively whilst 24% disagree that if they apply what they have learned in training the level of productivity has increased; 39% and 35% of the respondents agree and others are neutral respectively that they feel more confident of themselves as a result of the training programme; 3.9% and 38% of the respondents respectively agree and are neutral that there are more positive opportunities for promotion since they attended the training programme; 54% of the respondents are neutral on working harmoniously with colleagues since they attended the training programme; and 30% and 28% agree and strongly agree that their job performance will improve when they use new knowledge, skills and attitude learned. Based on the interpretation above, it is evident that if learners are given enough support to apply or transfer what they learned their performance level and productivity will improve. It further indicates that being able to apply and transfer what was learned improves employee confidence thereby increasing productivity and service delivery levels, and also boosts employee's chances for promotion and creates a harmonious working relationship amongst colleagues. 4.3 Summary of constraints as identified by the findings of the study The findings of the quantitative data analysis indicated the following key findings, which are important in arriving at a conclusion of what constitutes constraints and challenges to transfer of learning: that learner's readiness before training is one of the constraints to effective training and thereby application of theory into practice. that lack of support and acknowledgement of new skills acquired by the respondents from their line managers contribute to constraints to transfer of learning. It is worth noting that respondents are aware that application of new knowledge and skills increase their productivity levels, thereby contributing to promotion, however lack of support as indicated act as constraints. that training does improve competency, job satisfaction as a result of providing adequate orientation, and improving productivity. However, it is worth noting that as indicated, it becomes difficult for participants to apply what learned into practice if the work environment is not supportive. As such, lack of support could be classified as constraints for knowledge transfer. 65 Wage that beside the fact that participants' workload allows them to try new things learned during training, it becomes difficult to implement or transfer due to lack of appropriate or relevant working tools to enable them to transfer new skills and knowledge learned. As such, lack of appropriate tools could be classified as constraints for transfer of new skills and knowledge. that lack of cooperation from colleagues also hampers or prevents transfer of learning although supervisors does not oppose the use of techniques acquired at training; the fact that relevant equipment are not made available and the fact that supervisors does not create time for mentoring of the trainees in applying new skills constitute constraints to transfer of training. that if learners are given enough support to apply or transfer what they learned their performance level and productivity will improve, and further that being able to apply and transfer what was learned improves employee confidence thereby increasing productivity and service delivery levels, and also boosts employee's chances for promotion and creates a harmonious working relationship amongst colleagues. 4.4 Constraints to transfer of learning as identified by various authors The following factors have been identified from the literature study as the constraints to transferring learning to the workplace: Table 4.1.15: constraints to transfer of learnin as identified by various authors Authors Constraints Identified Sussman (2002) and Thack (2002) lack of coaching as a constraints of transferring learning to the workplace Hugget (1998) and Orvando (1994) lack of constructive feedback as a constraints to transfer of learning. Melahi (2000), MacFairlain et al (1991), Swarts and Davis (1997) identified culture as a barrier to transferring learning as it is sometimes difficult for learners to understand western culture if they live by African principles. Meldrum and Atkinson (1998) the problem of not applying what has been learned does not necessarily lie with training design and implementation but with organisational issues. May (1999) that learning dissociated from real life experience is a barrier to effective transfer of learning. He instead believe in action-based learning, such a meaningful and risky managerial task and sharing the learning experience with others. Goodge (1998) the organisational context has changed with rare upward job moves which leaves the trainees with new skills but without job mobility to complement the a .plication. 66 1' Kamoche (1997) that those that are selected for training are not necessarily those who need it most and that the selection is left to the senior managers who sometimes choose their favourite subordinates instead of someone with potential. The above table outlines constraints to transfer of learning as identified by other authors, and such aspects listed constraints have similarities with the findings of the study. Where in both the findings of the study and the constraints outlined by the authors; lack of coaching, lack of constructive feedback, organisational issues and the fact that those that are selected for training are informed in advanced or are not involved when training is being planned are deemed as constraints to transfer of learning. 67 page CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction Chapter 4 gave a presentation and interpretation of data collected in a form of a questionnaire, it further gave an analysis of constraints to transfer of learning as identified by other authors. Chapter 5 will give a discussion of main findings, conclusion of the study and provide recommendations for dealing with the constraints to the transfer of learning. 5.2 Main findings The following are the main findings of the study: that learner were not prepared before training and as such lack of learner's preparedness before training is a constraints to effective training and thereby affect application of theory into practice. lack of support and acknowledgement of new skills acquired by the respondents from their line managers contribute to constraints to transfer of learning. respondents are aware that application of new knowledge and skills increase their productivity levels, thereby contributing to promotion, however lack of support as indicated act as constraints. that training does improve competency, job satisfaction as a result of providing adequate orientation, and improving productivity. However, it is worth noting that it becomes difficult for participants to apply what learned into practice if the work environment is not supportive. lack of support from line managers could be classified as constraints for knowledge transfer. that beside the fact that participants' workload allows them to try new things learned during training, it becomes difficult to implement or transfer due to lack of appropriate or relevant working tools to enable them to transfer new skills and knowledge learned. lack of appropriate or relevant tools could be classified as constraints for transfer of new skills and knowledge. lack of cooperation from colleagues also hampers or prevents transfer of learning. that although supervisors does not oppose the use of techniques acquired at training; the fact that relevant equipment are not made available and the fact that supervisors 68 rage does not create time for mentoring of the trainees in applying new skills constitute constraints to transfer of training. that if learners are given enough support to apply or transfer what they learned their performance level and productivity will improve, and further that being able to apply and transfer what was learned improves employee confidence thereby increasing productivity and service delivery levels, and also boosts employee's chances for promotion and creates a harmonious working relationship amongst colleagues. 5.3 Discussion of the main findings The main findings of the study as listed in 5.2 above are discussed in line with the research questions and objectives of the study based on the research objectives and questions on chapter 1, and the literature study, the following are the findings addresses the research questions and objectives of the study: Definition of the concept transfer of learning The literature study defined transfer of learning as putting into practice the skills, knowledge, attitudes that were gained through learning intervention by either classroom or on the job training. The goal of any learning intervention is to prepare an individual to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that enables him or her to better perform his/her task and to be able to handle all the challenges posed by the continuous changing world of work. A learning task has no use unless it is put in practice (Slabbert, 1997:23) Factors that constitute constraints to transfer of learning to the workplace The study revealed that the following constitutes constraints to transfer of learning in the workplace: Learners' readiness or preparedness before training contributes towards constraints for transfer of learning, since mainly trainees attend training without any plan on how it will boost their performance level or how it will improve their productivity, and as such their level of concentration and comprehension become low. Thus transfer becomes difficult. This is supported by 63% of the respondents as indicated in figure 4.1.1. 691 Page Lack of acknowledgement and support by supervisors of newly acquired skills and knowledge which could -enable them to apply and transfer what was learned. This is supported. by 45% and 43% of the respectively. Unsupportive and non-conducive work environment that does not encourage transfer of learning. Lack of relevant tools of work to implement new skills does not support transfer of learning. Lack of support, coaching and assistance from colleagues to apply new skills, knowledge, behaviours and attitude. Failure by supervisors to make available time for mentoring, monitoring and evaluation of the application of the knowledge acquired; and failure by supervisors to provide all necessary materials and physical resources for trainees to implement knowledge acquired constitutes constraints to learning. Chapter 2 of the literature outlined in detail a discussion on the constraints of transfer of learning and a summary of those constraints identified from the literature study was listed in chapter 4. The literature study was complemented by means of empirical findings done by means of the questionnaire which indicated that employees who attended training experienced some constraints. c. The relationship between trainee's performance and constraints of transfer of lea rning The study discovered that if learners are given enough support to apply or transfer what they learned their performance level and productivity will improve, and further that being able to apply and transfer what was learned improves employee confidence thereby increasing productivity and service delivery levels, and also boosts employee's chances for promotion and creates a harmonious working relationship amongst colleagues. However, as a result of constraints mentioned in point B above, it is difficult to ensure effective transfer of learning. Therefore, constraints to transfer contribute to poor performance and low productivity levels in the workplace. 70 I Page d. Framework that could be used to manage or mitigate constraints on transfer of learning The framework for managing or mitigating constraints to transfer of learning is presented under recommendations. 5.4 Recommendations Learners should be involved in the process of selection, and further be provided to pre-training manuals to enable them to prepare before they attend training. Line managers should be responsible for conducting training need analysis and be able to guide on what training is needed for their sub-ordinates, so that training should be aimed at addressing a specific need. Line managers should provide support and appropriate acknowledgement to learners skills transfer after training. A conducive environment which is supportive of transfer of learning should be provided, where necessary working tools and cooperation from colleagues for transfer should be afforded. There is a need for conducting an in-depth observation study for the relation of trainees' performance and the constraints to transfer of learning. The study should first tabulate the expectations of the trainees, mentors and the training managers so that the relations can be determined. The following framework is also recommended as a tool for managing transfer of learning; Table 5.1: framework for mana in transfer of learnin Monitoring and evaluation of transfer of learning Ensure cooperation of colleagues for a conducive environment for transfer of learning Ensure availability of relevant tool or equipment for knowledge transfer Ensure that employee's workload allows transfer of learning Support for knowledge application by line managers Mentoring and coaching of learners to apply knowledge Provision of practical training Preparation of learners b Selection and involvement of ena lo ees Training needs analysis 711Page 5.5 Limitations of the study The study focused on employees who received training during the MTEF 2006-2009 in the public service with specific reference to employees of the departments of Public Works, Roads and Transport; and the Provincial Youth Commission. The participants consisted of senior managers, middle managers and non-management employees. The limitation of the study included the availability and willingness of the research population to avail their time for the research purpose, hence out of 106 sample, only 73 (69%) filled and returned the questionnaire. 5.6 Suggestions for further studies There is a need for conducting an in-depth observation study for the relation of trainees' performance and the constraints to transfer of learning. The study should first tabulate the expectations of the trainees, mentors and the training managers so that the relations can be determined. 5.7 Conclusion of the study The study has shown that some research has been done in the field of transfer of learning and some researchers have identified some of the constraints preventing transfer of learning to the workplace. The study has confirmed some of the constraints identified by some of the authors in different settings. 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The MIT Press: Massachusetts. 761Page Appendix A: Research Questionnaire Dear Respondent My name is Sharon Sepeng; I am an MBA student at the Graduate School of the North West University (Mafikeng Campus). My research is based on the extent to which employees encounter problems in transferring what they learned during training to their workplaces. May you kindly respond to the following questions that relate to the study and I promise anonymity and confidentiality to all the answers provided. Your answers will be treated anonymously and every information given will be treated with confidence. With kind regards SHARON SEPENG 771Page RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE PERSONAL DATA 1. Gender 1 Male 2 Female 2. Me 1 Below 30 2 31-40 3 41-50 4 51-60 5 61-65 3. How lo have I been working for the Department? 1 15 years and above 2 10-14 years 3 5-9 years 4 1-4 years 5 Less than a year 4. What is your current level of education? 1 PhD 2 Masters 3 Honours 4 Degree 5 Diploma 6 FET Certificate 7 Grade 12 8 Below Grade 12 5. What is your nosition within the de artment? 1 Senior Manager 2 Middle Manager 3 Supervisor 4 Senior Employee 5 Employee 6 Other (Specify) 6. Which department are currently working for? 1 Youth Commission 2 Public Works, Roads and Transport 78 IPage three years. Name of Training Duration Off-site/On-site SECTION B: TO BE ANSWERED BY EMPLOYEES WHO RECEIVED TRAINING 7. Please list the training programme which you have attended in the last one, two or FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN APPLYING THE KNOWLEDGE LEARNED Please consider the training programme you underwent the last one or two years ago. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate you are in agreement or disagreement with the following statements in relation to applying of knowledge, skills and attitude to your work. 1. = Strongly disagree 2. =Disagree 3. =Not applicable 4. =Agree 5. =Strongly Agree 8. LEARNERS READINESS Before training: To what extend this apply to you before you attended the training? I had an understanding of how the training would fit my job 1 2 3 4 5 related development I was informed about the contents of the training 1 2 3 4 5 I was aware of the barriers of applying what I learn to the 1 2 3 4 5 workplace I anticipated the importance of what I was supposed to learn 1 2 3 4 5 My interests were taken into consideration when I was selected 1 2 3 4 5 for the training I had some knowledge or experience of what was to be covered 1 2 3 4 5 before training Please consider the training programme you underwent the last one or two years ago. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate you are in agreement or disagreement with the following statements in relation to applying of knowledge, skills and attitude to your work. 1. = Strongly disagree 2. =Disagree 3. =Not applicable 4. =Agree 5. =Strongly Agree 9. MOTIVATION TO TRANSFER: to what extent were you motivated to transfer the skills, attitude and values to your work? I am motivated by the fact that when I applied what I learned 1 2 3 4 5 during training, I became competent The acknowledgment given by my supervisor gave me the desire 1 2 3 4 5 to apply new skills I gained more confidence as I applied what I have learned 1 2 3 4 5 The idea of promotion opportunity through hard work, motivated 1 2 3 4 5 me to transfer the new knowledge to the workplace 791Page I get enough support from my line managers to implement what I 1 2 3 4 5. learned during training Did the training program include application exercises as a major 1 2 3 4 5 part of instructional activities? 10. POSITIVE PERSONAL OUTCOMES: kindly assess the incentives and rewards which encouraged you to transfer knowledge, skills and attitude you have learned from training to the workplace, to what extent do you agree with the following statement. My work environment encourages me to transfer what I learned 1 2 3 4 5 during training The training coincided with promotion exercise at work 1 2 3 4 5 I get chances of receiving favourable commendations when 1 2 3 4 5 utilizing newly learned skills to the workplace The training improved my work satisfaction and self-esteem 1 2 3 4 5 The training programme had a direct impact on me 1 2 3 4 5 The training improved my productivity level 1 2 3 4 5 Please consider the training programme you underwent the last one or two years ago. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate you are in agreement or disagreement with the following statements in relation to applying of knowledge, skills and attitude to your work. 1. = Strongly disagree 2. =Disagree 3. =Not applicable 4. =Agree 5. =Strongly Agree 11. PERSONAL CAPACITY FOR TRANSFER My current workload allows me to try new things learned during 1 2 3 4 5 training I have relevant working tools to implement new skills which I 1 2 3 4 5 gained from the recent training 12. PEER SUPPORT My colleagues encourage me to use the skills I have gained in 1 2 3 4 5 previous training My colleagues give me their spare time to apply what I have 1 2 3 4 5 learned My colleagues are ready to apply what I have transferred 1 2 3 4 5 My colleagues coach me to apply the newly learned behavior at 1 2 3 4 5 work My colleagues make their equipment available for me when I 1 2 3 4 5 needed to apply what I have learnt from training programmes 801Page 13. SUPERVISOR SUPPORT My supervisor sets goals which encourage me to apply my training on the job 1 2 3 4 5 My supervisor created a specific time for me to apply my training I 2 3 4 5 My supervisor uses me as a role model for my colleagues 1 2 3 4 5 My supervisor makes sure that all the equipment needed to apply what I have learnt are readily available. 1 2 3 4 5 My supervisor is always responsible for seeing that trainees apply their newly acquired skills, knowledge and attitude. 1 2 3 4 5 My supervisor opposes the use of the techniques I acquired in training 1 2 3 4 5 Please consider the training programme you underwent the last one or two years ago. Please circle the appropriate number to indicate you are in agreement or disagreement with the following statements in relation to applying of knowledge, skills and attitude to your work. 1. = Strongly disagree 2. =Disagree 3. =Undecided 4. =Agree 5. =Strongly Agree 14. TRANSFER EFFORT PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS As a result of applying what I have learnt in training programme, 1 2 3 4 5 the level of my productivity has increased I feel more confident of myself as a result of the training 1 2 3 4 5 programme There are more positive opportunities for promotion since I 1 2 3 4 5 attended the training programme I am working harmoniously with colleagues since I attended the 1 2 3 4 5 training programme My job performance improves when I use new knowledge, skills 1 2 3 4 5 and attitude that I have learned 811Page